Ethics Midterm
identify the type of fallacy that occurs when an argument attempts to discredit a position by condemning its source
genetic fallacy
identify the problems with Lawrence Kohlberg's theory of moral development
his theory focuses on human motivations and ignores human actions his theory was developed from research based almost exclusively on boys
inductive arguments have less force than deductive arguments have because:
inductive argument patterns are not truth preserving
identify a true statement about the form of an argument
it determines the rational force of the argument
morality
it refers to the rules and social standards that people are taught to follow. it originated from a Latin word that meant something like "the way people are."
a branch of philosophy that deals with the principles of good thinking and reasoning processes
logic
according to Lawrence Kohlberg's theory of moral development, people at the pre-conventional level of thinking:
make their decisions based on perceived self-interest
conclusions as to whether specific actions are ethically right or wrong
moral judgments
according to James Rest, what are the key psychological processes that must happen for a person to maintain consistent moral behavior?
moral motivation, moral sensitivity, moral judgment, moral character
moral sensitivity
people must be aware of the ethical nature of the issue, question, or problem at hand
the first part of an argument is the:
premises
enumerative inductive arguments tend to:
reason from specific examples to more general conclusions
the belief that there are no moral standards, judgments, or principles that apply to everyone
relativism
according to Carol Gilligan, behavior on Step 2 of moral development is driven by:
responsibility to help others
if a person hold the view that what is right or good today in one situation may not be right tomorrow in another set of circumstances, he or she is most likely to believe in the use of:
situational ethics
identify the stage of Lawrence Kohlberg's model of moral development at which what is morally right is to live up to the explicit agreements, laws, rules, and policies that help define the groups in which one participates, so that the groups can function in harmonious order
stage 4
a deductive argument is valid when:
the structure is logically correct
identify the main principle of the structure of a good argument
statements in the premises should directly connect with the point the argument is meant to establish
this fallacy occurs when one finds that two phenomena are related statistically and jumps to the conclusion that this statistical relationship necessarily implies a causal relationship
statistical correlation
collusion
the act of working with another person on an academic undertaking for which a student is individually responsible
the fallacy of equivocation occurs when:
the conclusion of an argument depends on one or more words being used in two different senses in the same argument
identify the levels of moral development based on James Rest's system
the conformity level, the self-centered level, and the principled level
in the context of the form of arguments, identify the true statements about a deductive argument
the premises entail the conclusion of the argument, it is truth preserving
Ethics
the reasoned study of what is morally right and wrong, good and bad
an important general observation about the process of moral development is that:
the stages of moral development appear to be generally cumulative
in the context of applying Lawrence Kohlberg's theory in measuring the moral maturity of adults, how would people in stage 1, pre-conventional thinking evaluate the Heinz dilemma?
they would likely say that Heinz was wrong to steal the drug because he would be punished for stealing
according to Lawrence Kohlberg's theory of moral development, people at the conventional level of thinking:
think of morality in terms of conformity
in ethics, this term refers to moral qualities that are considered important and worthy
values
in ethics, this term refers to character traits that make up a moral life
virtues
ethics
where people get the opportunities to test, question, and challenge the rules and standards that they are taught to follow. it originated from a Greek word that meant "the way things should be."
identify Carol Gilligan's most important finding from her studies of the development of young men and women
women do not seem to think of ethics primarily in terms of justice, the central principle Lawrence Kohlberg had found in men
immoral
behaviors that are contrary to good moral reasoning.
ad hominem abusive is often referred to as:
character assassination
moral character
people should have the persistence, self-discipline, courage, and determination to do what they know they should do
the actual use of moral standards of conduct to make decisions about human problems is known as
applied ethics
a group of statements that work together to establish the truth of some point
arguments
Identify the true statement about the ethical perspectives of Plato and Aristotle. a. Neither Plato nor Aristotle connected their moral perspectives with the Greek religion of their time. b. Both Plato and Aristotle followed the theological approach to the study of ethics. c. Neither Plato nor Aristotle believed that the ethical environment is inclusive of every aspect of life. d. Both Plato and Aristotle held that ethics bases moral right and wrong on the dictates of personal faith.
a
Which of the following is a true statement about ethos? a. it is the Greek word from which the word "ethics" is derived. b. it refers to moral questions or problems faced by people c. it refers to the art of persuasive speaking and writing d. it is an exaggerated or simplified idea about a social group
a
which of the following is an attempt to disparage the character of the person presenting the argument, to deny that person's intelligence, or to question his or her integrity, while not addressing the statements or arguments being presented? a. ad hominem abusive b. straw man fallacy c. false appeal to authority d. questionable claim
a
which of the following is true of a legitimate inductive argument? a. it must have a true premises b. it must have at least one true premise c. it must have a logically correct structure d. it must have a truth preserving structure
a
which of the following is true of a sound deductive argument? a. it must have a valid structure and true premises. b. it must have a plausible conclusion c. it should have premises that are not necessarily interconnected d. it should reason from specific examples to more general conclusions
a
which of the following is true of the fallacious argumentative strategy called ad hominem circumstantial? a. it is an attempt to discredit an arguer's statements by alluding to certain conditions or facts that affect the arguer b. it is an attempt to disparage the character of the person presenting the argument c. it is the fallacy of claiming that an idea is true because many people think it is d. it is used to manipulate others into agreeing with a view by playing on their feelings rather than appealing to logic and reason
a
which of the following is true of the principle of tabula rasa? a. it holds that children taught good values and principles would be good people and children taught wrong ethical beliefs would be sad b. it maintains that the individual determines right and wrong, internally and independently from society c. it maintains that there are three motivations for moral decisions, and that these correspond with three levels of reasoning d. it holds that moral sensitivity, more judgment, more motivation, and moral character are essential for a person to maintain consistency moral behavior
a
which of the following is true of the process of moral development? a. where development comes in a sequence of stages, it is possible for a person to make progress as well as to retreat b. the real compatibility of reasoning and relationships, and of justice and care, is impossible c. consistent upper-level behavior is always possible for a person who has achieved mature thought in the moral development process d. every woman is more in tune with relationships and care than men generally are
a
which of the following is true of the structure of an argument? a. it refers to the nature of the logical relationship between the premises and the claim the argument purports to establish b. it is the first part of an argument, and it makes claims about the world c. it is the point that the premises were designed to support or demonstrate d. it refers to facts, perceptions, opinions, or any other factors that could help strengthen one's confidence in an argument's conclusion
a
which of the following lead students to consider cultural differences in ethical thinking? a. sociology and anthropology b. business and economics c. life sciences d. gym classes and sports
a
which of the following are true of the form of inductive arguments? a. at best, inductive conclusions are probably or likely to be true b. inductive premises must relate to the conclusion c. in inductive arguments, the conclusion follows from the premises d. inductive premises must be relevant to each other
a and b
which of the following requirements are true of the principles a person lives by in Stage 6 of Lawrence Kohlberg's model of moral development? a. other people should rationally and logically conclude that the principles are worthy and admirable b. they should be self-chosen from the multitude of principles in the ethical environment c. they should conform to all explicit agreements, laws, rules, and policies that exist in society d. the ethical principles should serve to avoid punishment or negative consequences
a and b
select all that apply in the context of the roots of personal moral development, which of the following are true of Plato's tripartite conception of a person? a. he held that only those operating at the mind level were truly qualified for positions of public leadership b. he maintained that people operating at the middle level were more trustworthy than those operating at the mind level c. he believed that living at the highest level was necessary if one was to consistently achieve happiness and fulfillment d. he argued that people operating at the heart level are enslaved by their physical desires and drives
a and c
which of the following are true of James Rest's findings about moral development in men and women? a. both men and women seem to use both justice and caring in their moral reasoning, though perhaps in different ratios b. men seem to be slightly higher in moral development than women, at least on average c. women tend to be more justice-oriented than men are d. women tend to maintain more of a balance between justice and care than men do
a and d
which of the following are true of critical thinking? a. it allows people to clarify their ideas b. it leads people to set standards and expectations that vary from one person to another c. it teaches people a sense of right and wrong d. it can help build common ground for good discussions about right and wrong
a and d
which of the following are true of relativism? a. it states that what is morally right and wrong is different from one person to another or from one culture to another b. it holds that there are no matters of opinion in ethics because there is one and only one "right" answer to every ethical problem c. this line of thinking is based on belief that ethical discussions are unnecessary as there are laws to govern people's behavior d. this line of thinking is dangerous as no one would have the right or ability to judge the actions of any other person as wrong
a and d
select all that apply which of the following are true of Lawrence Kohlberg's views about moral development? a. his model makes it clear that conformity to social norms can sometimes be morally wrong b. he found that there are three motivations for moral decisions, and that they correspond with three levels of reasoning c. he argued that moral growth is a matter of incorporating the values of one's society d. he assumed that moral development is measured by how people reason about right and wrong e. he assumed that moral development is based on the actions or behaviors of an individual
a, b, and d
which of the following are true of the conclusion of an argument? a. it is often identified in English by the beginning word "thus" or "therefore" or "finally" b. it is the third crucial element of the argument c. it can be identified only when the other parts of the argument are clear d. it defines the argument e. it establishes a logical relationship between the premises in the argument
a, b, and d
which of the following are true of Lawrence Kohlberg's views about moral development? a. he found that there are three motivations for moral decisions, and that they correspond with three levels of reasoning b. he argued that moral growth is a matter of incorporating the values of one's society c. he assumed that moral development is measured by how people reason about right and wrong d. his model makes it clear that conformity to social norms can sometimes be morally wrong e. he assumed that moral development is based on the actions or behaviors of an individual
a, c, and d
which of the following are true of Stage 5 of Lawrence Kohlberg's model of moral development? a. this stage is based on people's general commitments to create and obey rational and just laws for the benefit and for the rights of every person b. at this stage, what is morally right is to live consistently by one's own personal, but universal, ethical principles c. in this stage, existing laws are not as important as the methods for selecting and improving those laws d. people may question the legitimacy of laws and rules that they believe are out of harmony with society's bedrock moral principles e. the rule makers are considered the ultimate moral authorities because the laws and rules are the foundation of morality
a, c, and d
identify the view that states there are no matters of opinion because there is one and only one "right" answer to every ethical question, no matter how personal or trivial
absolutism
people at Stage 3 of Lawrence Kohlberg's model of moral development think that what is morally right is to:
act in ways that produce social approval
moral
actions that are judged to be consistent with good ethical thinking and decision-making
according to Carol Gilligan, which of the following is true of Step 1 of moral development? a. at this stage, people show concern for producing large quantities of good for others b. people show confidence in their goals and accomplishments c. people express selfish egoism quite easily d. at this stage, the need for other people's approval is a driving force for conduct
b
according to Lawrence Kohlberg's theory of moral development, which of the following is a characteristic of people at the conventional level of thinking? a. the needs and interests of others are of concern only to the extent that they can be used for personal gain b. direct self-interest takes a backseat to an overriding emphasis on following external standards c. the moral authority is society's shared system of values and principles d. people at this level of thinking seek to follow principles rooted in the deepest values and beliefs of their society
b
which of the following is true of Stage 3 of Lawrence Kohlberg's model of moral development? a. public roles, expectations, personal relationships, and observations are insignificant in this stage b. those in this stage want to be good people, both in their own eyes and in the eyes of others c. in this stage, justice is defined by general rules and shared expectations that are binding on everyone d. people in this stage comprehend that their primary moral responsibility is to society, rather than the individuals they know
b
which of the following is true of people who are in Stage 1 of Lawrence Kohlberg's model of moral development? a. they think that what is morally right is to act in ways that produce social approval b. they show an unquestioning acceptance of the power of authority in order to avoid negative consequences c. they tend to think that what is right is to make deals to meet their own needs and get what they want d. they often challenge the legitimacy of laws that are out of harmony with society's bedrock moral principles
b
which of the following are true of ethics and morals? a. Morals involve the reasoned study of what is good and bad. b. Ethics is the study of morality. c. The terms "ethics" and "morals" come from Greek and Latin terms having to do with behavior, culture, and habits. d. Technically, it is most accurate to think of morals as the academic discipline and of ethics as the thing studied.
b and c
according to Carol Gilligan, which of the following are true of Step 2 of moral development? a. the driving vision of Step 2 is the universal, self-chosen model of care that embraces care for others and for oneself b. the need for other people's approval is a driving force for conduct on Step 2 c. what motivates people in their decisions is their own desire for survival, at least, if not also greed and personal pride d. both personal identity and survival are understood in terms of the help one gives to others, and how well they accept and benefit from that help
b and d
according to Lawrence Kohlberg, which of the following are true of people at the post-conventional level of thinking? a. they seek to live up to the explicit laws that help define the groups in which they participate, so that the groups can function in harmonious order b. they tend to follow principles rooted in the deepest values and beliefs of their society, culture, or subculture c. they tend to think of morality in terms of conformity—to the expectations of others to gain social approval d. they seek to follow personally chosen, universal ethical principles that may or may not differ from the values of their society
b and d
in the context of Lawrence Kohlberg's model of moral development, identify the true statements about the disadvantages of Stage 3 reasoning a. people at this stage tend to assume that what is legally right and what is morally right are the same thing b. stage 3 fails to define morality outside of personal contacts with friends, relatives, or others in one's group c. the flaw in Stage 3 reasoning is the belief that morality is based in obedience to rules and laws d. if the driving force motivating a person is the approval of others, then those "others" may have significant influence on that person's actions
b and d
which of the following are true of syllogisms? a. syllogisms are likely to have a conclusion that is false even when the premises are true b. they consist of two premises and a conclusion c. they tend to reason from specific examples to more general conclusions d. a common form of syllogism reasons from a rule statement and a fact statement to some particular conclusion
b and d
which of the following are true of people on Step 3 of Carol Gilligan's model of moral development? a. people understand personal identity and survival in terms of the help they give to others, and how well they accept and benefit from that help b. people have a more internal awareness of and confidence in their goals and accomplishments than they had before c. people have honest awareness of their limits and the meaning of their mutual relationships d. people are comfortable balancing and integrating their own interests with the interests of others e. people who remain on this step are likely to encounter a number of problems that rise from competing claims for care
b, c, and d
which of the following are true of Stage 1 of Lawrence Kohlberg's model of moral development? a. the driving force in this stage is one's self-image and peer image as a "good person" b. self-interest is at the heart of this stage c. people at this stage are sometimes willing to endure punishment if it might help get them something they strongly desire d. teenagers or adults who are still reasoning at this stage most or all of the time could be dangerous e. obedience to authority comes more from fear than respect
b, d, and e
an inductive argument is cogent if:
both the premises are true and the reasons make a strong argument for the conclusion being plausible
in the context of the form of arguments, which of the following is true of deductive arguments? a. they do not conform to formulaic structures b. they reason from specific examples to more general conclusions c. they have a very rigid and formal structure d. they do not entail their conclusions
c
which of the following claims opposes Carol Gilligan's findings about moral development? a. women do not seem to think of ethics primarily in terms of justice b. every man is more oriented to reasoning and fairness than women generally are c. the same person—man or woman—can score highly on measures of care and justice d. it is not possible for a person to make progress as well as to retreat where moral development comes in a sequence of stages
c
which of the following is true of an argument? a. it is an emotional statement b. it often involves name-calling and yelling c. it is the foundation of logic d. it is the reason cited to support a conclusion
c
Which of the following are true of ethical principles? a. they are character traits that make up a moral life b. they are simply ethical decisions, and they fall under three categories: moral, immoral, and nonmoral c. they are often considered universal d. they are the "should" statements of ethics, prescribing how people ought to conduct themselves
c and d
in the context of Lawrence Kohlberg's model of moral development, which of the following are true of the flaw in Stage 4 reasoning a. people at this stage often fall prey to a "peer pressure" mentality b. people at this stage fail to define morality outside of personal contacts with friends, relatives, or others in one's group c. people at this stage hold the belief that morality is based in obedience to rules and laws d. people at this stage tend to assume that what is legally right and what is morally right are the same thing
c and d
in the context of the roots of personal moral development, which of the following are true of Plato's tripartite conception of a person? a. he argued that people operating at the heart level are enslaved by their physical desires and drives b. he maintained that people operating at the middle level were more trustworthy than those operating at the mind level c. he held that only those operating at the mind level were truly qualified for positions of public leadership d. he believed that living at the highest level was necessary if one was to consistently achieve happiness and fulfillment
c and d
which of the following are true of Stage 2 of Lawrence Kohlberg's model of moral development? a. this stage involves an unquestioning acceptance of the power of authority without considering any other human interests b. people's motivation to obey rules and laws come from a sincere desire to help "make the world a better place" c. the needs and interests of others are of concern to a person only to the extent that they can be used for personal gain. d. the fear of negative consequences in Stage 1 is gradually replaced here by a desire for personal reward e. people are sometimes willing to endure punishment if it might help get them something they strongly desire
c, d, and e
which of the following are true of Stage 4 of Lawrence Kohlberg's model of moral development? a. the driving force motivating a person at this stage is the approval of others b. at this stage, what matters most is not simply obeying the rules but living up to the shared principles and values behind the rules c. in this stage, justice is defined by general rules and shared expectations that are binding on everyone d. at this stage, people's motivation to do the right thing is more likely to come from a sincere desire to help "make the world a better place" e. in this stage, the social system defines both people's roles and rules of behavior
c, d, and e
false appeal to popularity is the fallacy of:
claiming that an idea is true because many people think it is
occurs when people find themselves in situations in which their personal needs and desires are at odds with their obligations as professionals or employees
conflict of interest
the active and systematic process of communication, problem solving, evaluation, analysis, synthesis, and reflection, both individually and in community, to foster understanding, support sound decision-making, and guide action is:
critical thinking
according to Lawrence Kohlberg's theory of moral development, which of the following characterizes the pre-conventional level of thinking? a. direct self-interest takes a backseat to an overriding emphasis on following external standards b. people seek to follow principles rooted in the deepest values and beliefs of their society, culture, or subculture c. people feel a personal responsibility to help make social institutions work well by maintaining a sense of social order d. the effects of one's actions on others are not an important concern, unless one's own interests are affected as well
d
in the context of the form of an argument, which of the following is true of inductive arguments? a. they are truth preserving b. they have premises that are relevant to each other c. they do not require premises to relate to the conclusion d. they do not have formulaic structures to which they must conform
d
which of the following is a classic Aristotelian form of a truth-preserving deductive argument structure? a. analogy b. generalization c. prediction d. syllogism
d
which of the following is true of absolutism? a. it holds that ethical discussions are unnecessary because laws exist to govern people's behavior b. it holds that what is morally right and wrong varies between cultures c. it is based on the belief that there is more than one correct answer to moral questions d. it promotes the attitude that one's own opinions are the correct ones
d
moral motivation
people should have the desire and intention to do what is right
which of the following is true of legalism? a. it holds that discussions on moral questions are necessary because many legitimate laws are themselves immoral and unjust b. it is based on the belief that there are no matters of opinion in ethics since all moral judgements are the same for everyone c. it is based on the believe that what is morally right and wrong is different from one person to another d. it holds that ethical standards and standards set by law are really the same
d
which of the following is true of the ethical perspectives of Plato and Aristotle? a. Plato and Aristotle held that faith was the key to finding answers to ethical questions b. Plato and Aristotle connected their moral perspectives with the Greek religion of their time c. Plato and Aristotle believed that theology should be the ultimate focus of the educational process d. Plato and Aristotle saw the ethics environment as being very inclusive
d
which of the following is true of the fallacy of false appeal to emotion? a. it often occurs when people use statements that are so broad and general that they cannot withstand scrutiny b. it occurs when people try to defend their wrongdoing by pointing out similar behavior in others c. it involves an illogical leap from a specific case to an overgeneralized rule without enough reasons to justify the claim d. it is used to manipulate others into agreeing with a point of view by playing on their feelings
d
which of the following refers to the degree to which one is rationally compelled to accept an argument's conclusion a. cogency b. validity c. soundness d. force
d
which of the following types of fallacies occurs when an individual jumps to the conclusion that one event results in another when no such connection exists between the events? a. begging the question b. hasty generalization c. false appeal d. faulty causation
d
Premise 1: Hydrogen is a gas. Premise 2: Helium is a gas. Premise 3: Oxygen is a gas. Premise 4: Sulfur is a gas. Conclusion: All elements in the periodic table are gaseous. This argument exemplifies:
enumerative induction
questions or problems, situations or actions that contain legitimate questions of moral right or wrong
ethical issues
general guidelines of ethical behavior
ethical principles
"My favorite musician claims man-made global warming is not real, so the latest report on climate change must be untrue." This statement exemplifies the fallacy called:
false appeal to authority
"Most students in my class smoke; maybe it is not bad for health." Identify the fallacy exemplified in this statement
false appeal to popularity
what refers to an argument's structure
form
moral judgment
people should have the ability to make the right ethical decisions and choices
