Ethics Test 2

Moral Virtues

(Non-rational) are about doing the greater good and being a better person by learning from mistakes and doing what feels right naturally.

What are the ethical implications for the law of habit?

(italicized part in James Habit Article) 1. Don't make exceptions 2. Throw yourself into it with all your energy • launch ourselves with as strong and decided an initiative as possible. • Never suffer an exception to occur till the new habit is securely rooted in your life. • Seize the very first possible opportunity to act on every resolution you make, and on every emotional prompting you may experience in the direction of the habits you aspire to gain o Ball of string example: building a habit is like rolling the ball of string up and when you make exceptions to the habits, it is like dropping the ball and the string unravels

Intellectual virtues

(rational) are about learning to be the best you can be by understanding the world and achieving goals.

Non-deliberative

(wisdom and knowledge) • wisdom=the mountain is 6,000 ft high

Why is this distinction important for the study of ethics?

-Not morally responsible for an involuntary act if it subject of ignorance in a particular situation (accidentally stealing someone's pencil because you did not know it belonged to them) • HOWEVER, being ignorant of understanding what stealing is MAKE THEM morally responsible • The choices we make regarding morality are voluntary choices... • An act is not virtuous unless it is voluntary

Driver's Argument on Good Intentions:

1) If a person can act virtuously from feeling but against what he/she takes to be right, then acting virtuously does not require having good intentions. 2) A person can act virtuously from feeling but against what he/she takes to be right. 3) Acting virtuously does not require having good intentions.

What is the mindlessness objection? What is the best response?

1) If an action is done from habit, then the action is performed mindlessly. 2) If an action is performed mindlessly, then it is it not praiseworthy. 3) Virtuous acts are done from habit. 4) Therefore, virtuous acts are not praiseworthy. Or, 1) If an action is done from habit, then the action is performed mindlessly. 2) If an action is performed mindlessly, then it is it not blameworthy. 3) Vicious acts are done from habit. 4) Therefore, vicious acts are not blameworthy. What is the best response to these arguments? • you have to acquire and learn habits, so even if they are done mindlessly eventually, it can still be praiseworthy because of what moral choices /actions you had to make in order to get to this "mindless action" • Acquiring habits: is when you learn something and no longer have to think about it or how to do it all the time (video with prism vision)

What is the "friendship objection" and how might one respond?

1) If pleasure and utility friendships are not genuine forms of friendship, then friendship based on virtue is the only genuine form of friendship. 2) But if friendship based on virtue is the only genuine form of friendship, then very few relationships will be genuine friendships. 3) Pleasure and utility friendships are not genuine forms of friendship. 4) So, very few relationships will be genuine friendships. 5) But genuine friendship is necessary for a good and happy life. 6) Therefore, almost nobody will have a good and happy life. 7) But if almost nobody will have a good and happy life, then a moral theory that implies this is practically useless. 8) Aristotle's moral theory is practically useless. RESPONSE: A friend can give an objective view that you can't get from yourself... But actually they can all be genuine friendships ... they can all be mutual well-wishing in pleasure or utility You don't have to have virtue friendships to have a good life...

What would Aristotle say in his theory requires that virtue and knowledge come together? What shows Aristotle's commitment that knowledge and virtue come together?

1) Practical Wisdom: your knowledge guides your actions (PW= form of knowledge, is an Intellectual Virtue) 2) Difference between Voluntary and Involuntary actions - in order for an action to be virtuous, it has to be voluntary. For it to be voluntary, you have to KNOW (knowledge) what you are doing 3) Doctrine of the Mean: mean = intentional choice that requires knowledge. To be virtuous you have to CHOOSE THE MEAN. Choose the mean by seeing the excess, deficiency and the right amount (virtue chart, equals fear, courage, brashness)

Why can't happiness consist solely in wealth, honor or pleasure?

Aristotle gets rid of 6 things that he crosses off for the good life (you have contentment but are not flourishing with these things) • Enjoyment/pleasure - There are more choice worthy options and higher faculties that will fulfill and allow us to flourish • Power: • Honor - it is not self-sufficient, but depends on the opinions of other people • Contemplation _WINNER! The most fulfilling thing, this is what we were designed for. • Money-making (WEALTH) - it is a means, not an end • Virtue - it is a state, it is not an activity

What is the best response to Julia Driver's argument?

DRIVER: a person can act virtuously from feeling but against what he/she takes to be right The weakness of will gives us an explanation of why he does what he does on the basis of moral principles... sympathy wins out. (desires get in the way)

Why does Aristotle distinguish between two categories of truth?

Descriptive: "The mountain is 6,000 feet high" and can be verified... can be true or false... falsity is measured EX: wisdom (non-deliberative) Prescriptive: "You ought to study more" ... how do you verify the "ought", can you make it T/F? Adler says there is a standard and the standard is human needs. The needs are used as a reference point for determining the falsity of the statement... True when they correspond to a human need. (biological, knowledge, social, pleasure, friends) • Practical truth: truth in agreement to correct desire (Adler)... our human needs. • Descriptive truth=intellectual virtue

Why would anyone think there are virtues of ignorance?

Driver wants to SEPARATE Knowledge & Virtue: 1. Premise 1: Virtue does not require good intentions • "Acting virtuously from feeling" = Huck Finn example of letting slave friend go even though he morally believes in slavery but feels like he should let his friend escape. Feeling (sympathy) overpowers (false!) moral premise → he does not turn in Jim • Virtuous: letting him go, - does the right thing by letting slave go- but does it from Sympathy for Jim and NOT his own moral compass 2. Premise 2: Virtues of Ignorance: • Modesty: ignorant of the value of your achievements • Blind Charity: ignoring flaws in others • Forgiveness: ignoring past wrongs • Trust: ignoring the evidence (similar to forgiveness, "im going to trust you anyway") trust can be more ongoing/moving forward DRIVER says there are virtues of ignorance.... • You can be virtuous and not have good intentions • Weakness of will: allows us to explain how moral principles and sympathy give us the best explanation for why Huck does what he does. • Virtues of ignorance • Virtue can require ignorance • Modesty, trust, forgiveness, blind charity

In what way might Gladwell's conclusion in the presentation be taken to support relativism?

Gladwell Concludes: • "By Embracing the diversity of human beings we will find a sure way to true happiness." Gladwell argues that by recognizing human diversity and the different wants/tastes/preferences/desires of humanity we cannot simply say that one option is the best or "right" option. Instead, it is a horizontal scale. Nothing is "better" just different. There is no "one way to treat everyone and we must recognize human variability." • This reflects similar values as Relativism, which states that there is not ONE superior or good culture and that it depends on each individual culture's, there are simply differences. Thus, one flavor of coffee will not create the greatest happiness/satisfaction and one culture will not make everyone happy/satisfied. • Relativism: There is not ONE good or prominent idea... but is dependent on one person's opinion. • Howard made us realize importance of "horizontal segmentation" o meaning; no good or bad mustard, no perfect or imperfect, only diff kinds of mustard that suits different kinds of people = RELATIVISM. RESPONSE: • "by embracing the diversity of the human situation we can find true happiness" - Gladwell... Using food science to describe variability and satisfaction... so he's tying this to happiness. • You can't go from spaghetti sauce and food stuff to happiness... too big of jump (matters of taste to moral matters) • There is a tension within Gladwell's own presentation because on the one hand he says you can't find universals but when he talks about his examples universals are built into them.... o everyone would say "rich dark hearty roast" =universal

What kind of life is most supremely happy?

Happiness has certain characteristics 1) Complete 2) Self-sufficient 3) End 4) Activity - requires engagement 5) Most choice worthy • Activity of the soul in conformity of excellence (virtue) • When you are using knowledge and virtue to live a full and flourishing life.

What is the difference between voluntary and an involuntary action?

Involuntary Action: performed under compulsion or as a result of ignorance • Example of compulsory act; captain of ship is forced off course due to winds • DOES NOT make the "evil or bad" actions of people who are ignorant of the difference between right and wrong involuntary or not reprehensible. (Universal ignorance = not okay) only ignorance in a particular situation Voluntary Action: • when the person is in control of his or her actions, knows the particular circumstances in which the action is performed and responsible for its consequences • Virtuous acts are VOLUNTARY

What are the distinctions between temperance/intemperance, continence/incontinence.

Knows Happiness Knowledge Matches Action Regrets Action Has Bad Appetites Notices His State Temperate Yes Yes No No Yes Continent Yes Yes No Yes Yes Incontinent Yes No Yes Yes Yes Intemperate No Yes No Yes No Temperance: a genuine virtue, the best of these states Continence: strength of will; it is not a full virtue—it is next best • Continent person: there is a strong desire but the syllogism still follows through, you do the right thing but you struggle. Incontinence: weakness of will • Incontinent Person: you give into the bad action (some knowledge)... weakness of the will, understands the major premise • worse than continence o ***Dog watching example. You know lying is bad, but your desire to not tell Smith what happened overcomes your grasp of the minor premise. • All acts of lying are not to be done. • Telling Smith that his dog is fine is a lie. • Telling Smith that his dog is fine is not to be done. Intemperance: genuine vide, worst of the four states • Vice... ignorance, doesn't even realize the action is bad.. NO control

What is the objection? How should one respond?

OBJECTION: Tension: Aristotle doesn't want happiness to be indefinite or relative... he wants it to be fixed. Aristotle's theory between the fixity and rigidity of his definition of happiness (being completely virtuous for a complete lifetime) and the lack of rigidity in the Doctrine of Mean • The flexibility and variability filters into the definition of the virtue... which can influence the happiness.

Malcolm Gladwell on Happiness- • What is the Platonic conception of products Gladwell discusses, and how did it present a problem in the food industry?

Platonic Conception: • "platonizing", there was an existing conception that there was one way to make things/ serve food/ prepare food and that was the only way it is done and is the "right" way to do it. • trying to find the perfect universal standard, thinking there is one ideal that everything should be approximate to. • Problem in the food industry because not everyone has the same tastes and there was really only one option. What is ideal for one person's tastes are not ideal for another person= lower satisfaction o There can be greater happiness/ satisfaction if you cater or diversify/ add more choice to accommodate different tastes o We have preferences as individuals (but people can be wrong about what they want or not know what they want) o So... accepting diversity and the differences among us will lead to greater happiness

In what way is practical wisdom about "bending the rules"?

Practical Wisdom; moral will to do the right thing, and moral skill to figure out what the right thing is. "A rule/ruler that bends" = tape measure / ruler example of Aristotle • Flexible Rule: sometimes you need to bend the rules. Often, in dealing with other people, we need to bend the rules. Dealing with other people demands flexibility that no set of rules can encompass. • Practical Wisdom is necessary to know WHEN and HOW to bend the rules, but bend the rules in service of others. • Moral Will & Moral Skill = Practical Wisdom (Master Virtue) • We need practical wisdom because morality doesn't boil down to a set of rules, you can't solve problems with humanity by creating more and more rules. It requires flexibility and the Barry Schwartz says that bending the rules is practical wisdom... we need to bend the rules for our human needs/wants. It is important to know when and how to bend the rules because rules cannot explain or apply to all situations.

Deliberative:

Practical wisdom can regulate the appetites

What is the best response to Julia Driver's argument?

RESPONSE: 1 • Huck is weak willed. • Incontinence: conflict between knowledge and action RESPONSE: 2 • Modesty: know the value of your achievements, and realize you don't have to brag about your accomplishments o Having genuine accomplishments o Being aware of the value of one's accomplishments o Having a disposition to refrain from putting forward one's accomplishments • Blind Charity: KNOWS (knowledge) the other person's flaws, but rises above them and focuses on the good things about that person • Forgiveness: you have to understand/KNOW what you are forgiving the other person for • Trust: you believe or KNOW that the person is trustworthy and would not share a secret or trust someone who you don't know, or you KNOW their past and rise above it and trust them again anyway.

Are there any rules that should never be bent? Why or why not?

There are many rules that should never be bent, according to Aristotle, like murder, adultery, theft

Why do we need practical wisdom most of all?

Uses example of Banking/Judges/Teachers: • Solution is NOT more rules/incentives. • More rules can never apply to all particular cases that cover all future situations. Rules are never enough, so you NEED practical wisdom because rules will never be enough. Rules only take you so far, beyond that you NEED GOOD JUDGEMENT. (practical wisdom)

How is virtue related to happiness?

Virtue is related to happiness because virtue involves choosing the mean(choosing the virtue), and happiness is the activity of the soul expressing complete virtue for a complete lifetime. Therefore, if a person chooses a virtue in the moment, and continues to do that for their lifetime, they are pursuing happiness. • A virtuous person has all their appetites in line (meaning they are consistently picking the mean) • Happiness = the activity of the soul expressing complete virtue

Actions that have no mean:

actions adultery, theft, murder;

Involuntary Action:

performed under compulsion or as a result of ignorance • Example of compulsory act; captain of ship is forced off course due to winds • DOES NOT make the "evil or bad" actions of people who are ignorant of the difference between right and wrong involuntary or not reprehensible. (Universal ignorance = not okay) only ignorance in a particular situation

Why do we need virtue and character?

• "WE NEED VIRTUE, we need character, we need people who want to do the right thing. In Particular; we need Aristotle's Practical Wisdom"

What is the definition of virtue?

• A state of the soul that chooses the mean in accordance with practical reason *Virtue is a disposition to behave in the right way, NOT a feeling. *Virtue is the disposition to act in such a way as to lead a happy life. *Virtue is learned through HABIT, not through reason.

How does Aristotle distinguish between moral and intellectual virtues?

• Aristotle divides the soul into the rational and irrational portion of the soul. • Rational: divided into : o Contemplative, which studies the invariable truths of science and math • Right reasoning with respect to the contemplative intellect corresponds to truth. o Calculative, which deals the practical matters of human life

In what way does contemporary research about habit formation reinforce what James and Aristotle say about habit?

• Both James and Aristotle say that once habits are formed, it becomes easier and easier to do that habit again. • Fogg: Behavior Model • Motivation on y-axis • Ability on x-axis, you fall on the line or underneath it

What standard is used in deciding whether a desire is right?

• Does it coincide with the 5-6 Human Needs? • Food, friends, liberty, knowledge, peace, pleasure

What does James mean by "We are spinning our own fates, good or evil, and never to be undone. Every smallest stroke of virtue or of vice leaves its never so little scar"?

• Drug addiction or bad habits that you are creating... you are creating desires you are not in control of. • These can become worse and worse and lead to bad habits, over and over again. You can create a Hell for yourself.

What new contribution does this research make?

• Fogg: contrary to James, you CAN acquire new habits when you are older • Fogg discusses a TRIGGER that these tiny habits occur after, • James said: by the time you're 30 all your habits are set and there is no plasticity in your nervous system anymore.

Why think that acting virtuously does not require good intentions?

• Good intentions are not necessary .... Huck Finn ends up doing the virtuous thing but it was only based on feelings. • Huck Finn acting from sympathy but what is leading him to do this is not knowledge, it is compassion/feelings for Jim.

How is habit beneficial for a living organism?

• Habit is fly wheel of society • Fly wheel is thing in engine, conserves energy and keeps it running smoothly, takes effort to get going but once started takes very little energy to continue spinning • Habit takes effort to create but once we form habit, it keeps our lives running smoothly and we think little about our habits • Only thing stopping social revolution is habit, children of fortune vs. children of poor people are rooted in their habit. (prevents rebellions, etc.) • Also makes everyday decision making easier, prevents us from being consumed with over thinking every small decision we make each day

How is habit rooted in matter?

• Habits are a series of discharges in the nerve center and involves a reflex/path. Once a path is created, it becomes easier for the nerve current to use this path again → forms a habit o Moral virtue comes from habit o the phenomena of habit in living beings are due to the plasticity [2] of the organic materials of which their bodies are composed.

What is Aristotle's unity of virtues thesis? You have practical wisdom only if you have all the moral virtues...

• Happiness Diagram, middle right top • A person is practically wise if and only if they have the moral virtues. Aristotle is claiming that virtuous is a package deal. All virtues are perfections of diff. appetites, and are all perfected by practical wisdom. TO be morally virtuous all of your appetites are in line. • If 1 or 2 appetites are NOT in line, then you are not yet morally virtuous because everything is not yet in order. • Moral virtues come as a package and REQUIRE HAVING practical wisdom. IF you've got the moral virtues, THEN you must have Practical Wisdom IF you have Practical Wisdom, Then you must have ALL of the moral virtues.

What are the characteristics of happiness?

• Happiness= Activity of soul expressing complete virtue for a complete lifetime • To Aristotle, it includes the element of flourishing and growing

What is weakness of will?

• Having no control, you have knowledge of the action, (major premise) but you can't control and struggle with following through on that knowledge. • Weakness of the will=incontinence (conflict between knowledge and action) MAJOR PREMISE: Actions of kind X ought/ought not be done (general moral principle) MINOR PREMISE: This is an action of kind X (particular action under GMP) CONCLUSION: Therefore this ought/ought not be done. (tells us how to act)

How can Aristotle's analysis of weakness of will be used to show that Huck Finn acts on the basis of moral principles?

• He doesn't act according to the principle because his sympathy or desire for Jim blocks the minor premise, so he doesn't do what he thinks is the right thing (conclusion) **Feelings can overpower some principles • Huck Finn... doesn't turn in slave that he freed because of personal emotions. • Huck Finn knows his actions are bad, but the desire gets in the way of knowledge (minor premise)... desire blocks the reasoning from going through

What are some wrong desires?

• Human Wants=wrong desires

RATIONAL:

• Intellectual Virtues: we learn from instruction, help us KNOW what is just and admirable • 5 Intellectual Virtues: 1. Practical Wisdom 2. Craft Knowledge 3. Wisdom 4. Science 5. Understanding • Deliberative: o Practical Wisdom (knowing how to live life and achieve goals) o Craft Knowledge • Non-Deliberative: o Wisdom (understanding nature and reality) o Scientific Knowledge o Understanding

What is the problem with this position?

• It has to require good intentions because you are recognizing that the first major premise is wrong... • You can still have the moral principles present.

What are virtues of ignorance, and why would anyone think that ignorance could be a virtue? (Winters paper 1-5)

• Modesty: You undervalue your accomplishments; you lack understanding, so you don't have knowledge • Trust: You know the potential of what could go wrong but you still trust them, you are ignoring the potential harm (daughter driving example) ... looking forwards ***Winter's Response: you are aware of the potential of the harm, but you are making the leap to allow her to better her driving record • Forgiveness: When you forgive someone who has done something hurtful, and you forgive them, you ignore or forget some past harm. ... looking backwards ***Winter's Response: You never actual forget the wrongdoings, you are going to act like it didn't happen • Blind charity: Ignore people's faults, always see the best in people. ***Winter's Response: you understand the faults and what may be wrong in these circumstances but you can look past them.

What is the reason for thinking that modesty requires ignorance? What is the problem?

• Modesty: you lack understanding by undervaluing your accomplishments. • Genuine modesty: being aware of your accomplishments without bringing attention to them (Winter's definition) o requires genuine accomplishments • Have appreciation for those accomplishments • Not disposed to talk about one (you don't go around talking about it all the time) • People are put into positions all the time where they can talk about their accomplishments but people who are modest don't talk about them. Requires knowledge of the accomplishments but you are choosing not to talk about them.

What kinds of activities have no mean? Why?

• Money making is wrong because it is not assuming an end • Contemplation has all the characteristics • Virtue is its own

NON-RATIONAL:

• Nutritive & Sensitive: o Sensitive=our appetites (we can control and follows reason) • Moral Virtues: we learn from habit and constant practice, help us DO just and admirable deeds. o Examples: courage, temperance, truthfulness, modesty

What are the objections to the function argument considered in class? How might Aristotle respond? Why does performing one's function well represent a fulfilled or 'perfect' life?

• Objection: How do we know that rational activity is our function? There are other activities that are exclusive to humans so why are those not our functions? Professional sports for example • Objection: Infants and some elderly people with dementia for example do not have rational function but isn't rational activity suppose to define us? o Response: infant has the innate capacity to be rational and the elderly person still has rational ability but it is hindered by the dementia (the matter is blocking the rational activity

What are some right desires?

• Pleasure, knowledge, friends, biological, food, liberty, peace, etc

What is right desire?

• Right desire is based on practical wisdom • The right desire is whatever our human needs are

How can there be absolute moral standards if the mean is relative?

• Something in an end lacking noting. (complete, self sufficient, activity, most choice worthy • Money making is wrong because it is not assuming an end

How does Aristotle divide the soul? How is the division relevant to Aristotle's ethical theory?

• The life of pleasure is about pleasure, honor, money making, contemplation, virture

What is the mean?

• The mean is the midpoint between two extremes

What is friendship and what are its different forms?

• There are three kinds of friendship because there are three kinds of love (because there are three ways you can love something) ... friendship is a form of love. 1. The first is friendship based on utility, where both people derive some benefit from each other. 2. The second is friendship based on pleasure, where both people are drawn to the other's wit, good looks, or other pleasant qualities. • Pleasures can change so they don't always last 3. The third is friendship based on goodness, where both people admire the other's goodness and help one another strive for goodness.

Does relativity of the mean render happiness indefinite?

• There is relativity to the means ... the means can differ from person to person • The mean is the intermediate between extremes, it is not something we can calculate mathematically, there is no formula that explains the mean.. so the mean is relative to each person. • From Aristotle, the mean is indefinite and relative, and happiness is determined from the mean, then happiness is relative and indefinite because it is tied from the mean.

What is truth in action?? it is truth concerned with correct desire

• What do we mean with correct desire: human needs (Biological, pleasure, friendship/social, knowledge) (look at Adler reading?? and tying it back to Aristotle)

Aristotle: Says virtue requires knowledge ... you have to have practical wisdom...

• because to act virtuously means seeking the mean, so aiming for the midpoint requires knowing what the target is in the midpoint. • In order for an action to be voluntary, you have to have knowledge of your action. and your action cannot be voluntary without virtue. • To be virtuous, you need to be practically wise... which means you have intellectual virtue (with deliberation) • Can you have knowledge w/o virtue? Yes, scientifically but cannot be virtuous w/o knowledge

What is distinctive about human habits?

• inanimate objects have habits that cannot be changed • animate objects have habits and CAN change o Plants, humans, animals • Humans: have very high plasticity so humans can change some habits more than others.

5 intellectual virtues

• practical wisdom → truth in action→ "truth agreeing with correct desire" (keeping in mind human needs) practical wisdom aims at fulfilling our needs o Practical wisdom, then, must be a reasoned and true state of capacity to act with regard to human goods o practical wisdom helps us to pursue the good life generally. o Can guide us in the correct action o We learn it through instruction - not practice... so it is intellectual • craft knowledge: ability to make something well (Ex: a cabinet in the workshop or a dish in the kitchen) → truth in production • science • understanding • Wisdom o WISDOM >> practical wisdom... because wisdom always true and can't change (the mountain is 6,000 ft high) and deals with more important topics. Wisdom is not concerned with morality. (wisdom of the universe vs. wisdom of how much chicken to eat)

Voluntary Action:

• when the person is in control of his or her actions, knows the particular circumstances in which the action is performed and responsible for its consequences • Virtuous acts are VOLUNTARY

Doctrine of the Mean

• which holds that every [moral] virtue is a mean between the vicious extremes of excess and deficiency... • it differs from person to person but can still be relative • there are some actions or choices that are pure irrational or wrong, and do not contain excess or deficiency, you cannot make them good, no matter how many excuses you give.