ETHICS - Utilitarianism | Natural Law | Deontology

Jeremy Bentham's Utilitarianism

- Man is under two great masters, pain and pleasure. - The great good that we should seek is happiness. (a hedonistic perspective) - Those actions whose results increase happiness or diminish pain are good. They have "utility."

John Stuart Mill's Adjustment to Utilitarianism

- Mill argues that we must consider the quality of the happiness, not merely the quantity. - Example, some might find happiness with a pitcher of beer and a pizza. Others may find happiness watching a fine Shakespearean play. The quality of happiness is greater with the latter.

Basic Assumptions (deontology)

- No matter how morally good their consequences, some choices are morally forbidden. - What makes a choice right is its conformity with a morality. - The Right is said to have priority over the Good. - If an act is not in accord with the Right, it may not be undertaken, no matter the Good that it might produce. - Deontological theories hold that actions that are morally right are those in accordance with rules, duties, rights, or maxims. - Actions can be morally good, required, permitted or forbidden.

Areas of Emphasis in Making Moral Judgments

- Purpose or Motive - Act, Rule or Maxim - Results or Consequences

CI2 - Formula of the End in Itself

"Act in such a way that you always treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, never simply as a means, but always at the same time as an end." - Consider Kant's 4 illustrations, from perspective of the "agent" (i.e., the person undertaking the action) rather than action

CI1 - Formula of Universal Law

"Act only on that maxim through which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law" - Translation: Can I universalize my act without contradiction?

Kantian's Ethics - Strengths

- Respect for persons - Realm of duty, free from utility - Golden - Reason-based

Immanuel Kant

"The German Enlightenment philosopher - is regarded as among the greatest and most influential of Western philosophers, and undeniably as one of the most difficult to read and understand."

DEONTOLOGY

- A duty-based ethic - focuses on the act and not its consequence. Rules can be expressed in 2 ways: a. Negatively: "Do not lie" "Do not steal" b. Positively: "tell the truth" "keep your promises" - Derived from the Greek word "deon" meaning "duty" - Deontology is a category of normative ethical theories that encompasses any theory which is primarily concerned with adherence to certain rules or duties. - Consequences do NOT matter! Intention is relevant. - I am acting a certain way only if I act for the right reason.

4. Kantian Ethics (Categorical Imperatives)

- An imperative is a command to act. It is prescriptive. 2 Types of Imperatives a. Hypothetical Imperative b. Categorical Imperative

2. The Golden Rule

- Ethic of Reciprocity - this famous cross-cultural maxim states: "Do to others as you want them to do to you." - May seem like a useful maxim at first, but it has limitations: - Depends on the mental state (personality, mental health, emotional health, compassion, etc.) of the moral agent rather than the person being acted upon.

3. Natural Law & Natural Right Theories

- Humans have reasoning and the Laws of Nature are discernable by human reason. - Humans are morally obligated to use reasoning to discern what the laws are and then to act in conformity with them. - Humans have a natural drive to eat, drink, sleep and procreate. These actions are in accord with a natural law for species to survive and procreate. - Thus activities in conformity with such a law are morally good. Activities that work against that law are morally wrong. - As an example, consider that to eat too much or too little and place life in jeopardy is morally wrong.

Kantian's Ethics - Weaknesses

- Hyper-rationality and lack of emotion - The irrelevance of inclination (no such thing as extenuating circumstances) -Overly formal and universal (most of duties are social roles) -Inflexibility

Some Potential Maxims

- I will always tell the truth. - I will always throw my paper wrappers out my car window. - I will cure cancer forever by experimenting with one homeless person's life. - I will shoot the POW to get the information to possibly save my troops. - I will provide for my family. - I will steal food for my family if they are starving.

Jeremy Bentham's Hedonistic Calculus

- In determining the quantity of happiness that might be produced by an action, we evaluate the possible consequences by applying several values: - Intensity, duration, certainty or uncertainty, propinquity or remoteness, fecundity, purity, and extent.

1. Divine Command Theory

- The idea that we have a duty to obey God, and therefore a duty to do / not do whatever God has commanded us - Divine Command Theory is a moral theory, and moral theology, but, strictly speaking, it is not normative moral philosophy. - Philosophy is defined as systematic inquiry into the nature of things (such as norms), based on logical reasoning / rationality. - Following commands does not require reason (blind faith). - It has been variously categorized as moral prescriptivism, as moral theology, and as deontological ethics.

NATURAL LAW

- actions are seen as morally and ethically correct if t accords with the end purpose of human nature and human goals. Follows the fundamental maxim, 'do good and avoid evil'.

UTILITARIANISM

- says that the Result or the Consequence of an Act is the real measure of whether it is good or bad. - This theory emphasizes Ends over Means. - Theories, like this one, that emphasize the results or consequences are called teleological or consequentialist.

Examples of Deontological Theory

1. Divine Command Theory 2. The Golden Rule 3. Natural Law & Natural Right Theories 4. Kantian Ethics (Categorical Imperatives)

Moral Truth & Ethical Duty

1. Moral truth stands by itself - autonomous & self-contained. 2. Ethical duty should not be based on the opinions of any individual, group, tradition, faith, cultural norm or even God's will. They should be based on reason. 3. Ethical duties are the same for all. 4. Being good is a matter of reverence for duty.

Reason & Morality

1. Reason is not only the judge, but also the source of right and wrong. Rationality is what allows humans to be moral beings. 2. Moral objectives exist and can be discerned through reason. 3. When properly used (rationally guided), will is good. 4. Moral principles that meet the demands of reason are always valid for everyone.

4 conditions presented by the Traditional Moral Theology

1. The action is good in itself or at least in different 2. The good effect must come first before the evil effect or at least simultaneously 3. The good effect must be intended 4. There must be a proportionately grave reason for the evil effect to happen

b. Categorical Imperative

Absolute & unconditional commands - The form of a categorical imperative is: "You ought to X." (X = end-in-itself, without regards to MEANS or other ENDS) - An example of a categorical imperative is: "You ought to study [because you are a student]." - It is implied here that the rule or maxim is that students are supposed to study... the end.

2 Types of Utilitarianism

Act Rule

Criticism of Bentham's Theory

Bentham's theory could mean that if 10 people would be happy watching a man being eaten by wild dogs, it would be a morally good thing for the 10 men to kidnap someone (especially someone whose death would not cause grief to many others) and throw the man into a cage of wild, hungry dogs.

a. Hypothetical Imperative

Commands that are not absolute, but conditional, and premised on one's desires. - The form of a hypothetical imperative is: "If you want Y, you ought to X." (Y = goal/consequence/end; X = means) - An example of a hypothetical imperative is: "If you want to pass this test, you ought to study."

4 Theses of Utilitarianism

Consequentialism Hedonism Maximalism Universalism

Kant's 4 illustrations

Do not harm the self (suicide) Do not harm or deceive others (lying) Do what is good for the self (develop your talents) Do what is good for others (beneficence)

2 Types of Duties

Perfect Duties Imperfect Duties

2 Formulations of Utilitarian Theory

Principle of Utility Greatest Happiness

CI3 - The Kingdom of Ends

Reason is both the source of moral law (legislator) and subject of the law (citizen). - Accordingly: "Act always as if you were, through your maxims, a lawmaking member of the moral community, bound to obey the laws you impose upon yourself and others" - Translation: Can this act become a binding moral law for all of us (...including you)?

Human Law

Refers to all instances wherein human beings construct and enforce laws in their communities. Given the larger picture of Aquinas's view, one would have basis for assessing the validity or invalidity of a human law: whether or not it conforms to the natural law.

Moral Object

The intention inherent in the action that one is actually performing; specifies the human act and is the purpose that the act accomplishes as a means to the ultimate goal of life; moral object or finis operis is the fundamental element of the morality of the human act, that is also the circumstance

Principle of Double-Effect

This is used in order to judge the moral acceptability of the human act that has two effects, one is good and other is evil.

a. Maximalism b. Universalism

a. A right action produces the greatest good consequences and the least bad. b. The consequences to be considered are those of everyone affected, and everyone equally.

a. Act b. Rule

a. An Action is right if and only if it produces the greatest balance of pleasure over pain for the greatest number (Jeremy Bentham). b. An action is right if and only if it conforms to a set of rules the general acceptance of which would produce the greatest balance of pleasure over pain for the greatest number (John Stuart Mill).

Observations About Categorical Imperatives

a. CI's derive their authority from within - from the rational impulse to obey the dictates of Reason itself (as an expression of my autonomy) b. CI's command absolutely, unconditionally, "no ifs, ands or buts" (no strings attached) c. CI's are universal, unconditional, not subject to variation d. Duty and the institution of morality are like this (Must comply- no alibi)

a. Human Acts b. Acts of Man

a. Expressed proceeds from the will b. Is an action that does not proceeds from the will

a. Divine Reason b. Eternal Law

a. God is the Creator of all beings. We do not only recognize God as source of these beings, but also acknowledge the way they have been created and the way they could return it Him. b. Refers to what God wills for creation. All beings are already created by God in a certain way intended to return to Him.

a. Consequentialism Theories b. Deontological Theories

a. Hold that an action's rightness or wrongness depends on the consequence it causes (i.e. happiness, pain, etc.) b. Hold that an action's rightness or wrongness depends on its conformity to a certain moral norm regardless of the consequence, (i.e. Right vs. Good)

a. Perfect Duties b. Imperfect Duties

a. Kant also calls these strict or inflexible duties. These are duties, such as the duty not to commit suicide and the duty not to make a false promise, which have no exceptions. These are never okay to break. b. Kant also calls these the laxer duties. These are duties, such as the duty to help people in need (beneficence), which do have exceptions. They are still duties, but you have some choice about how to fulfil them. - Ex. You don't have to give all your money to every charity; your inclinations can enter into which charities you choose to give to.

a. Free Will b. Common Good

a. Our capacity for reason enables us to judge between possibilities and to direct our actions in a way or the other. Out actions are directed toward attaining ends or goods that we desire. b. We cannot simply act in pursuit of our own ends or good without any regard for other people's ends or good. We are not isolated beings, but beings belong to a community. We have to consider what is good for the community as well as our own good.

a. Circumstances b. Intention/Motive

a. Part of the human act that must be considered in order to evaluate the total moral act b. A means towards attainment of true happiness both of a agent and the common good.

a. Principle of Utility b. Greatest Happiness

a. The best action is that which produces the greatest happiness and/or reduces pain. b. We ought to do which produces greatest happiness and least pain for the greatest number of people.

a. Irrational Creatures b. Rational Humans

a. They do not think of the law or chose to obey it, but are simply, through instinctual following of their nature, complying with the law that God has for them. b. Participates more fully & perfectly in law given the capacity for reason, for what is good and what is evil.

a. In Common in Other Beings b. In Common With Animals c. Uniquely Human

a. human beings, are both unique and at the same time participating in the community of the rest of creation. There is something in our nature that shares in the nature of other beings. b. Animals periodically engage in sexual intercourse at a specific time of "heat", and this could result an offspring. In human too, that natural inclination to engage in the sexual act and to reproduce exists. c. We have a natural inclination to know the truth about God and to live in society. It is interest that this is followed by matters of both an epistemic and a social concern.

a. Act Guidance a. Character Guidance

a. that is, they tell us what sorts of actions we should take; objective a. what sort of people we ought to become

a. Consequentialism b. Hedonism

a.The rightness of actions is determined solely by their consequences. b. Utility is the degree to which an act produces pleasure. Hedonism is the thesis that pleasure or happiness is the good that we seek and that we should seek.