EV203 WPR 1
Explain the concept of map projections. Compare and contrast equivalent map projections, conformal map projections, and compromise map projections. Explain when each type of projection is most suited for use.
- Equivalent: the correct size ratio of area on the map to the corresponding actual area is maintained. Useful in portraying distributions of the various geographic features (used in book). Leads to distorted shapes. - Conformal: Proper angular relationships are maintained across the entire map (size is distorted to depict the proper shape) - Compromise: A combo of the two
Seven significant lines of latitude
1) Equator (0°) 2) Tropic of Cancer (23.5° N) 3) Tropic of Capricorn (23.5° S) 4) Arctic Circle (66.5° N) 5) Antarctic Circle (66.5° S) 6) North Pole (90° N) 7) South Pole (90° S) 8) Prime Meridian (Longitude) - goes through the Royal Observatory of the Greenwich, England
List and describe the eight large-scale geographic factors (factors of relative location) that led to the selection of Normandy over Calais as the landing site for Operation Overlord.
1. Normandy was covered by the weakest segment of the Atlantic Wall fortifications 2. Normandy was farthest from the German industrial center in the Ruhr Valley 3. The Normandy beaches were near the port of Cherbourg, a key harbor 4. German supplies and reinforcements would have to cross many entrenched rivers 5. Normandy was west of the Paris-Channel rail lines 6. Normandy was opposite the main ports in southern England 7. The dense forests and estuaries of southern England could better conceal Allied forces 8. Normandy's beaches were sheltered from westerly tracking storms 9. Landing at Normandy would avoid the narrow constriction in the Straight of Dover
Ways to Change Relative Humidity
1. change the temp (warming the air will decrease RH, cooling the air will increase RH) 2. change the water vapor content (adding water vapor increases RH)
Describe how time zones are used to establish actual times around the world. Discuss the relationship between time zones and the International Date Line.
24 Meridians each 15* of longitude apart: Central Meridians 15* = 1 hour difference Marks the location where clock time is the same as mean time zone International Date Line: time zone defined by the 180* Meridian West to East: One day earlier East to West One day later
Describe the changes in the patterns of sunlight around Earth on the June solstice, the September equinox, the December solstice, and the March equinox. In particular, explain how the changing relationships of the Earth to the Sun cause variations in day length and in the angle at which the Sun's rays strike the surface of the Earth.
3 conditions to consider: Declination of the sun: the latitude receiving the vertical rays of the sun (rays striking the surface at a right angle) The solar altitude (the height of the noon Sun above the horizon) at different latitudes The length of day (number of daylight hours) at different latitudes June Summer Solstice Circle of Illumination: the dividing light between the daylight half of earth and nighttime half of earth is a great circle June 21 Subsolar Point: 23.5* N (Tropic of Cancer) 66.5* N have perpetual light (Artic Circle) September Autumnal Equinox Circle of Illumination bisects all parallels, resulting in 12 hours of light and darkness around the world September 21 Declination of the Sun: Equator December Winter Solstice The Vertical Rays of the sun strike 23.5* S, the Tropic of Capricorn December 21 Subsolar Point: 23.5* S (Tropic of Capricorn) March Vernal Equinox Vernal Equinox, same conditions as September equinox March 21 • June and December Solstices: circle of illumination bisect equator (One of the polar circles receive 24 hour sunlight) • March and September Equinox: circle of illumination bisect polar circles (12 hour day, 12 hour night everywhere)
great circle
A Great Circle is any circle that circumnavigates the Earth and passes through the center of the Earth. A great circle always divides the Earth in half, thus the Equator is a great circle (but no other latitudes) and all lines of longitudeare great circles. The shortest distance between any two points on the Earth lies along a great circle.
parallel
A circle drawn around the globe parallel to the equator and at right angles to the meridians.
Scientific Method
A series of steps followed to solve problems including collecting data, formulating a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis, and stating conclusions.
geostrophic wind
A wind usually above a height of 600 meters that blows parallel to the isobars. Geostrophic winds come about because pressure gradient force and Coriolis force come into balance after the air begins to move. A geostrophic wind flows parallel to the isobars.
Describe the sources of acid rain, the types of damage it causes, and the actions taken to reduce it.
Acid Rain: the deposition of either wet or dry acidic materials from the atmosphere on Earth's surface. Sulfuric and nitric acids are the primary culprits. Major damage done to aquatic systems. Clean Air Act requires major reduction of sulfuric and nitric acids.
electromagnetic spectrum
All of the frequencies or wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation just longer than the human eye can see
International Date Line
An arc that for the most part follows 180° longitude, although it deviates in several places to avoid dividing land areas. When you cross the International Date Line heading east (toward America), the clock moves back 24 hours, or one entire day. When you go west (toward Asia), the calendar moves ahead one day.
Explain variations in insolation by latitude and season due to angle of incidence, effect of the atmosphere, and day length.
Angle of Incidence: the angle at which rays from the sun strike Earth's surface. Changes during the year due to changing relationship between Earth and Sun. Effect of the Atmosphere: the attenuation (weakening) of radiation that passes through the atmosphere varies based on the amount of atmosphere and the transparency of the air. Day Length: The duration of sunlight influences amount of insolation received.
Describe the characteristics, origin, classification, movement, and modification of the six types of air masses (A, cP, mP, cT, mT, & E).
Artic/Antartic (A): Antartica, Artic Ocean and Fringes, and Greenland. Very Cold, very dry, very stable Continental polar (cP): High latitude plains of Eurasia and North America. Cold dry, very stable Maritime Polar (mP): Oceans in vicinity of 50-60 N/S Latitude. Cold, moist, relatively unstable Continental Tropical (cT): Low-Latitude deserts, Hot, very dry, unstable Maritime Tropical (mT): Tropical and Subtropical Oceans. Warm, moist, or variable stability Equatorial (E): Oceans near the equator. Warm, very moist, unstable.
Describe the factors influencing atmospheric pressure, including density-pressure relationships and temperature-pressure relationships.
Atmospheric Pressure: the force exerted by the weight of these gas molecules on a unit of area of Earth's surface or any other body. The Ideal Gas Law: Pressure=p(density)*R(constant)*Temperature The pressure exerted by a gas is proportional to its density The increase in temperature may be accompanied by a decrease in pressure caused by the decrease in density. (general: warm air=low atmospheric pressure, cold air=high atmospheric pressure).
Describe the characteristics, origins, and movement patterns of a tropical cyclone. Describe the life span of a tropical cyclone and explain the seasonal patterns associated with tropical cyclone development.
Characteristics: Hurricanes consist of prominent low-pressure centers that are essentially circular, with a steep pressure gradient outward from the center, resulting in strong winds spiraling inwards. Pulls in warm, moist air, rising into intense updrafts with huge cumulonimbus clouds. As air rises, it cools adiabatically, bringing the air to saturation. Condensation then releases vast amounts of liquid water that builds up huge clouds and feeds heavy rain. It also releases latent heat, powering storm by increasing instability of the air. Hurricanes release massive amounts of energy and are not characterized by fronts (as all of the air is moist and warm). The eye warms adiabatically, creating a calm stage at the center. Origin: Hurricanes only form over warm oceans in the tropics and at least a few degrees north and south of the equator. Hurricanes always develop from preexisting disturbances in the tropical troposphere and can only evolve when there is no significant wind shear (a significant change in wind speed/direction with altitude). Movement: ⅓ travel east to west, the rest travel east to west then curve poleward where they either dissipate over the adjacent continent or become part of the general flow of the westerlies Life Cycle/Seasonality: Most last one week, with four weeks as the max duration. Most die as warm, moist air is cut off, either on land or as they progress through colder waters. Not unusual for tropical hurricane that moves across mid latitudes to diminish in intensity but increase in size, developing into midlatitude cycle that moves with westerlies. Usually occur from late summer to fall peaking in early september in NH (because water temperatures are warmest and ITCZ is shifted farthest forward)
Describe global temperature patterns. Explain how these patterns are influenced by the prominent controls of temperature. Describe seasonal patterns of temperature and geographic differences in annual temperature ranges.
Circulation patterns in the atmosphere shift some of warmth of low latitudes to high latitudes. Circulation patterns of water result in circle of hot/cold. In summary, we see a poleward flow of warm tropical water along the east coasts of continents and an equatorward flow of cool, high latitude water along the west coasts of continents Prominent Controls of temperature: Latitude Altitude Land-Water Contrasts Ocean Currents Seasonal patterns: Isotherms follow the changing balance of insolation during the year. Isotherms are more tightly packed in winter, indicating that the temperature gradient is steeper in winter than summer (especially over continents vs ocean)
Describe the three main cloud forms.
Cirrus: thin and wispy and composed of ice crystals rather than water droplets Cumulus: massive and rounded: Stratus: gray sheets covering sky, blanket like and spread out
Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale
Classifies hurricanes according to wind speed, air pressure in the center, and potential for property damage.
Explain the role of adiabatic cooling in cloud formation. Explain the difference between the dry adiabatic rate and the saturated adiabatic rate.
Clouds form when air reaches its dew point temperature and water vapor condenses on condensation nuclei. Air can cool through adiabatic and diabatic processes. ... As the parcel ascends, it expands, and the molecules collide less and less, thus reducing the amount of heat energy and resulting in a cooler parcel of air. Cooler Air means dew point = temperature. Adiabatic Processes - Prominent mechanism for development of clouds. The only way in which large masses of air can be cooled to the dew point temperature is by expansion as air rises (adiabatic cooling). Dry Adiabatic Rate (DAR) - Rate at which a parcel of unsaturated air cools as it rises (10°C / 1000m). Lifting condensation Level (LCL) - Altitude at which dew point temperature is reached, condensation occurs, and clouds begin to form. Saturated Adiabatic Rate (SAR) - A diminished rate of cooling as the parcel of air continues to rise past the LCL. It doesn't cool as quickly as the DAR because the latent heat of condensation diminishes the rate of cooling (6°C / 1000m). *As the parcel of air rises above the LCL. the release of latent heat lessens the rate of cooling, so the parcel cools at the Saturated Adiabatic Rate
Explain how each of the four principal types of atmospheric lifting leads to condensation and precipitation (convective, orographic, frontal, and convergent). Describe where and/or when each type of lifting is most likely to occur.
Convective Lifting: a parcel of air close to the ground may be warmed by conduction. The density of the warm air rises, expanding and cooling adiabatically to the dew point temperature. Associated with warm areas/weather and various kinds of forced uplifting. Unequal heating of different surface areas causes a parcel of air near the ground to be warmed by conduction. Density of the warmed air is reduced as the air expands, and so the parcel rises toward a lower-density layer. Causes unstable conditions, rain, clouds, etc. Orographic Lifting: when wind encounters a topographic behavior, the air is forced to travel upslope. Can occur at any latitude, any season, any time of day. Frontal Lifting: when unlike air masses meet and do not mix. Characteristic of mid latitudes. Convergent Lifting: when air converges, a general uplift occurs. Characteristic of low altitudes. Convergence of air creates a general uplift because of the crowding. This forced uplift enhances instability and is likely to produce showery precipitation. It is associated with cyclonic storm systems and is characteristic of low latitudes (tropical disturbances - hurricanes and easterly waves).
Explain how the cultural landscape of Normandy influenced the D-Day invasion and the subsequent battle for Normandy. Provide specific examples.
Cultural landscapes also play a very important part in battles, especially following d day landings. Nucleated settlements: Open fields, densely packed city centers. Normandy's Road Network: Bocage: Patchwork of woods and fields creating a wall that could stop tanks. Also reduce effectiveness of ally air force strikes.
Name and describe the categories of tropical disturbances
Easterly Wave: a long, but weak migratory, low-pressure system that can occur almost anywhere between 5 and 30 latitude Tropical Depression: high wind speeds up to 62 kph but has developed a closed wind circulation pattern. Tropical Storm: winds between 63-118 kph Hurricane: winds that exceed 119 kph
Describe the four types of fog and explain how they form.
Fog - a cloud on the ground. No physical differences from a cloud, but they form differently. • Clouds develop as a result of uplift and adiabatic cooling in rising air • Rarely is uplift involved in fog formation • Fog is formed either when air at Earth's surface cools to below its dew point, or when enough water vapor is added to the air to saturate it Radiation Fog: when the ground radiates away heat (usually at night), air closest to the ground cools as heat flows conductively from it to the relatively cool ground. Advection Fog: warm, moist air moves horizontally over a cold surface (air moving from sea to land is a common form) Upslope/Orographic Fog: created by adiabatic cooling when humid air climbs a topographic slope Evaporation/steam fog: Water vapor is added to cold air that is already near saturation
Describe the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS). Describe how a GPS unit determines its location. Describe some common uses of GPS.
GNSS- a system of satellite technologies that provides precise location for points on/near Earth's surface GPS -24 satellites up with 4-6 at any view on Earth. COnstantly transmits ID and Positioning info that can be picked up by recievers on earth. Your GPS device can tell you your precise location your position in a process called trilateration. It communicates with three satellites in sight — using high-frequency, low-power radio signals that travel at the speed of light — and then calculates the distance between those satellites and your device Uses: Earthquake forecasting, ocean floor mapping, volcano monitoring, a variety of mapping projects.
Explain the greenhouse effect
Gases in the atmosphere radiate the Sun's heat back down to Earth's surface. Incoming shortwave radiation transmits through Earth's atmosphere where the energy is absorbed, increasing the temperature of the surface. Long wave radiation emitted from Earth's surface is inhibited from transmitting back to atmosphere by greenhouse gases, which absorb the radiation and re radiate to warm Earth's surface and make earth a viable environment. Earth's surface Absorbs shortwave radiation Re Emits it as heat/longwave radiation Greenhouse Gases: Methane, Water Vapor, CO2 Absorb longwave radiation and reemit it as longwave radiation Global Warming: enhancement of Earth's natural heating process
Describe and explain the global distribution of precipitation. Locate regions of high annual precipitation and low annual precipitation, and explain the reasons for this distribution. Describe seasonal patterns of precipitation and explain the reasons for these patterns.
High Annual Precipitation: Region of the ITCZ and Trade Wind Uplift, Tropical Monsoon Regions, Coastal Areas in Westerlies. Low Annual Precipitation: Areas of subtropical highs (high pressure, cool ocean currents), Interiors of Continents, and High Latitude Regions (low water vapor content) High precipitation: · Regions of ITCZ and trade wind uplifts · Tropical monsoon regions · Coastal areas in westerlies Low precipitation: · Subtropical high regions · Interior of continents · High latitude regions Seasonal: · Continental interior receive most precipitation during summer months · 35° - 50° latitude experience summer dryness · Monsoon regions: summer very wet, winter dry · Heavy rainfall belt of ITCZ migrates north & south in different seasons Precipitation variability: · Expected departure from average precipitation in any given year expressed as a percentage above or below average · Regions of normally heavy precipitation experience the least variability · Normally dry regions experience most
Read and analyze a surface pressure map. Identify high pressure areas, low pressure areas, troughs, and ridges.
High/low: represent pressure that is higher/lower than surrounding areas Ridge: elongated area of relatively high pressure Trough: elongated area of relatively low pressure
Describe recent anthropogenic changes to the atmosphere. Explain how the ozone layer has been affected by human-produced chemicals, why this is a problem, and how the problem has been addressed. List and describe anthropogenic causes of air pollution.
Human-Induced Atmospheric Change Introduction of impurities into the atmosphere at rapid pace Received international attention in recent years Ex: reduction of ozone layer by CFC's (Chlorofluorocarbons) The Ozone Hole Release of CFC's resulted in significant loss of stratospheric ozone, depicted as a whole Loss tends to group near Antarctic Polar Vortex Resultant Uv intensity increased in affected areas Montreal Protocol Anthropogenic (Human-Caused) Pollutants Primary Pollutants (Particulates, Carbon Monoxide, Nitrogen/Sulfur Compounds) Secondary Pollutants (Photochemical Smog, Ozone) Indoor Pollutants Consequences of Anthropogenic Pollution (relationship of energy production to anthropogenic pollution) (ex:Phoenix smog pic w/ top of temperature inversion)
Compare and contrast the different measures of humidity (absolute humidity, specific humidity, vapor pressure, relative humidity, and dew point temperature). Explain the relationship between temperature and relative humidity.
Humidity - Amount of water vapor in air Absolute humidity - Mass of water vapor in a given volume of air (grams of H_2 O_((g)) / m^3 of air) Specific Humidity: grams of water vapor in air Absolute Humidity: grams of water vapor in air Specific Humidity - Mass of water vapor in a given mass of air (grams of H_2 O_((g)) / kg of air) Vapor Pressure - Contribution of water vapor to the total atmospheric pressure (mb / kg of air) Saturation Vapor Pressure - Max possible vapor pressure at a given temperature Relative Humidity (lesson 12 lab) - Describes how close the air is to saturation with water vapor. It compares actual amount of water vapor in the air to the water vapor "capacity" of the air. (not a good measure of how much water vapor is in the atmosphere because it depends largely on temperature) Dew Point Temperature - Temperature at which Relative Humidity reaches 100% and the air goes from unsaturated to saturated. Water vapor will change to liquid water if it becomes supersaturated for whatever reason.
List and describe the seven most important controls of weather and climate. Determine the most likely climate controls for a place based on its location and climate data.
Latitude Distribution of Land and Water General Circulation of the Atmosphere (in tropics, most surface winds come from East vs mid lats most winds from West) General Circulation of the Oceans Altitude Topographic Barriers (i.e. mountains, large hills) Storms
Describe the changes in the patterns of sunlight around Earth during the year, aside from the solstices and equinoxes. Explain how annual variations in day length and Sun angle change with latitude.
Latitude Receiving the Vertical Rays of the Sun: strike only between the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn Day Length: The annual variation in day length is the least in the tropics and the greatest at high altitudes
Isobars
Lines joining places on the map that have the same air pressure
Explain the concept of map scale. Distinguish between large- and small-scale maps. Identify and explain graphic, fractional, and map scales. Explain why no map of the world can be as accurate as a globe.
Map scale: relationship between the map size and the actual distance 1:50,000 - more area, less detail. Small Scale Map 1:20,000 - more detail. Large Scale Map (shows larger areas on map) 1/50,000<1/20,000
Describe the characteristics, movements, and life cycle of a midlatitude cyclone. Describe the weather changes that occur during the passage of a midlatitude cyclone. Describe the typical occurrence and distribution of these storms.
Midlatitude Cyclones - Most significant of all atmospheric disturbances. Dominant weather pattern in midlatitudes. Responsible for day-to-day weather changes and brings precipitation to much of the populated portion of the planet. Characteristics - Diameter of 1600 km (1000 miles). Vast cell of low-pressure air with ground level pressure in the center typically between 990-1000 mb. Its counterclockwise converging path pulls cold air from the north and warm air from the south. It creates a strong cold front going southwest, and a weaker warm front going east. Air rises in the low-pressure center and extends over the two fronts, creating precipitation 4 Movements of Midlatitude Cyclones i. Moves as a major disturbance in the westerlies, traversing the midlatitudes from west to east. 35-45 km per hour with route associated with path of the jet stream ii. Cyclonic wind circulation with wind converging counterclockwise into the center of the storm from all sides. iii. Cold front advances faster than the center of the storm, warm front advances slower than the center of the storm, appearing to lag behind. Life Cycle (Cyclogenesis): i. Progresses from origin to maturity to dissipation in 3-10 days ii. Midlatitude cyclones begin as "waves" along the polar front (contact zone between the cold polar easterlies and warm westerlies). iii. Process: 1. Front develops between unlike air masses 2. Wave appears along front 3. Cyclonic circulation is well developed around a low 4. Occlusion begins 5. Occluded front is fully developed (cold front catches up with the warm front, warm air is no longer in contact with earth's surface, and occluded front forms). 6. Cyclone dissipates after all warm surface air has been lifted and cooled (cold front overtakes warm front).
Describe overlay analysis. Explain how GIS helps in the analysis of geographic data.
Overlay Analysis: where two or more layers of data are superimposed or integrated. a group of methodologies applied in optimal site selection or suitability modeling. It is a technique for applying a common scale of values to diverse and dissimilar inputs to create an integrated analysis. Suitability models identify the best or most preferred locations for a specific phenomenon. GIS: Geographic Information Systems: Computer systems designed to analyze and display spatial data. Basically libraries of information that use maps to organize, store, view, and analyze information in an intuitive, visual manner. Frequently used in overlay analysis to combine different sets of data into one useful map. Offers a new view to resource management, environmental monitoring, , natural hazards assessment (ex: traffic, firefighting)
Describe the composition of the modern atmosphere, including the permanent gases, variable gases, and particulates (aerosols).
Permanent/Constant Gases Nitrogen Oxygen Argon - Changing/Variable Gases Water Vapor Carbon Dioxide Ozone - Permanent gases make up over 95% of total atmosphere Particulates: Non-gaseous particles that exist in the atmosphere Many human-induced and natural types Some reflect or absorb sunlight
Name, locate, and describe the seven components of the General Circulation of the Atmosphere. Diagram and describe the geographic distribution of major global wind and pressure systems.
Polar High Polar Easterlies Polar Front (Subpolar Lows) Westerlies Subtropical High (STH) Trade Winds Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) Polar Highs - High pressure cells over bother polar systems. Typical anticyclonic. Air from above sinks in high pressure and diverges horizontally near surface, clockwise in Northern Hemisphere, Counterclockwise (CCW) in Southern. They form the Polar Easterlies. Polar Easterlies - Cold, dry, flow from east to west, cover most of 60° latitude to the poles. Polar Front (Subpolar Lows) - A zone of low pressure from about 50° - 60°. Cloudy & stormy. Westerlies - The great wind systems of the mid latitudes (30° - 60°) issued from the poleward sides of the STH's. Less common near surface of Earth because of surface friction, topographic barriers (mountains), and especially migratory pressure systems. Subtropical Highs (STH) - A large semipermanent high-pressure cell centered at about 30° in each ocean basin. These gigantic anticyclones (average radius of 1000 miles) develop from the descending air of the Hadley Cells. Characterized by descending and diverging air, clear skies, dry adiabatic warming. Trade Winds - Winds issued from the equatorward sides of the STH's and diverging toward the west and toward the equator. The major wind system of the tropics. Largest wind system. Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) - Zone where air from Northern and Southern hemispheres meet. Characterized by weak horizontal winds, feeble and erratic winds. Ships often are becalmed here. Zone of low pressure, high rainfall, instability, and rising air in the Hadley Cells. Often appears as well-defined, relatively narrow bands of clouds over oceans (less likely over land).
Explain how wind direction is influenced by the pressure gradient force, the Coriolis effect, and friction, both at the surface of the Earth and in the upper atmosphere.
Pressure Gradient: the relative closeness of isobars indicates the horizontal rate of pressure change. Air tends to flow from high to low pressure. Pressure Gradient Force (90): Wind Blows because of Pressure Gradient Force: always going from higher to lower pressure Air Blows from high to low The greater the PGF the greater the wind blows Coriolis Effect (parallel): prevents the wind from flowing directly down a pressure gradient Friction (45): slows down wind, lessons coriolis effect
Describe the vertical structure of the atmosphere, including the relationships between altitude, pressure, and temperature, in the troposphere and stratosphere.
Pressure decreases with altitude Troposphere Temperature: decreases with increasing altitude (where weather occurs, heat comes from Earth, gets cooler as you get higher) Stratosphere (home of ozone layer, heat comes from ozone layer, gets hotter as you get higher) Mesosphere Thermosphere Exosphere
Define remote sensing. Discuss the kinds of information that can be gathered by remote sensing. Distinguish passive remote sensing systems from active remote sensing systems.
RS: Any measurement/acquisition of information by a recording device that is not in physical contact with the object under study. (communications, global positioning, weather data) Active sensors have its own source of light orillumination. In particular, it actively sends a wave and measures that backscatter reflected back to it. But passive sensors measure reflected sunlight emitted from the sun.
Explain nine of the ten basic heating and cooling processes in the atmosphere (radiation, absorption, reflection, transmission, conduction, convection, advection, adiabatic cooling and warming, and latent heat).
Radiation: the process by which electromagnetic energy is emitted from an object (refers to both emission and flow of radiation). The hotter the object, the shorter the wavelength. Absorption: The assimilation of Electromagnetic waves by an object. Increased vibrations result in an increase of the internal energy of an object = increase in temperature. Reflection (albeido): the ability of an object to repel electromagnetic waves that strike it. Transmission: the process whereby electromagnetic waves pass completely through a medium. Conduction: The transfer of heat from one molecule to another without changes in their relative positions (objects must be in direct contact) Convection: the transfer of energy by the vertical circulation of a fluid (i.e. water or air) (*In convection, molecules move from one place to another while in Conduction, molecules vibrate back and forth and undergo molecular collisions*) Advection: the transfer of energy by the horizontal circulation of a fluid (i.e. water or air) Adiabatic Cooling (cooling by expansion): As air rises and expands, the molecules spread through a greater volume of space, resulting in a loss of kinetic energy and thus a temperature decrease. Adiabatic Heating ((warming by compression): As air descends, it begins to compress because of an increase in pressure, increasing the kinetic energy of the molecules and thus the the temperature. Latent Heat: an exchange of energy commonly seen in phase changes
Descriptive Zones of Latitude
Regions on Earth are sometimes described as falling within general bands or zones of latitude. Low Latitude: Between equator and 30* N and S MidLatitude: Between 30* and 60* N and S High Latitude: Latitudes greater than 60* N and S Equatorial: WIthin a few degrees of the equator Tropical: Within the tropics Subtropical: slighlty poleward of the tropicals (around 25-30* N and S) Polar: Within a few degress of the N or S Pole
Calculate the solar altitude given a latitude of interest and the declination of the sun on a given date.
Solar Altitude: the height of the sun at noon Equation: 90 - ( Difference between Your Lat + Sub Solar Point)
Explain the reasons for land and water temperature contrasts, especially the role of specific heat.
Specific Heat: the amount of energy required to change the temperature of a substance. Water has a higher specific heat than land, and thus takes longer/requires more energy (5x) to change temperatures Transmission: Sun's rays penetrate water more deeply than land, resulting in energy being absorbed by a much greater volume of matter, spreading out the warming. On land, all warming is concentrated at surface Mobility: Water is highly mobile, causing broad dispersal of energy through convection.. On land, energy is only dispersed by conduction. Evaporative Cooling: counteracts some of the warming of a water surface.
Differentiate between stable air and unstable air.
Stable: If a parcel of air resists uplift. Not normally associated with cloud formation and precipitation. Colder than surrounding air. Unstable: If parcel of air rises without any external force, clous likely to form. Warmer than surrounding air.
friction layer
The atmospheric layer near the surface usually extending up to about 1 km where the wind is influenced by friction of the Earth's surface and objects on it. the frictional drag of Earth's surface that slows down wind movemnet
condesnation
The change of state from a gas to a liquid. Condensation is a heating process!
occluded front
The cold front catches up to the warm front, and the warm air mass no longer touches the ground. Storms being to stop.
Name and describe the sources of damage associated with tropical cyclones.
The destructive forces associated with hurricanes can be broadly placed into three categories: the storm surge wind damage heavy rains and inland flooding The storm surge associated with hurricanes produces the most damaging and deadliest effect in coastal areas. A storm surge is an abnormal rise in sea level due to the strong winds of a hurricane pushing water onshore. Hurricane Sandy is likely to be the second costliest hurricane in U.S. history, behind only the costs associated with Hurricane Katrina. The shape and characteristics of the coastline (e.g., bays, inlets, narrowing coastlines, gently sloping continental shelf) can influence the height of the storm surge for a specific location, but storm surges are generally greatest in the areas that experience the strongest onshore winds The largest storm surge is generally associated with the strongest winds. In a hurricane, the strongest winds are usually closer to the eye in the portion of the storm where the circulation around the hurricane is in the same direction as the forward motion of the storm as it makes landfall.
tidal range
The difference in levels of ocean water at high tide and low tide
Coriolis effect
The effect of Earth's rotation on the direction of winds and currents. A deflection in the path of free moving objects.
circle of illumination
The great circle that separates daylight from darkness.
Lifting Condensation Level (LCL)
The level at which a parcel of air, when lifted dry adiabatically, would become saturated. the altitude at which an air mass rises high enough to reach its dew point, saturate, condensation begins, and clouds form.
Prime Meridian
The meridian, designated at 0° longitude, which passes through the Royal Observatory at Greenwich, England.
Military Geography
The military evaluation of all geographical factors which may in any way influence military operations
Human Geography
The study of where and why human activities are located where they are
Explain how the Sun provides energy to the Earth's atmosphere in the form of electromagnetic radiation.
The sun functions as an enormous thermonuclear reactor producing energy through nuclear fusion. The Sun then gives off energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation (radiant energy). Electromagnetic radiation entails the flow of energy in the form of waves. Earth intercepts only a small portion of waves because they diverge from a spherical body resulting in their intensity diminishing with increased distance from the sun.
Describe the implications of land-water contrasts on climate.
The warming of Earth's surface is aprimary control of the warming of the air above it. To understand variations in air temperatures, it is useful to understand how different surfaces react to solar energy. Land warms and cools faster and to a greater extent than water, as water has a greater Specific Heat, better transmission, is more mobile, and evaporative cooling.
Universal Time Coordinated (UTC)
The world time standard reference; previously known as Greenwich mean time (GMT).
hurricane
Tropical Cyclones: intense, low-pressure disturbances that develop in the tropics and occasionally move poleward into the midlatitudes. Much smaller than mid latitude cyclones. Develop from minor low-pressure disturbances in the trade winds (such as easterly waves)
Tropical Cyclones (Hurricanes)
Tropical Cyclones: intense, low-pressure disturbances that develop in the tropics and occasionally move poleward into the midlatitudes. Much smaller than mid latitude cyclones. Develop from minor low-pressure disturbances in the trade winds (such as easterly waves) Tropical cyclones, called hurricanes in the Atlantic and eastern Pacific ocean basins, are strong centers of low pressure that form over warm, tropical or subtropical oceans. Winds circulating into a hurricane are deflected to the right in the Northern Hemisphere by the Coriolis force, producing counterclockwise circulation. The reverse is true in the Southern Hemisphere. The very center of the storm is called the eye - the low-pressure center where precipitation ceases and winds decrease. The source of energy to produce and sustain a hurricane is the huge quantity of latent heat liberated when large quantities of water vapor condense into the storm's cumulonimbus towers. A hurricane diminishes in intensity whenever it moves over land because the tropical storm's source of warm, humid air is cut off, and increased surface roughness results in a rapid reduction in surface wind speed.
Describe the structure and characteristics of a cold front and a warm front. Describe the weather conditions typically associated with each. Draw and label a cross-sectional diagram of a cold front and a warm front.
Warm Front: i. Slope: less steep (1:200) ii. Movement: slower than cold front iii. Associated Cloud types: altostratus, cirrus clouds formation ahead of front iv. Typical Precipitation: protracted, broad, gentle precipitation v. Precipitation location: along and in front of the warm front Cold Front: i. Slope: Steep (2x than warm front) ii. Movement: faster than warm front because dense cold air easily displaces lighter warmer air iii. Associated Cloud types: cumulonimbus iv. Typical Precipitation: high intensity, short duration v. Precipitation location: concentrated along and immediately behind ground-level position of the front
Explain the potential links between climate change and tropical cyclones.
Warm water tempertaures, increased rate of sea level rising, lower vertical wind sheer (variation in wind velocity occurring along a direction at right angles to the wind's direction and tending to exert a turning force.)
Explain how phase changes of water are accompanied by exchanges of latent heat. Explain the importance of latent heat exchange as both a warming and a cooling process in the atmosphere.
Water Cycle: Phase Change: Evaporation: Liquid to gas, absorbs latent heat. Evaporation is a cooling process Condensation: Gas to liquid, Latent heat released. Condensation is a warming process.
water vapor
Water vapor, water vapour or aqueous vapor is the gaseous phase of water. It is one state of water within the hydrosphere. Water vapor can be produced from the evaporation or boiling of liquid water or from the sublimation of ice. Unlike other forms of water, water vapor is invisible.Wikipedia. Water vapor is a greenhouse gas.
Explain the difference between weather and climate.
Weather: An almost constant change of state. An infinite variety of conditions and phenomena Climate: the aggregate of day-to-day weather conditions over a long period of time
Explain how physical geography (tides, weather, and terrain) influenced the D-Day invasion and the subsequent battle for Normandy. Provide specific examples.
Where to land? No peninsulas Beaches with firm sand Tidal Range (Large tidal range needed) Answer: Normandy Coast almost perfect for amphibious landings Sites: Operational and Strategic aspects When to land? When in Spring of 1944? Tides, moon, and weather conditions Issue: Long range weather predictions! Optimal tidal conditions only occurred on only three days of each month (June 4-6) In spite of rough conditions during earlier two days, prediction of 36 hour period of good weather June 6, 1944
ozone layer
a layer in the earth's stratosphere at an altitude of about 6.2 miles (10 km) containing a high concentration of ozone, which absorbs most of the ultraviolet radiation reaching the earth from the sun.
Meridian
a line of longitude
greenhouse gases
a number of gases in the atmosphere that readily transmit incoming shortwave radiation from the sun but do not easily transmit outgoing longwave terrestrial radiation.
rain shadow
a region with dry conditions found on the leeward side of a mountain range as a result of humid winds from the ocean causing precipitation on the windward side.
Hadley Cell
a system of vertical and horizontal air circulation predominating in tropical and subtropical regions and creating major weather patterns. the two prominently tropical convection cells which are low latitude cells. Made up of anti trade winds and trade winds.
GPS (global positioning system)
a system that accurately determines the precise position of something on Earth
Given elevation, starting temperature and LCL, calculate the changing temperature of air as it moves over a mountain.
a. Initially unsaturated when it begins to rise over the mountains (cools @ dry adiabatic rate) b. When air parcel reaches the lifting condensation level, air still rise but cools @ saturated adiabatic rate. The condensation forms clouds. c. When the air parcel reaches the summit, it descends down the lee side of the mountain d. Descending air warms at dry adiabatic rate e. By the time the air parcel reaches sea level again, it is significantly warmer and drier (both in terms of relative and absolute humidity) than the beginning
storm surge
an abnormal rise of water generated by a storm, over and above the predicted astronomical tides
source region
an extensive region of the earth's surface where large masses of air having uniform temperature and humidity conditions characteristic of the region originate.
Cyclogenesis
birth of cyclones
Enhanced Fujita Scale
classifies the intensity of a tornado, based on wind speeds and specifically on the types of damage that occur on a scale ranging from eF1 to eF5
Bocage
countryside or landscape marked by intermingled patches of woodland and heath, small fields, tall hedgerows, and orchards. Patchwork of woods and fields creating a wall that could stop tanks. Also reduce effectiveness of ally air force strikes.
Describe the characteristics of midlatitude anticyclones and how they are related to midlatitude cyclones.
high pressure system that has cyclonic (clockwise in northern hemisphere) flow found in the midlatitudes. Associated with calm, fine weather. vs. Mid-Latitude Cyclones: migrating (anticlockwise in NH), low pressure cells that move in band of westerlies
Explain how tornadoes are thought to form. Describe and explain the reasons for the spatial patterns and seasonality of tornadoes.
i. Extreme low pressure cell surrounded by a violently whirling cylinder of wind. ii. Formation ingredients: 1. Contrasting air masses: warm humid air @ surface vs. dry cold air aloft 2. Wind shear (a significant change in wind speed or direction from the bottom to the top of the storm) that will start the rotation 3. Flat expanse (no friction = increased wind speed) All tornadoes are generated by severe thunderstorms, wind sheer, and air mass contrasts. The basic requirement is vertical wind shear, a significant change in wind speed or direction from the bottom to the top of the storm. Because of greater friction near ground, surface winds move faster . Spinning along the horizontal axis leads to an updraft and thunderstorm formation. Spinning air may be titled in a vertical column of spinning air, developing into a mesocyclone. If the mesocyclone touches the ground, a tornado will appear. Tornadoes commonly occur in spring/early summer because of the sharp mid-latitude air mass contrasts. Most occur in mid afternoon, at the time of maximum heating. Flat Land in US leads for optimum tornado development.
Insolation
incoming solar radiation received
Isolines
lines on a map that connect data points of equal value
Multispectral
mulitband, record many bands/regions of the electromagnetic spectrum simultaneously.
solar altitude
the angle of the sun above the horizon at any given latitude
Condensation Nucleii
the collection points for water molecules during condensation
Declination of the Sun(Subsolar Point)
the latitude receiving the vertical rays of the sun (where sun's rays are directly overhead)
Physical Geography
the study of physical features of the earth's surface
buoyancy
the tendency of an object to rise or sink in a fluid or under the influence of gravity
cultural landscape
the visible imprint of human activity and culture on the landscape
Describe the horizontal and vertical circulation of air within cyclones and anticyclones. Describe the typical weather conditions associated with each.
• Cyclones: low-pressure centers with ascending air that move counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere; converge in friction layer; stormy weather • Anti-cyclones: high-pressure centers with descending air that move clockwise in the northern hemisphere; diverge in friction layer; fair weather
Earth's four spheres
• Lithosphere (stone) - solid, inorganic portion of the Earth • Atmosphere (air) - gaseous envelope of air that surrounds the Earth, very dynamic • Hydrosphere (water) - water in all its forms Biosphere (life) - all parts of Earth where living organisms can exist
Factors that cause the annual change of seasons.
• Rotation: diurnal (daily) alternation of daylight and darkness - causes temperature fluctuation. Earth rotates west to east, all parts (except poles) move in a circular fashion around Earth's axis • Revolution: Earth's elliptical orbit around the Sun that takes about 365.25 days • Inclination: Earth's tilt - 23.5° from the perpendicular • Polarity: At any time during the year, Earth's rotational axis points towards North Star (Polaris) *Distance between Earth and Sun does not cause the change of seasons*
Explain how latitudinal variation of the sun modifies the General Circulation of the Atmosphere and creates monsoons on a seasonal basis. Locate the most prominent monsoons around the world
• Shift in subsolar point also shifts the ICTZ creating unequal heating • This creates an onshore flow of wind in the summer and an offshore flow in winter, known as monsoons • Onshore flow carries wind with hot moist air over land leading to heavy rains When sunlight (surface warming) is concentrated in Northern Hemisphere, all components are placed northward. Vice Versa for Southern Hemisphere. This causes rainy seasons. Shifts in pressure zones, a fluctuation in polar front (rain) vs subtropical high (dry). ITCZ leads to rain within 10 degrees north and south (in tropics). Monsoons are the biggest deviation from the general circulation pattern. A strong thermal, warm surface, low pressure cell generated over a continent in summer pulls oceanic air onshore. Similarly, a prominent thermal anticyclone over a continent in winter produces an offshore circulation. These thermally induced pressure differences contribute to monsoon development. Basically, monsoon winds represent unusually large latitude migrations of the trade winds associated with the large seasonal shifts of the ITCZ. Most Prominent Monsoons=South Asian Monsoon, East Asian Monsoon
