Exam #2
What was Hitler's rhetorical question on the Armenian Genocide?
"Who, after all, talks nowadays of the annihilation of the Armenians?" Referring to his orders to "kill without mercy men, women, and children of Polish race or language".
Stalin's Plan
- "Socialism in one country". - Program of extreme/rapid program of industrialization. - 2 principles of genocidal policies. 1. Gulags (prison system). 2. Campaign against peasantry whose grain was needed to feed cities swelled by crash industrialization program. Intersection of two policies. - Waging class warfare in countryside. - Stalin could expropriate holdings of wealthier (or less poor) peasants. - Peasants and forced labor on industrial projects. - Prisoners could also extract natural resources (gold/timber) for selling for hard currency needed to buy industrial machinery and pay foreign advisers.
The Bolshevik Revolution
- 1917 - Took place after centuries of dictatorship and underdevelopment as well as WWI. - Lenin launches coup against weak Kerensky regime. - Quickly signs peace treaty w/ Germany and ends war b/w countries (Russia out of Entente). - Time of civil war which led Stalin and men like him to emerge as leaders.
Cambodia: Colonial period under France
- 19th century, Cambodia fell under sway of French. - Established influence over court of King Norodom (grandfather of Prince Sihanouk who would rule in KR's early year) and he accepted protectorate (state controlled and protected by other state) status. - Provoked Nationalist (a person who advocates political independence for a country) sentiments in Cambodia through economic exploitation and political subordination. - French scholars worked to "recover" a history for Cambodia which bolstered Khmer pride in country's heritage. - Another French contribution to Khmer nationalism was awarding of academic scholarships to Cambodians for study in Paris.
Jews leaving Germany... status of refugees?
- Abandonment of homes and capital meant penury abroad. - Nazis would allow only a fraction of one's wealth to be exported. - Unwillingness of outside world to accept refugees meant many more longed to leave than actually could. - Hundreds committed suicide as Nazis rule imposed them as "social death". - After Kristallnacht, attempts to flee increased dramatically but Western countries basically closed frontiers to would-be emigrants.
Turkey: Denial and Genocide
- According some, it isn't considered genocide or even massacre b/c it was necessary and morally justifiable response to the machinations (crafty plots, schemes) of Armenian rebels (aka Semi-official Turkish attitude towards the Armenian genocide). - Classic genocide denial force-fed to international community by sustained gov't campaign. - Has written Armenians out of history books and systematically destroyed architecture and monuments to erase any physical traces of Armenians. - Denial backed by full force of Turkish state that has pumped substantial funding into public-relations firms and US university endowments (funding) to provide slick and superficially plausible defense of its position. - Turkey has been largely assisted with alliance w/ US due to its help in the Cold War and is funded by not just Turkey but also large number of arms contractors who do business w/ Turkey.
Pol Pot
- Aka Saloth Sar. - "Brother Number One" in party hierarchy. - Became Prime Minister of Democratic Kampuchea during KR's period in power. - Educated in France where he was exposed to political theory. - Returns to his country and wants to change it.
Death Marches Data (Armenian Genocide)
- Armenian pop. led away on foot to wastelands of Deir-el-Zor desert in Syria. - Conditions were calculated to kill tens of thousands en route. - Thousands of cases in which children and women were seized as servants/sex slaves. - Children were kidnapped and placed w/ non-Armenian families in which they would turn kids into Islamic Turks. - For those not abducted, death marched meant extermination. - One convoy: began w/ 18,000 and ended w/ 150. - By 1917, b/w half and 2/3 of Ottoman Armenians had been exterminated. - Russian Armenia: 5 months, 200,000 Armenians of region perished.
What were the myths about the Jews propagated by the Catholic Church?
- Assailed Jews as "thirsty bloodhounds and murders of all Christendom". - "Blood libel": The claim that Jews seized and murdered Gentile children in order to use their blood in the baking of ceremonial bread for Passover celebration.
Prosecution of Turkish officials for the Christian genocides.
- B/w Ottoman collapse and ascendancy of Ataturk regime, at insistence of allies, Turkish gov't - at British insistence - and in hopes of winning more favorable terms from the Allies at the Paris Peace Conference - held series of trials of those accused of directing and implementing Armenian genocide. - Over a 100 former gov't officials were indicted, and a number were convicted and sentenced to death in absentia. - 3 minor figures executed. - In face of opposition and Allied pandering, impetus for justice began to waiver. - Courts refrained from death sentences and found defendants guilty of robbery, plunder, and self-enrichment at expense of victims.
What is meant by the term Christian genocide vs. Armenian genocide?
- Christian Genocide: This framing acknowledges the historic claims of the Assyrian and Greek peoples, and the movements now stirring for recognition and restitution around Greek and Assyrian Diasporas. It also brings to light the staggering cumulative death toll among various Christian groups targeted. - Armenian Genocide: Portrays genocide as a unified campaign against all the empire's minorities; greater justice to minority pop. that have generally been marginalized in the narrative.
Factors for the rise of Khmer Rouge?
- Contingent on events in South Vietnam. - On Vietnamese communist guidance. - On disastrous policies followed by US. - Blunders made by successive Cambodian gov't.
Turkey Post-WWI
- Defeat of Turkey in WWI and subsequent collapse and occupation of the Ottoman Empire offered Armenians an opportunity for national self-determination. - Staged rapid political recovery following military defeat in WWI. - Kemal renounced Treaty of Sevres and reconquered 6 former Ottoman provinces that had been granted to indep. Armenia under Sevres.
What happened in 1915 and what was the Dardanelles Campaign?
- Depicted as the start of the Ottoman genocide of Christians. - In 1915, the allies (WWI) had invaded and was on the door steps of the Ottoman Empire. - Ottoman authorities rounded up Armenian notables (important/famous people) and the CUP's "final solution" to the Armenian "problem" was implemented. - Mostly targeted Greeks rather than Armenians.
Kulaks
- Derogatory term (fist as in tightfisted) but they were basically peasant workers. - They were targeted just as Jews were to Hitler. - Considered enemy of the people. - Peasants that had land holdings and who were better-off peasants or slightly better off. - Communist USSR was suspicious of them. - Their grain is what gives Stalin the ability to modernize USSR. - 1930: Stalin approved their "liquidation". - "Last decayed remnant of capitalism" had to be wiped out.
Holocaust: Death Squad Battalions
- Einsatzgruppen - 4 death-squad battalions w/ some 3,000 men in all who followed behind the regular German army. - Accompanied by SS formations and police units filled out with middle-aged recruits plucked from civilian duty in Germany. - Most of killings occurred before machinery of industrial killing was formed in death camps of Poland in 1942. - Continued mercilessly thereafter, hunting down the last Jews still in flight or hiding.
Adolf Hitler: Enabling Act of 1933
- Gave Hitler Carte Blanche to terroize and neutralize all effective political opposition. - Nazis' stance against Jews became plain. - W/ in months, Jews saw their businesses placed under Nazi boycott, mass dismissal from hospitals, schools, and civil service, as well as public book burning of Jewish works.
Gendercide and the Armenian Genocide
- Gendercide committed against Armenian men. - This was aimed at stripping Armenian community of those who might mobilize to defend it. - All Armenian men in military were stripped of their ranks, made into workmen and made them work to death, or shot them in cold blood.
Prince Sihanouk and his policies toward peasants and protesters.
- His police had been quietly implementing a campaign of gov't murder and oppression against communists in countryside. - Launched a crackdown on members of the urban left whom he had not fully co-opted. - He discovers Cambodia has good sugar production and builds refines by taking away lands of people w/o compensation. - They take arms and kill 2 soldiers and then he kills every person by chopping their heads off. - Cities were appalled.
Cambodia: Collectivization
- Imputed to peasants a desire for agricultural collectivization that was alien to Cambodia.
Who were the triumvirate of Turkey? What is the significance of a triumvirate?
- In 1913, the CUP launched a coup against moderates and took power. A de facto dictatorship was established by the triumvirate: 1. Minister of Internal Affairs Talat Pasha. 2. Minister of War Enver Pasha 3. Minister of Navy Jemal Pasha - It was significant because they would be the "Special Operations" of the CUP that would plan and oversee the genocides of the Christian minorities w/ affiliates in the Anatolia region serving as ground-level organizers.
What happened in Gallipolli? Significance for modern day Turkey?
- In 1915, the allies staged an attempted invasion of Turkey at Gallipolli. - Lasted nine months in which allies attempted to reach straits only to be stopped by fierce Turkish resistance. - Allies withdrew after suffering 10 of thousands of causalities, mostly from disease. - It is likely if invasion had succeeded, genocide against Armenians may not have occurred. - Significant for modern-day Turkey b/c it is one way they maintain their denial of the Armenian genocide.
Modern day Armenia: When and how was it created?
- It was created after WWI in 1918. - Declared in southwest portion of Transcaucasia, historically Armenian territory under Russian sovereignty. - Wilson granted right to delimit new Armenian nation formalized in Treaty of Sevres in 1920. - Wilson supervised drawing of boundaries which included parts of historic Ottoman Armenia in eastern Turkey. - Kemal (Turkey) renounced Treaty of Sevres and reconquered 6 former Ottoman provinces that had been granted to indep. Armenia under Sevres. - Remainder of Armenia swallowed by new USSR. - Brief cooperation b/w nationalist and soviets, soviets tool complete control in 1921. - In 1936, separate Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic created.
What was the attack on Van?
- Just as the Allied were about to invade Dardanelles, the Turkish army launched an assault on Armenians in the city of Van, who were depicted as traitorous supporters of the Russian enemy. - It provided the excuse for a full-blown genocide. - Armenians of Van organized a desperate resistance that succeeded in fending off the Turks for weeks. - Eventually, resistance was crushed and justification for genocide was removing a population sympathetic to the Russian army.
USSR and Armenia
- Kemal (Turkey) renounced Treaty of Sevres and reconquered 6 former Ottoman provinces that had been granted to indep. Armenia under Sevres. - Remainder of Armenia swallowed by new USSR. - Brief cooperation b/w nationalist and soviets, soviets tool complete control in 1921. - In 1936, separate Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic created.
Ataturk and Armenia
- Kemal renounced Treaty of Sevres and reconquered 6 former Ottoman provinces that had been granted to indep. Armenia under Sevres. - Gained strength in revolution after minor figures in orchestration of genocide were executed. - Nationalist sentiment in Turkey exploded.
Holocaust in Cambodia Dates and Figures
- Lasted from 1975 to 1979. - One of worst genocides relative to pop. in recorded history. - Less than 4 years (mostly final 2) mass killings occurred to anyone precieved as enemy. - Indirect killings through disease, privation (a state in which things that are essential for human well-being such as food and warmth are scarce or lacking), and ultimately famine. - Death toll estimate: 1.7 - 1.9 million out of pop. of just under 8 million in 1975 (21-24% of pop. died in short 4 years). - Life was tolerable in first 2 years as terror had not descended in full force. - Most exterminatory period: 1978 (prior to Vietnam invasion = quarter of a million people died in the Eastern zone.
Germany and the Jews prior to WWII.
- Late 19th century and early 20th century were seen as something of Golden Age for Jews in France, Britain, and Germany. - Germany was widely viewed as one of the more tolerant of Jews European societies. - Prussia was the 1st German state to grant citizenship to its Jews as early as 1812. - German society was tolerant and progressive in many ways but German politics were never liberal or democratic.
Stages in the destruction of Armenian culture?
- Looting and pillaging were accompanied by campaign to destroy Armenian culture. - Monuments and churches were dynamited. - Graveyards were plowed under and turned into fields of corn and wheat. - Armenian quarters of cities were torn down and used for firewood and scrap and/or occupied and renamed.
Stigmatization of the Jews in Europe
- Medieval Christianity: Held Jews to violate the moral order of the world. - They stood in defiant opposition to the otherwise universally accepted conception of God and Man, denigrating and defiling, by their very existence, all that is sacred. - Came to represent symbolically and discursively (reason rather than intuition) much of the evil in the world.
Kristallnacht
- Night of Broken Glass (Nov 10th - 11th, 1938). - A proto-genocidal assault that assaulted Jewish property, residences, and persons. - Several dozens were killed outright. - Billions of deutschmarks in damage inflicted. - Some 30,000 male Jews rounded up and imprisoned in concentration camps. - Attempts to flee increased dramatically.
Eliticide in Constantinople.
- On April 24th, eliticide in Constantinople, and other major cities, hundreds of Armenian notables (important/famous people) were rounded up and imprisoned. - Great majority were subsequently murdered, or tortured and worked to death in isolated locales. - It was followed by a coordinated assault on Armenians throughout most of the Armenian populated zone.
Venice and the first ghetto?
- Placed all Jews in these ghettos (means restricted area) by relocating them there. - Allowed them to keep practicing religion but had to wear sign of id.
Ancient Kingdom of Angkor 12th Through 14th Centuries
- Powerful nation w/ sizable territories that today belong to neighbors (parts of Laos, Thailand, Burma, and Vietnam). - At height of power built temples of Angkor Wat (world's largest religious complex) thus has served as Cambodia's (and Khmer Rogue) national symbol.
Cambodia: Private vs public property
- Private property was banned/abolished. - Everything belonged to the people.
The Ukraine
- Secret instructions to withdraw death registration books from village councils. - Famine = "food difficulties". - Holodomor: "hunger extermination". - Ethnic Ukrainians were majority of deaths.
Nuremberg Laws of 1935
- Stripped Jews of citizenship - Gave legal shape to the Nazis' race-based theories: intermarriage or sexual intercourse b/w Jews and non-Jews was prohibited. - Designates whose a Jew and who isn't (based on grandparents, either Jewish or half-breed).
What is the difference between a sultanate vs. a republic?
- Sultanate: Government in which a sultan is in charge (aka a king/ruler of a Muslim state/country). - Republic: A country that is governed by elected representatives and by an elected leader rather then king/queen.
What was the CUP?
- The CUP stood for the Committee of Union and progress and they were the new Ottoman rulers after it overthrew the sultanate gov't. - Members were split into liberal-democratic (late-imperial paranoid chauvinism) and authoritarian factions (burgeoning ethnic nationalism, still informed by Islam).
Adolf Hitler: National Workers Party or Nationalist Socialist German Workers Party
- The NSDAP aka the Nazi Party. - Founded by Hitler and others. - Hitler assumed task of resurrecting Germany and imposing its hegemony (leadership/dominance) on all Europe. - Was a result of Weimar Rep. hyperinflation and reparations. - Result was political extremism that blames Jews for the war. - 1933: Becomes Chancellor. - After death of fuhrer he becomes fuhrer. - Once in power, w/ in 3 months, had seized total control of German state (made illegal/rid of all political parties, trade unions, and democracy).
Young Turks??? (Young Turk Racial Theory)
- The Young Turks were a revolution that was led by a group of modernization-minded military officers in 1908 which overthrew the Ottoman sultanate. - Connected Turks with the heroic Mongols, and contrasted them with inferior and untrustworthy Greeks, Armenians, and Jews.
How were chettes used in the Greek persecution and destruction?
- There were created into "chette" bands. - Since they were the most humiliated and disposed, they were encouraged to avenge themselves on Christians. - They were mobilized for genocidal service under the gendarmerie control.
Who were the chettes?
- They were Rumeli refugees or Muslim populations "cleansed" from the Balkans by Christian terror. - Also the most humiliated and disposed of the population.
Forced Relocation of Kulaks
- Transfers them to Gulags in Siberia. - Once they arrived there is nothing. - Survival rate was about a month or so due to lack of food, housing, and the fact that there was nothing there! Only ice and snow. - No preparations made for their arrivals. - Genocide implemented through intentional negligence and wilful disregard for subsistence needs.
Cambodia: Indoctrination
- Transforming all "New" people (urbanites) to "base" type of people.
Who was Mustafa Kemal Ataturk??
- Turkey's new leader following WWI and Ottoman Empire's military defeat. - He was known as "Ataturk" or "father of the Turks". - Repelled the Greek invasion of Anatolia through bloody and indiscriminate measures. - Renounced the Sevres Treaty (which was meant to create an Armenian independent nation that included parts of historic Ottoman Armenia in Eastern Turkey). - Declared that Armenia be annihilated politically and physically. - His forces invaded and reconquered 6 of former Ottoman provinces that had been granted to indep. Armenia under Sevres. - Wanted to expel foreign occupiers and restore Anatolia as heartland of post-Ottoman state. - Modernized Turkey. - Led to further massacres due to his rebirth of Turkish nationalism (mostly Kurdish minority).
Turkey vs. Ottoman Empire
- Turkey: A democracy, policies targeting Christian minorities (more specifically Armenians), were allowed to keep their religion. - Ottoman Empire: Everyone had full constitutional rights (but had to pay more taxes), were allowed to be involved in gov't, it was a monarch.
Czar Nicholas II and the Imperial Family.
- Turns power over to Kerensky after population face famine due to WWI and growing of popular and elite opposition. - Successor continues to fight the war thus leading Bolshevik party of Lenin to take over.
Vietnam War and the US
- US feared domino effect of communism (rationale: one falls, they all do). - Secret bombings on Cambodia since viet cong were hiding there. - KR had communist ideology yet US backed them up b/c they were against Vietnam (contradictory position: communism vs Communism). - This was before Pol Pot came into power.
War and Revolution (1970-75)
- Vietnam war spills into Cambodia. - 1970: War spreads accoss Cambodia and extension of Vietnamese power provided powerful boost for KR, including vital training. - Vietnamese urged restraint on Cambodian communist allies of US. - Vietnamese occupation of Cambodian border ares provoked 2 major responses from US. 1. 1970: US support for coup against Prince Sihanouk whom they saw as dangerous socialist and neutralist. - He was replace by his former right-hand man Lon Nol. - Lon Nol repaid benefactors by inviting US and S. Vietnam to launch invasion of Cambodian territory which lasted 3 months. 2. US Escalation: From 1970, the saturation bombing campaign first launched against Vietnamese border sanctuaries in Cambodia in 1969. Impact was devastating. - All important factors in bringing KR to power.
Adolf Hitler: Imprisonment and Mein Kampf
- Was a decorated WWI veteran. - Epic hatred of Jews ("black parasites of nation") as seen in his manifesto (Mein Kampf aka My Struggle). - Wrote it while imprisoned following an abortive coup attempt in 1923. - Obsessed with racial superiority.
Weimar Republic hyperinflation and War reparations?
- Weimar Republic: Political order established after Germany lost WWI. - It was democratic but fragile, it resided over economic chaos: Hyperinflation of 1923 saw German mark slip to 4.2 trillion to the dollar and then widespread unemployment of the Great Depression beginning in 1929. - Due to all the reparations demanded by the allies.
Holocaust: Death Camps
1. Auschwitz: Complex of 3 camps and numerous satellites. - Auschwitz II (Birkenau): Operated as main killing center. - Zyklon B: Cyanide gas in crystal form was overwhelmingly means of murder at Auschwitz. 2. Poland: Nearly 2 million Jews died by gas, shootings, beatings, and starvation at other death camps. - Camp system in general was lethal for Jews. - Well over a million died outside the death camps by starvation, disease, and slave labor.
Base People vs. New People
1. Base People: - Peasantry (KR base of support). - Received more food than new. - Had easier tasks in village. 2. New People: - Deported city-folk. - Reception of new from base people would either be friendly welcome from peasants or peasants wanted revenge due to US bombing campaign and violence/upheaval from civil war. - Subaltern genocide: "Genocide by oppressed" against those seen as oppressors. - Lowest in village structure. - No freedom of speech and had to obey other classes.
Holocaust: Catholic Church and Allies
1. Catholic Church - Pope Pius XII's placating of Nazi Germany and silence on persecution of Jews was notorious. - Could not offer them anything other than prayers. - W/ in Germany, churches did nothing, strove not to notice, thereby facilitating genocide. - German church campaigns partially responsible for running euthanasia underground after 1941. - When it came to defending co-parishioners whom Nazis deemed of Jewish origin, both Church and members drove them away from community. 2. Allies - WWII could have been avoided if Allies had stopped Nazi Germany when it was still weak but no one knew a Holocaust was even possible. - Allies, haunted by WWI, sought appeasement rather than confrontation. - Evian Conference (1938): Brought together reps. of Western countries to address Jewish plight (dangerous/difficult situation). - Ducked its responsibility by not opening borders to Jews thus humiliating Jews further and delighting Hitler. - Highlighted hypocrisy of West's humanitarian rhetoric. - Details of killing operations were known to Allies early on. - Jews were not a military priority even if more effective means could have been found to help them (allied bombing argument).
Communist Party of Cambodia and the French Communist Party
1. Communist Party of Cambodia: - Anti-imperialist. - Official name of the Khmer Rogue. - Proved as xenophobic and expansionist as any regime in modern Asian history. 2. French Communist Party: - Had led resistance to Nazi occupation. - Emerged as powerful presence in postwar politics. - Was in its high-Stalinist phase, supporting campaigns against "enemies of the people".
Genocide Ideology (Cambodia)
1. Doesn't say "exterminate" but rather "reeducation". - Wolf in sheep's clothing. - From walking to countryside to working to going hungry. - Idea behind reeducation was to take over Vietnam. 2. New People - No one could remain in cities. - No trains, public transportation (made them stand out even more and hated more). - Devalued them. - Most people adapted to the situation (will to survive). - Best way to mold someone was to isolate them (jungle/countryside). - Might not be able to survive so bonus for KR if people died on the way.
France vs. Vietnam and the impact on the Communist party members?
1. France: - Provoked nationalist sentiments through economic exploitation and political subordination. - Through efforts of French scholars who worked to "recover" a history for Cambodia. - Awarding academic scholarships to Cambodians for study in Paris in which that time, French capital was rich environment for revolutionary ferment. - Provided prosecution-free environment in which revolutionaries from Global south could meet and plot. - Was in its high-Stalinist phase, supporting campaigns against "enemies of the people" and thought violence and armed revolt cleanse mind of 3rd world people and rid them of colonial mentalities. 2. Vietnam: - Returning students flocked to Indochinese Communist Party which united communist movements in Vietnam and Cambodia. - Tensions soon developed b/w two wings. - Cambodian felt they had to carry excrement (shit) for the Vietnamese. - 1954: Vietnamese victory over French and signing of Geneva Accords, they withdrew of Cambodia. - Split Cambodian party membership by transferring some 1,000 cadres to Vietnam, leaving same amount in Cambodia. - North Vietnamese supported neutralist and anti-imperialist Prince rather than aiding rebellion of Cambodian communist "brothers".
Genocide stages in the Ottoman persecution of the Christian minorities?
1. Greek communities were driven from homes by terrorism. 2. Houses, land, and movable property were seized. 3. Indiv. were killed in the process. - What happened to Greeks basically happened to the rest of the minorities just with starker emphasis on direct killing. - Stages worked so well they were applied to all other races in Ottoman Empire.
Khmer Ideology
1. Hatred of "enemies of the people". - Visceral hatred of revolution's enemies. - Basically anyone who was not Cambodian (Vietnamese, Chinese, Muslim Chams, other ethnic minorities). - "Enemy of people" = intellectuals. - Targeted rich, professionals, "imperialist stooges", and educated class. - Purge on basis of subversion (overthrowing) or betrayal of the revolution from within. 2. Xenophobia and messianic nationalism. - Believed in ability to reclaim "lost" territories from S. Vietnam. - Territory ambition combined w/ fear and hatred of ethnic Vietnamese (historic enemy and betrayer of Cambodian communism). - Racism and xenophobia produced annihilation ideology that depicted Vietnamese minority as a deadly internal threat to survival of Khmer nation. - Xenophobia led to Cambodian invasions of Vietnamese territory. 3. Peasantism, anti-urbanism, and primitivism. - Peasants guardians of true and pure Cambodia. - Attacked 3 foundations of peasant life: 1) Religion, 2) Land, 3) Family (which all proved to be big mistake for KR). - Rejected Buddhism, revived corvee system, and sought to destabilize and dismantle family unit. - Drove those in urban cities out of cities to "re-educate them". - City = advancement, industrialization, etc. - Abandoned market and economy (Marxist thinking to primitive communist phase of social evolution). - Believed (primitivism) in peasant untapped potential. 4. Purity, discipline, and militarism. - Peasants were idealized. - Obsessed with racial purity. - Purity defined by class origin, unswerving loyalty to revolutionary principle and practice. - Self-discipline (sex before marriage punishable by death). - Militarism: Reflected in forces evacuations of cities, heavy reliance on armed forces rather than civilian cadres for administration, total absence of political education. - Hypocrites (leaders) due to fact none of them were ever part of peasant class. - Cities physically collapsed when abandoned.
Term Holocaust vs. Genocide
1. Holocaust: - Greek origin of whole and burnt. - Specifically referring to the Jewish genocide. - Jews unique targets of Nazis. 2. Genocide: - Genocide studies is really the outgrowth of the study of the Holocaust.
Legislative enactments against Armenian population?
1. Temporary Law of Deportation 2. Temporary Law of Confiscation and Expropriation -People were called by town criers into the central town square and would tell them to sell all their possessions because they would be deported. - Local populations eagerly exploited Armenian's dispossession. - Was seen as a "feast" in which military and locals were "invited" and were given permission to loot and pillage. - It was seen as a "get rich quick" opportunity. - Turkish "holiday" in which people would actually dressed up in gala attire. - Armenian property was expropriated (take away property, done by state) and justified it by saying it was abandoned. - Any property was redistributed by the gov't to the Muslim pop.
Urbicide and Year Zero
1. Urbicide: Deliberate attempts at annihilation of cities as mixed physical, social, and cultural spaces. - Cities seen as cesspools of corruption and foreign-affiliated cliques requiring "cleansing" and "purifying" by genocidal agents. - W/ in hours, KR rounded up capital's (Phnom Pehn) 2 million residents and deported them to countryside. - New life of repression for urbanites. - Countryside served as backdrop for assault. 2. Year Zero: Declared in 1975; beginning of time (Pol Pot's idea of recreating Khmer Kingdom in his own image).
Acknowledgment of the Armenian genocide: Who, what, where, and when?
1. Who? - Twenty countries (most in Europe), the European Parliament, the UN, and the International Association of Genocide Scholars. - In 1998, French passed resolution recognizing genocide, despite Turkish objections and threats of economic reprisals against French Co.s. - In 2004, Canada recognized as genocide. 2. What? - Resolutions of acknowledgement. 3. Where? - Most of Europe. - Not the US as a whole country (but some states have). 4. When? - Late 20th Century to 21st Century.
Other targets of the Cambodian genocide?
15% of pop (ethnic minorities exposed to atrocities and extermination). 1. Buddhists suffered immensely w/ destruction nearly complete. - Religious institutions emptied and obliterated. - Monks sent to countryside or executed (succumbed to hard labor, disease, torture, or massacre). - Alive: 3,000 of 60,000. 2. Local Vietnamese (estimate that 100% perished under KR). 3. Muslim Chams despised due to religion and ethnicity. - Religion banned, schools closed, leaders massacred, villages razed and dispersed. - 1/3 of 250,000 gone. 4. Chinese pop.: hard to distinguish action based on race or urbanite "new" people. - Only 1/2 of 430,000 survived. 5. Thai Minority: 20,000 to 8,000. 6. Lao Minority: 800 families of 1800. 7. Kola Minority: No trace has been found.
Lon Nol and the US
1970: US support for coup against Prince Sihanouk whom they saw as dangerous socialist and neutralist. - He was replace by his former right-hand man Lon Nol. - Lon Nol repaid benefactors by inviting US and S. Vietnam to launch invasion of Cambodian territory which lasted 3 months.
Disintegration of the Ottoman Empire
After WWI ended, the Ottoman Empire (being on the losing team) was partitioned by France and Great Britain. Modern-day Turkey was formed as a democracy (civilians becoming leaders) and independent country.
Holocaust: Antisemitism in Europe (Provide Specific Examples).
Antisemitism: Term that means hostility and prejudice against Jews. - Used to justify their hatred. - They were responsible for the death of Jesus (despite fact that Pontius Pilate authorizes death of Jesus). - Jews had rejected Jesus thus seen as much of the evil in the world. - Since the middle ages, random and not so random routinely done against Jews (scapegoats). - Anti-Jewish pogroms: Localized campaigns of violence, killing, and repression. - 1492: Rounded out and expelled from Spain and Portugal when they refused to convert to Christianity.
The Final Solution
Basically genocide of all European Jews (answer to the "Jewish question"). - 1941: Jews in all of occupied Europe are moved to be exterminated (start of final solution). - Anything they could do to was exterminate the "race" (Hitler made Judaism a race). - Yellow star of David had to be worn by Jews. - Pink for homosexuals and gypsies. - Went from Polish ghettos to Auschwitz (created way of killing more efficiently w/ gas chambers). - Concentration camps vs. death camps: labor (left) vs. death (right). - 1941-1944: War takes turn (US enters) and they continue to push for Jewish annihilation. - Camps were placed outside Germany to fulfill fantasy of "Greater Germany" thus in Poland. - Worst human rights violations in name of "science". - Tried to cover up camps by creating model camp (for show) that had proper accommodations, schools, and looked hospitable. - Architect of final solution: Heinrich Himmler
Penalty for defying the collectivization of wheat and other products?
Death.
Stalin and the Forced Famines (1932-33)
Due to collectivization and grain seizures. - Stalin cared little as in his mind famine was price of progress and national security. - Had emergency stockpiles (but like the Brits to the Indians) he didn't feed the million of peasants dying from hunger and instead exported tons of cereal to honor debts to Germany and buy machines to accelerate his industrialization process. - Could have fed all starving peasants. - 1930-1933: 5.7 million deaths.
Use of children as enforcement policy?
Enforcement of rules and laws were children. - Used as informants (from 6 year to about 13). - "Watch dogs"/Tattle-tails. - Didn't matter if they were base or new b/c they were so young.
Feudalism and Serf Population
Feudalism was practiced by Russia prior to Rev. - If you were on a certain land, you stayed there (peasants) and worked 364 days a year (only day off = Christmas). - Agrarian Society: Acquired wealth from crops.
Gulag
Forced labor camps/prisons.
What was the Ottoman Empire?
Founded by the Turks, it replaced the Byzantine Empire after ottomans (Turkish warriors that fought Byzantine). It lasted 600+ years and ended in 1922 and replaced by the Republic of Turkey. It consisted of Hungry, Balkan Region, Greece, parts of Ukraine, Iraq, Syria, Israel, Egypt, Northern Africa, and parts of Arabian peninsula. The Empire was not interested in converting its people but rather giving rights (as long as you payed double the taxes of the Ottomans). It also allowed people to engage in gov't and rise in "power" and have higher statuses. Included large groups of different people that led to "blame games".
Indochinese Communist Party vs. Communist Party of Cambodia vs. Communist Party of Vietnam
Indochinese Communist Party - Students returning from France flocked to party which consisted of both Cambodia and Vietnam.
Lenin, Trotsky, and Stalin
Intellectuals were inspired by Marx. 1. Lenin Trotsky: 1st president after Bolshevik Revolution. - "Enemies of people". - "War Communism": Economic policy repealed peasant's land seizures, forcibly stripped countryside of grain to feed city dwellers, and suppressed private commerce (was later repealed after Lenin won civil war in order to restore economy). - Dies in 1924 after strokes and assassination attempt. 2. Stalin: Manages to rise to power despite not being Russian/true blood Russian (Georgia). - Logistics man (numbers). - "Man of Steel" - General Secretary of Communist Party in 1922. - Used to build power base and establish control over party bureaucracy. 3. Trotsky: Death of Lenin led to power struggle b/w him and Stalin. - Host of lesser figures. - Nemesis of Stalin. - Eventually expelled from party and then from the USSR.
WWI and the Central Powers
It was fought, predominantly by the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungry, and the Ottoman Empire) and the Triple Entente (France, Great Britain, and Russia). Later on, Russia would leave and the U.S. would take its place.
Holocaust: Jewish Resistance
Jews found ways to resist by: - Going into hiding. - Struggling to preserve Jewish culture and creativity. - Even launching armed uprisings (the Warsaw ghetto uprising peaked in April-May 1943 and mass escape from Sobibor death camp in Oct. 1943). - Jews joined armed forced of Allies or fought as partisans (member of an irregular military force formed to oppose control of an area by a foreign power) behind German lines. - Fought against hunger and starvation, disease, against traitors w/ in own ranks, economic blockade, and were alone in their fight.
Holocaust: Prewar persecutions and the euthanasia campaign
Jews were not only ones that were targets, and for some years they were not the main ones. - Communists and other political opponents, handicapped and senile Germans, homosexuals, Roma, Polish intellectuals, vagrants, and other "asocial" elements occupied attention of Nazis during this period. - First part of extermination to go were the disabled/handicapped (euthanasia) by recruiting men and women to easily due the killings according to Nazis. - Euthanasia campaign served as trial run for Holocaust. - Second part was political opposition in order for the Nazi party to be the majority and to have no one question what they were doing. -Political opponents, handicapped, and senile most at risk of extreme physical violence, torture, and murder.
What is the significance of April 24th?
Known and commemorated by Armenians around the world as "Genocide Memorial Day".
What were the pogroms?
Localized campaigns of violence, killing, and repression.
Geography of Cambodia
Located in South East Asia, bordered by Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam.
Collectivization
Of the countryside for the grain to feed cities. - Tax imposed on peasants exceeded amount that could be harvested thus leading to famine (in Ukraine and other territories).
Cambodia: Summary Executions
Only need an accusation to be executed.
How was Pontian Greek's destruction different from the Armenian population?
Rather than just straight up massacre (like they did with the Armenians), Turkey deported Pontian Greeks and made them walk while the refugees were exhausted.
Vietnam vs. Cambodia
Rivalry w/ Vietnam and desire to reclaim "lost" Cambodian territories fueled Khmer Rouge fanaticism.
Ghettoization
The confinement of Jews in overcrowded neighborhoods of major cities. - Argument that with ghettoization came genocidal intent. - Nazis created inhuman conditions: overcrowding, deliberate starvation, disease got rid of Jews through "natural wastage". - 100s of thousands of Jews who dies in ghettos numbered among victims of Holocaust. - Unemployment, hunger, poverty, and overpopulation. - Lack of medicine. - Created walls w/ barbed wire and had 1 entrance and 1 exit. - Council of Jews reported to Nazis.
Indochine
The three states of Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia formerly associated with France.
Who were the Pontian Greeks?
They were a Christian minority in the Ottoman Empire that were slaughtered from 1914 to 1922. They had been vulnerable ever since their linguistic brethren in Greek mainland had become the first to successfully fling off Ottoman dominion. - "Great Unweaving": beginning of Ottoman Empire dismantlement.
Holocaust: Mass Murder
To reduce stress on killers and increase efficiency of killing, the industrialized "death camp" and its gas chamber moved to fore. - Both were refinements of existing institutions and tech. 1. Death camps grew out of concentration-camp system Nazis had established back in 1933. 2. Killings by gas were first employed in 1939 as part of "euthanasia" campaign that was vital forerunner of genocide of Jews. - Precise point when genocidal campaign turned root-and-branch extermination. - Gas chambers allowed for desired psychological distance b/w victims and their killers. - Tens of thousands died on forced marches.
Bombing of Cambodia
US Escalation: From 1970, the saturation bombing campaign first launched against Vietnamese border sanctuaries in Cambodia in 1969. Impact was devastating. - Lon Nol, after becoming leader of Cambodia, repaid US by allowing it to bomb Cambodian territory that bordered Vietnam. - Secret bombings as Viet Cong were hiding there. - Drought and enemies die. - Rice production comes to a halt. - US contributed to radicalism of peasants whom became strong and joined Khmer Rogue (fully communist society belief).
Ho Chi Minh Trail
Used to transport weapons/supplies from N. Vietnam to guerrillas in the South through Laos and Eastern Cambodia. - US bombs trail which included portions of Cambodia. - Push Viet cong into Cambodia and they come to control significant territory in border areas.
Vietnamese Occupation of Cambodia
Vietnam war spills into Cambodia. - 1970: War spreads accoss Cambodia and extension of Vietnamese power provided powerful boost for KR, including vital training. - Vietnamese urged restraint on Cambodian communist allies of US. - Vietnamese occupation of Cambodian border ares provoked 2 major responses from US. 1. Coup against Prince. 2. Escalation of bombings.
Prince Sihanouk and the US
Vietnamese occupation of Cambodian border ares provoked 2 major responses from US. 1. 1970: US support for coup against Prince Sihanouk whom they saw as dangerous socialist and neutralist. - He was replace by his former right-hand man Lon Nol. - Lon Nol repaid benefactors by inviting US and S. Vietnam to launch invasion of Cambodian territory which lasted 3 months. 2. US Escalation: From 1970, the saturation bombing campaign first launched against Vietnamese border sanctuaries in Cambodia in 1969. Impact was devastating.
Aftermath of the Cambodian Genocide
Waited 5 years after death of Pol Pot death to prosecute b/c they wanted to establish a better justice system since Cambodia was the only country involved. - No one had dogs in fight. - Did have genocide and war crimes but they claimed they were just doing "policy" in their own country. - Absence of the ICC. - $250 million over budget to bring a few people to justice. - Organize tribunal (eventually) but the question was whether it would be outside or in Cambodia. - Tribunal starts in 2003 (genocide ended in 1975). - 2006: Joint tribunal after Cambodia asks UN for help to establish one (in mid 90's). - Convicted/executed only 3 people out of 2 million dead. - Prosecutor chose not to charge genocide against leaders b/c they weren't ready for it, difficult to prove, what was the intent?
What was the CUP's secret memo?
Wanted to form an empire that would unite all Turkish people and stretch from Constantinople to central Asia that specifically excluded non-Muslim minorities. The secret memo ("final solution" of Ottoman Empire") consisted of: 1. Gendercide: kill all Armenian men under age of 50. 2. Close all Armenian society's, organizations, etc. 3. Send them to Baghdad or Mosul or wipe them out before they get there. 4. Keep females so they can be converted to Islam.
Nuremberg Trials
Was meant to prosecute Nazis who played a key role in the Holocaust. - 12 sentenced to death, 2 weren't hanged. - 24 accused. - Hermann Göring: Chief defendant, was to be successor of Hitler, was captured (thought he would be great to be tried), convicted but committed suicide before the day of his hanging.
Comrade Duch
Was the only senior official that was convicted.
Wehrmacht Army and the idea of the gentleman opponent?
Wehrmact Army = regular German army. - Western allies preferred to view them as "gentlemanly" opponents b/c German army was reconstructed as ally by both sides in cold war thus leading to myth that they had acted "honorably" in occupied territories. - Permeated to core by Nazis' racist ideology, they were key to engineering mass murder of 3.3 million Soviet POWs. - Also central to the perpetration of Jewish Holocaust. - General lent own men to their own men, ordinary soldiers, to assist in massacres. - Some came as spectators, taking photographs, and volunteering to be shooters.
