Exam 2 Chapter 7-12
Piaget's peroperational stage
- 2nd stage in cognitive development - 18-24 months to 6 years - Increased proficiency of symbol use (models, maps, graphics symbols) - Increased proficiency in thinking and communication but difficulty in logical thinking - pretend play
Psycho-social theory of childhood social development
- Freud and Erikson saw the changing role of the parent as the child exerts more control on the environment - Did not talk about peers or other significant in development
Language Development Terminology
- Phoneme: language's most fundamental element - Morpheme: smallest meaningful unit of a language - vowel: the most prominent sound in a word - consonant: speech sound caused by closure at one or more points in the breath channel - expressive language: ability to produce language accurately - receptive language: a child's ability to understand language or words
Toddler and Early Childhood: Cognitive Development
- Piaget's 2nd cognitive developmental stage includes sub-stage pre-conceptual thought for children 2-4 years old. This stage provides the basis for future cognitive development - When preschoolers have new experiences, they structure them in light of their existing mental schemes or create new ones -> mental structures become more detailed and elaborate
custodial grandparents
- aging and parenting stress cause anxiety and depression - attempts to measure caregiving effectiveness are often cofounded by the traumatic circumstances leading to grandparent placements
cognitive developmental process- symbolic functioning
- allows child's thinking to become more flexible and elaborate-> not restricted to the here and now - can be observed in play behaviors-> make believe play
centration- animism
- belief that all things have lives - e.g. children tend to refer to inanimate objects (non-living objects) as if they have life-like qualities and are capable of actions - children consider these objects as having emotions, motives, intentions, thoughts, and desires
toddler and early childhood: language development
- by age 4 the child will have a vocabulary of 2000 words with an increase of 600 words per year - Influences on language development: - socioeconomic status - gender - native intellect - bilimgualism - twinship - central nervous system
Influences on the development of gender identity: stereotypes continued
- preschooler (3-5 year olds) believe boys are physically aggressive and girls are verbally aggressive - 5 year olds believe boys are strong and dominant while girls are emotional and gentle and males will have more prestigious jobs (earn money, have greater power) - recognize gender stereotypes as behavioral guidelines that are not necessarily binding
From infant development: Review & Warm up -> think, pair, share
- psycho-social development - cognitive development - language development - motor development
IQ testing
- stable/predictable= correlation is .70 for IQ scores and pre-academic skills. Correlation .50-.60 with school grades. Strong but not perfect. - Limitations= IQ tests do not measure underlying competence or capacity is. Do not indicate or measure creativity, understanding of spatial relationships, etc. - heredity= twin studies show strong hereditary influence with identical twins yet studies with children who were adopted shows environmental impacts
Characteristics of preoperational thought
- symbol- one thing can stand for another - egocentrism- see the world as i do - centration- focus on one variable at a time- things appear to be alive - conservation- matter can change in appearance
Brain changes in early childhood- lateralization
- the left and right halves of the brain's cerebral cortex execute different functional specializations - contributes to important neurological milestones in early childhood
Social- cognitive theory con't
- understanding rule categories - social conventions (rules that serve to regulate behavior) - moral rules (regulations based on individual or society's sense of right and wrong) - increased cognitive capabilities and adult emphasis - understanding of cultural racial stereotypes and prejudices is slowly acquired
Influences on the development of gender identity: actual gender-related differences
- verbal ability: girl toddlers have larger vocabularies and are able to read, write and spell better than boys and they tend to have fewer language problems - mathematics: in cultures not limiting females to traditional stereotypes, this gender gap has diminished in the past 25 years - spatial ability: from infancy onwards, boys more accurately and rapidly solve visual-spatial problems
Kohlberg's three stages of gender identity
1. gender labeling: understanding that one is a girl or boy and labeling the self as such (2-3 years) 2. gender stability: understanding that one will forever be a boy or girl 3. gender constancy: understanding that one's maleness or femaleness does not transform across situations, or with personal wishes and superficial changes (4 to 7 years)
definition of gender identity=
an individual's internal sense of being male, female or other - gender identity may differ from gender expression and/or a persons identified sex at birth
Gender-schema theory (carol martin, 1999; 2004)
attempts to address how children learn about gender and gender roles; children first decide if an object, activity, or behavior is male or female and then decide whether or not they should learn more about that particular object activity or behavior. Once a child understands or refers to themselves as female or male, they tend to: 1. Play more often with gender-sterotyped toys 2. watch gender-typed TV shows 3. evaluate toys more positively if told a child of their gender likes the toy
Development of Phonological Awareness: Timing
awareness before school is correlated to quick reader
development of phonological awareness
awareness of sound structures/words and essential for developing reading skills
Development of Phonological Awareness: Invented Spelling
basic letter sounds connected when writing a sentence
Language Development: Pragmatics (how a child uses language)
becomes more varied with preschoolers than toddlers; able to consider the audiences needs; able to take turns in conversations
play
can predict cognitive development level - constructive or solitary play- age 2 - pretend play- age 2 to 3 - sociodramatic- age 4 - parallel play- age 4 - associative play- age 4 - rule- governed or cooperative play age 5 to 6
physical changes in early childhood- Growth
changes in height and weight happen more slowly during early childhood than in infancy
Gender development- gender concept sequence: gender identity
child's ability to label his or her own sex correctly
factors contributing to rapid learning: constraints on word names
children using various rules to learn new words - an unfamiliar word refers to the objects not already having a name - names refer to the whole object instead of its parts - a new name (T-rex) for an already named object denotes the objects subcategory name
toddler and early childhood- language development
communication, expressions, understanding feelings
emotional sensitivity
girls are better than boys at expressing their emotions and interpreting others emotions
social influence
girls comply more than boys with adult directions and more readily accept influence of others, possibly because they value group harmony
scaffolding
giving just enough assistance to match learners needs - students do not learn as well when told everything to do, nor when left alone to discover for themselves
biological
hormones shape gender development
gender expression=
how someone presents to the world, masculine, feminine, or other - sex assigned at birth usually based on external genitalia, e.g. vagina, penis or intersex/mixed
psychoanalytic explanations:
identification with same sex parent
physical changes in early childhood- motor
impressive gains in major locomotor skills. Manipulative skills (fine motor) improve, but less so than major motor skills do
Toddler and early childhood- cognitive development
learning skills, memory and thinking (Piaget-Vygotsky)
social- cognitive explanations:
linked to gender related behavior; the child becomes motivated to exhibit same-sex behaviors. Parents shape sex role behaviors and attitudes
the flynn effect
performance on intelligence tests has improved over the years, worldwide
Toddler and early childhood- Psychoanalytic development
personality development (Freud - Erikson) - Freud: gain control over bodily functions and renegotiate parent relationships
Re-standardization
re-testing a sample of the general population to make an updated, accurate comparison group, in case people are smarter than they used to be when the test was first made
Gender development- gender concept sequence: gender constancy
recognition that someone stays the same gender even though appearances may change with clothing
private speech stage
telling themselves what to do. Internalization of statements made to them by adults or older children
gender schema theory:
the child learns gender scripts; learns the likes and dislikes of his or her own gender; and develops a complex view of the other gender
gay and lesbian parents
there are no expressed social or cognitive developmental differences between the children of gay and lesbian parents and the children of heterosexual couples
Gender development- gender concept sequence: gender stability
understanding that you are the same gender throughout life
Toddler & Early childhood: psychosocial development- Eriksons 3rd stage
Initiative vs. Guilt (age:3-5) - relationships involved: family members - developmental task of the child: to prove that they have a will of their own
Development of phonological awareness: word play
Nursery rhymes and games- change word ending and beginnings
biological influences on the development of gender identity
- changing roles of males and females over time - twin studies show that one identical twin will show stronger preferences for the same toy as his/her twin compared to fraternal twins and their preference for a given toy - influence of testosterone in amniotic fluid, male and female fetuses who are exposed to higher levels of testosterone in-utero show greater interest in masculine activities throughout elementary school - congential adrenal hyperplasia- genetic disorder in which the adrenal glands secrete high amounts of androgen. females who have CAH show strong preference for masculine activities throughout childhood and adolescence, due to the impact excessive androgen has on the developing brain
Intelligence testing
- cognitive processes - vocab - reasoning skills - binet and simon measured vocabulary, comprehension of facts and relationships and mathematical and verbal reasoning
types of play
- constructive play: rules of physical reality - Spectator play: watch other children play but does not play with them - parallel play: child will play alongside or near others but does not play with them - pretend play: first (indicator of symbol use) and substitute (2-3 years old objects represent other objects) - associate play: a child starts to interact with others during play, but there may not be a lot of interaction - sociodramatic: role playing - rule-governed play: signal of transition into concrete operations
weschsler intelligence score
- correlations show a strong relationship between IQ and school performance - high intelligence, regardless of class, is associated with resiliency and the ability to develop the kind of self confidence and personal competence to overcome obstacles - lower IQ is associated with delinquency in adolescence adult iliteracy, and criminal behavior
Influences on the development of gender identity: stereotypes
- cultural guidelines about how males and females should behave and how the world may interpret those behaviors - natal male or natal female= baby born as male or female
Cognitive developmental process- symbolic functioning
- develops between 2&4 years of age - the ability to differentiate between words/images (signifiers) and the objects or events they represent (significates)
toddler & early childhood: psycho-social development
- erikson's 2nd stage of psycho-social development: autonomy vs. shame/doubt - age: toddlerhood 1-3 year olds - relationships involved: parents/caregivers - developmental task of the child: to develop autonomy without shame or doubt
Cognitive developmental process- create a mental image
- example: ball can be mentally created when a ball is not present - example: apple
self concept- me, myself, and more
- focus on visible characteristics - emotional self: acquisition of emotional self - regulation
stages in the development of empathy
- global empathy: observed during 1st year matched emotions - egocentric empathy: 12-18 months when children have developed a sense of themselves respond with same emotion, but may try to cure the problem with something that would work to comfort them - empathy for anothers feelings: age 2-3 years- children note other feelings, partially match them and respond
alfred binet
- identify children who might have difficulty in school
Health and Wellness Concerns with Young Children
- illness - accidents - risk factors for abuse/neglect: sociocultural factors, characteristics of child, physical or mental disabilities, difficult temperaments, and age
Health and Wellness Needs of Young Children
- immunizations - sleeping patterns: early cycles of sleep could indicate neurological issues - eating patterns: variety of foods are necessary for good habits and nutrition
lewis terman
- intelligence, quotient (iq)
family structure: single-parent families
- more common among african americans and native americans - single mothers are less likely to marry - grandparents and other relatives traditionally help support single mothers - some single mothers are financially secure
when do children begin to learn gender stereotypes:
- our world is gender neutral until about 12 months of age - by 18 months of age: girls and boys look longer at gender- specific stereotyped pictures of toys - by 4 years old: extensive knowledge and some behaviors/traits of gender- stereotyped activities
permissive
- parenting characteristics: high in warmth and communication, low demand and control - child consequences: poor adolescent school performance, more aggressive and immature, less responsible and independent
Authoritarian
- parenting characteristics: high levels of demand and control, low levels of warmth and communication - child consequences: good school performance, lower self-esteem and fewer peer interaction skills - some subdued; others highly aggressive
authoritative
- parenting characteristics: high warmth and communication, high demand and control - child consequences: higher self-esteem, independence, and altruism, more parental compliance, self-confident and achievement oriented and better school performance
uninvolved
- parenting characteristics: low levels of demand and control, low in levels of warmth and communication - child consequences: disturbances in social relationships, more impulsive and antisocial in adolescence, less competent with peers, much less achievement oriented in school
Social-cognitive theory of childhood personality development
- persons perception: increasing ability to classify others - use category trait labels - describe others behavior patterns of others - categorize based on observation characteristics - early judgements reflect ego thinking and cognitive immaturity, not true racism
Theory of mind
a set of ideas that explains other peoples ideas, beliefs, desires, and behavior - cognitive and language abilities are the foundation for the development of a child's theory of mind - developed by the time a child is 4-5 years of age
aggression
across multiple cultures boys are more physically aggressive than girls; this begins as early as 17 months - girls are more likely to engage in relational aggression than boys, try to hurt others by damaging their peer relationships
Zone of proximal development:
difference between what children can do with or without assistance - providing learning experiences within this zone maximizes achievement
Family Structure:
diversity in 2 parent and single parent families - only 70 percent of U.S. children lived with both biological parents in 2007 - many children from 2-parent families have experienced single-parenting - two percent of U.S. children live with custodial grandparents
egocentrism
often interferes with reasoning skills - children interpret objects and events based on their assimilative powers-> they consult their existing frames of reference - inhibits the child from seeing another persons point of view - is not an all or nothing phenomena
Language development: Syntax usage (organized thought process)
one of the best predictors of the child's overall cognitive development; proper grammar reflects organized logical thought processes
Kohlberg
only after obtaining gender constancy (stage 3) do children start learning gender roles - some results show this learning to occur earlier, after mastering gender stability (stage 2) - gender constancy does help children think more flexibly about gender roles (e.g. ok for girls to play with trucks or boys with dolls) - this theory addresses when but not how children learn about gender-appropriate behaviors
Factors contributing to rapid learning: Joint attention
parents labelling objects, plus children relying on adults behavior to interpret the labels meaning