Exam 2 Org Behavior
Bounded Rationality
(Herb Simon) •The view that people are bounded in their decision-making capabilities, including access to limited information, limited information processing, and tendency toward satisficing rather than maximizing when making choices •People process limited and imperfect information, rarely select the best choice
Confirmation bias (post decisional justification)
- distorting information to favor the preference. -Tendency to ignore or underemphasize negative outcomes of the choice they made and overemphasize new information about its positive features -Gives people an excessively optimistic evaluation of their decisions
Four OB Mod Consequences
- positive reinforcement -punishment -negative reinforcement -extinction
Social characteristics of the job
- task interdependence - social interaction with coworkers - feedback from others - from coworkers, clients, etc.
Biased Decision Heuristics
-Anchoring & Adjustment -Availability heuristic -Representativeness heuristic
Characteristics of Creative People
-Cognitive and Practical Intelligence -Persistence -Knowledge and Experience -Independent Imagination
Cross-pollination
-Employees across the firm exchange ideas or are brought into the team. -It encourages informal social interaction in the organization.
Five problem identification challenges
-Mental models. -Decisive leadership. -Stakeholder framing. -Perceptual defense. -Solution-focused problems.
Sources of Feedback
-Nonsocial sources -Social sources -Preferred feedback source
Sunk costs effect
-Sunk costs—the value of resources already invested in the decision -Decision makers motivated to invest more when large resources already invested (sunk costs) in the project
Prospect theory effect (loss aversion)
-We experience stronger negative emotions when losing something of value than positive emotions when gaining something of equal value. -Stopping a project is more painful than investing more in it.
Job Satisfaction: -Highest: India, Mexico, Turkey, USA -Lowest: Japan, Hong Kong Singapore
-a person's evaluation of his or her job and work context -an appraisal of the perceived job characteristics, work environment, and emotional experience at work
People experience less stress and/or negative stress consequences when they have:
-remove the stressor -withdraw from the stressor -change stress perceptions -control stress consequences -receive social support
Characteristics of effective feedback
-specific -relevant -timely -credible -sufficiently frequent
Four-Drive Theory
-the drive to acquire -the drive to bond -the drive to comprehend -the drive to defend satisfy our curiosity, know and understand ourselves and the environment. -Three drives are proactive — they are regularly activated by our perceptions to seek fulfillment — only drive to defend is reactive (triggered by threat).
Consequences of Affective
1) high conformity, results in lower creativity 2)more motivated to engage in illegal activities in defense of the organization
Model of the stress experience consisting of 3 stages:
1. Alarm reaction: •Threat or challenge activates the physiological stress responses. •Decreased energy and coping effectiveness. 2. Resistance: •Activates biochemical, psychological, and behavioral mechanisms — produces more energy and coping mechanisms to overcome or remove the source of stress. •Body reduces resources to the immune system. 3. Exhaustion: •Usually able to remove the stressor or remove ourselves before exhaustion. •Frequent exhaustion increases long-term physiological/psychological damage.
identifying problems effectively
1. Be aware of problem identification biases 2. Resist temptation of looking decisive 3. Develop a norm of "divine discontent" (aversion to complacency). 4. Discuss the situation with colleagues -- see different perspectives
Practical Implications of Four Drive Theory
1. Best workplaces for employee motivation and well-being help employees fulfill all four drives. 2. Keep fulfillment of all four drives in balance — organizations should avoid too much or too little opportunity to fulfill each drive. •Four drives counterbalance one another. •Drive to bond counterbalances the drive to acquire. •Drive to comprehend counterbalances the drive to defend.
Rational Choice Decision-Making Process
1. Identify problem or opportunity 2. Choose the best decision process 3. Discover or develop possible choices 4. Select the choice with the highest value 5. Implement the selected choice 6. Evaluate the selected choice
Managing Work-Related Stress
1. Remove the stressor 2. Withdraw from the stressor 3. Change stress perceptions 4. Control stress consequences 5. Receive social support
four causes of escalation of commitment
1. self justification effect 2. self-enhancement effect 3. prospect theory effect 4. sunk cost effects
Making Choices More Effectively
1.Be more contemplative than decisive for complex problems 2.Use intuition only combined with logical analysis. 3.Revisit decisions later when emotions/moods have changed. 4.Use scenario planning — a disciplined method for imagining possible futures
Benefits of Employee Involvement
1.Better problem identification •Recognizing problems more quickly and defining them more accurately 2.Synergy produces more/better solutions •Team members create synergy by pooling their knowledge to form new alternatives 3.Better at picking the best choice •Decision viewed from diverse perspectives and a broader range of values 4.Higher decision commitment •Participation creates a sense of ownership and responsibility for decision's success
Two key elements of rational choice
1.Calculating the best alternative. 2.Systematic decision-making process.
Improving Decision Evaluation
1.Change the decision maker. 2.Create a stop-loss. 3.Seek factual and social feedback. 4.Change the decision-maker's mindset.
procedural justice rules
1.Decision makers have no self-interest or restrictive doctrines. 2.Decisions consider full complement of accurate information. 3.Interests of all groups affected by the outcomes considered. 4.Decisions and procedures are compatible with ethical principles. 5.Decision criteria and procedures are applied consistently across persons and over time 6.Employees can present evidence and opinions (voice). 7.Questionable decisions/procedures can be appealed/overturned.
Why job satisfaction increases customer satisfaction and profits:
1.Employee emotions affect customer emotions. 2.Experienced employees provide better service.
Four design-thinking rules
1.Human rule involves others. 2.Ambiguity rule avoids problem identification too soon. 3.Re-design rule considers past solutions, future possibilities. 4.Tangible rule builds prototypes, embrace learning orientation
Three learned needs studied in research:
1.Need for achievement (nAch): want to accomplish goals, clear feedback, moderate risk tasks. •They desire clear feedback and recognition; prefer working alone; money is a weak motivator. •Successful entrepreneurs tend to have high achievement need. 2.Need for affiliation (nAff): seek approval from others, conform to others' wishes, avoid conflict. •High nAff employees are more easily biased by a strong need for approval — therefore, less effective at making difficult decisions about distributing scarce resources. 3.Need for power (nPow): seek power for social or personal purposes, Desire to exercise control over others, involvement in team decisions, use persuasion, desire to maintain a leadership position.
emotional intelligence
A set of abilities to perceive and express emotion, assimilate emotion in thought, understand -awareness of our own -management of our own -awareness of others -management of others
Learning orientation
A set of beliefs and norms in which people are encouraged to question past practices, learn new ideas, experiment putting ideas into practice, and view mistakes as part of the learning process
Harvey's Hot Dogs started a performance-based reward system that accurately identified employees whose good performance led to higher rewards. How does this practice improve employee motivation?
A.by improving P-to-O expectancies
Stress:
Adaptive response to situations perceived as challenging or threatening to well-being. •Prepares us to adapt to hostile environmental conditions.
A-B-Cs of Organizational Behavior Modification
Antecedents Behavior Consequences
Some countries/cultures strongly discourage emotional expression
Asian and African countries (Ethiopia, Japan)
Expectancy theory of motivation
Based on the idea that work effort is directed toward behaviors that people believe will produce the most favorable desired outcomes — explains what people are motivated to do
Traditional Model of Attitudes:
Beliefs •Established perceptions about the attitude object. •Formed from experience, other learning. •e.g., employee discovers that job involves long hours and challenging work. Feelings •Conscious positive/negative evaluations of the attitude object. •Feelings formed from valences of beliefs about the attitude object. •e.g., people form a negative feeling about their job from negative valences of job elements such as long hours, challenging work, unfriendly coworkers. Behavioral intentions •Motivation to engage in a particular behavior regarding the attitude object. •Intentions are formed from feelings — the source and direction of motivation. -->Behavior •Behavioral intentions (motivation to act) are the best predictor of behavior.
Potential benefits (outcomes) of employee involvement
Better problem identification: •Recognizing problems more quickly and defining them more accurately Synergy produces more/better solutions: •Team members create synergy by pooling their knowledge to form new alternatives. Better at picking the best choice: •Decision viewed from diverse perspectives and a broader range of values. Higher decision commitment: •Participation creates a sense of ownership and responsibility for decision's success.
perceptual defense
Blocking out bad news that threatens self-concept as a coping mechanism
Decision commitment
Commitment to decision increases with involvement, so some involvement is important if employee would otherwise lack
Strategies for Displaying Expected Emotions
Consciously engage in verbal and nonverbal behaviors that represent the expected emotions.
Regulate actual emotions (basis of deep acting).
DA: producing expected emotions — use all five strategies, but reframing the situation and shifting attention are likely the most common
solution-focused problems
Describing the problem as a veiled solution- underlying problem has not been analyzed
Three types of justices
Distributive Procedural Interactional
emotional labor
Effort, planning, and control to express organizationally desired emotions.
Cognitive Dissonance
Emotional experience (feeling hypocritical) caused by a perception that our beliefs, feelings, and behavior are incongruent with one another. •Violates need to appear rational and logical. •Emotional response motivates more consistency by changing one or more elements.
Which of the following is a drawback to job specialization?
Employees have difficulty seeing the overall output quality of their work unit.
stakeholder framing
Employees, suppliers, customers, and other stakeholders offer or hide information in ways that cause decision makes to see the situation as a problem, opportunity, or steady sailing
ELVN
Exit: •Leaving the situation. •Quitting, transferring, being absent. Voice: •Attempt to change the dissatisfying situation. •Constructive ideas, complaining, formal grievance, subtle resistance, etc.. Loyalty: •Patiently waiting for the situation to improve. Neglect •Passive activities with negative consequences for the organization, e.g. reducing work effort/quality, increasing absenteeism.
Job Enrichment
Giving employees more responsibility for scheduling, coordinating, and planning work. natural grouping establishing client relationships
Employee Drives
Hardwired characteristics of the brain that correct deficiencies or maintain an internal equilibrium by producing emotions to energize individuals •No agreement on list of drives, but several understood — drive for social interaction, competence, to comprehend our surroundings, to defend ourselves •Drives are innate and universal — exist from birth, everyone has them •Drives (and emotions produced by drives) are the prime movers of behavior (our motivation originates from drives)
Humanistic perspective
Higher-order needs are influenced by human thoughts such as personal values, not just instinct.
Which of the following is TRUE at the lowest level of employee involvement?
Individual employees are asked for information, but the problem is not described.
Self-regulation
Intentional, purposive action. Set goals and standards, anticipate consequences. Self-reinforcement
Preparation
Investigating the problem or opportunity in many ways — learning about the issue.
Which of the following statements is true about scenario planning?
It is a disciplined method for imagining possible futures.
decisive leadership
Leaders are seen as effective when they are decisive, which may lead them to quickly announce problems/opportunities before having a chance to logically assess the situation
Social Cognitive Theory
Learning and motivation occurs by observing and modeling others as well as by anticipating the consequences of our behavior
strength based coaching
Maximize employee potential by focusing on strengths rather than weaknesses.
Ramon is a student studying for two tests. One is in psychology, a subject he truly enjoys. The other is in accounting, a subject he does not like at all. Ramon is getting frustrated studying for accounting, so he stops and begins studying for psychology instead. Which strategy to regulate emotions is Ramon using?
Modify the situation
Moods and emotions affect the decision process
Moods and emotions affect how carefully we evaluate alternatives
Enriched jobs
Motivation from the job itself — autonomy, task significance.
Which of the following statements regarding motivation is correct?
Motivation is forces within a person that affect voluntary behavior.
Holistic perspective
Multiple needs should be studied together because they operate together
Every time Lucy dropped one of the store's imported chocolates on the floor, the manager yelled at her and made her wipe up the floor. As Lucy became less nervous, she dropped fewer chocolates and the manager yelled at her much less. In time, Lucy stopped dropping chocolates altogether. What principle did the manager use to change Lucy's behavior?
Negative reinforcement
Moods
Non-directed emotions, tend to be longer-term emotional states
Learning behavior consequences
Observe others' consequences. Anticipate consequences in other situations.
Behavior modeling
Observe, model others.
Which of the following statements is true about situations involving equity judgments?
People believe that their outcome-input ratio should be similar to the outcome-input ratio of the comparison other.
Procedural justice
Perception that appropriate rules are applied in the procedures used throughout the decision process.
Interactional justice
Perception that appropriate rules are applied in the way the people involved are treated throughout the decision process -treated polite -treated with respect -justified explanations -honest timely information recieved
Distress
Physiological, psychological, and behavioral deviation from healthy functioning
Consequences of Distress
Physiological: •Tension headaches, muscle pain. •Cardiovascular disease — heart attacks, strokes. •Some forms of cancer. Psychological: •Job dissatisfaction, moodiness, depression, lower organizational commitment. Behavioral: •Lower job performance, poor decision making, increased workplace accidents, aggressive behavior.
Problems with job satisfaction
Problem #1: Many dissatisfied employees are reluctant to reveal their feelings Problem #2: Cultural values make it more difficult to compare Problem #3: job satisfaction with economic conditions
Job Burnout
Process of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced personal accomplishment resulting from prolonged exposure to stress. •Stage 1: Emotional exhaustion — lack of energy. •Stage 2: Cynicism (depersonalization) — indifferent attitude toward work, emotional detachment, strictly follow rules. •Stage 3: Reduced personal accomplishment — diminished confidence.
Emotions
Psychological, behavioral, and physiological episodes that create a state of readiness
Creative Activities
Redefine the problem Associative Play Cross-Pollination Design thinking
Eustress
Some level of stress is necessary — motivates people to achieve goals, change their environments, succeed in challenges
Some countries/cultures encourage open display of one's true emotions
Spain, Cuba, and some Middle Eastern countries
Effective goal setting features
Specific - What, how, where, when, and with whom the task needs to be accomplished Measurable - how much, how well, at what cost Achievable - challenging, yet accepted (E-to-P) Relevant - within employee's control Time-framed - due date and when assessed Exciting - employee commitment, not just compliance Reviewed - feedback and recognition on goal progress and accomplishment
Elpha bought her first new car in ten years. It was expensive, but she felt it was worth the monthly payment. Driving home in her beautiful new car, however, she began to worry about whether she could afford it, and thought maybe she made a bad decision. Elpha was experiencing cognitive dissonance. (T or F)
T
On her blind date, Fiona knew immediately that she didn't care for her date, but she kept a smile on her face and pretended to be interested in what he was saying until her friend called her and gave her an excuse to leave. Fiona was demonstrating display rules during her date. (T or F)
T
Escalation of commitment
Tendency to repeat an apparently bad decision or allocate more resources to a failing course of action
What is satisficing?
The tendency to search for alternatives only until one is found that meets some minimum standard of sufficiency
Rational choice emphasizes maximization is choosing the highest value alternative.
Three human limitations: 1.People engage in satisficing - first "good enough" alternative. 2.People oversimplify the decision process. 3.People avoid making any decision when too many choices are presented.
Emotional markers are automatically (nonconsciously) attached to incoming sensory information
True
Most emotions are subtle and occur without our awareness Emotions motivate
True
Behavioral Intentions-Behavior Contingencies:
Two people have same behavioral intentions, but different situation or skills enables only one of them to act. e.g., employee wants to quit (intention) but can't find a suitable job elsewhere (behavior).
Beliefs-Feelings Contingencies:
Two people have the same belief but different valences about that belief — affects feelings toward attitude object. (e.g. challenging work is positive for some, negative for others.)
Feelings-Behavioral Intentions Contingencies:
Two people have the same feelings but form different behavioral intentions due to unique experience, personality, social norms. (e.g., two employees dislike long work hours, but one complains about long hours; the other doesn't complain because complaining didn't work in past.)
Emotions serve as information in decisions
We "listen in" on our emotions for guidance when making choices.
Goal
a cognitive representation of a desired end state that a person is committed to attain
Job characteristics model
a job design model that relates the motivational properties of jobs to specific personal and organizational consequences of those properties.
Paul has worked in the same office at DEF Insurance LLC for 6 years. He has been very ambitious during his years at the company. Although he started as an insurance agent, he has recently been promoted to the position of agency manager and proudly displays all his awards on the wall of his new office. He is very proud of his status and accomplishments. According to the four-drive theory, Paul's drive to ________ is strong.
acquire
Renee is entering a factory and sees a sign that states "Hard hats and goggles must be worn upon entering. Violators will be fined." Which component of OB Mod is this?
antecedent
Drive for competence
applying skills and observing positive, meaningful outcomes from those talents
•Emotions also directly affect
behavior — e.g. facial expression.
Shift attention
change the focus of our attention. •e.g., engage in work that takes your mind off earlier problems.
Reframe the situation
cognitively re-evaluate something so it generates more appropriate emotions. •e.g., view a failed client presentation as a learning experience with low chance of success.
After choosing among several computer server systems, the director of information systems feels very positive about the final choice. However, some of this optimism is due to the fact that the director forgot about a few of the limitations of the chosen system and unconsciously downplays the importance of the positive features of the rejected systems. The director of information systems is engaging in which of the following?
confirmation bias
Suppress or amplify emotions
consciously trying to block out dysfunctional emotions or to increase the intensity of expected emotions
•Feelings and beliefs are influenced by
cumulative emotional episodes, along with cognitive evaluation described earlier.
Contingencies of Involvement
decision structure knowledge source decision commitment risk of conflict
Anger, fear, joy, and sadness represent
different types of emotions
Display rules
employees required to display behaviors representing specific emotions and to hide observable evidence of other emotions
Jody is working hard on a team project. His motivation is to not anger his teammates by slacking off. Jody is exhibiting ________ motivation.
extrinsic
Autonomy
freedom, independence and discretion in scheduling the work and determining procedures.
•Emotional experiences occur when
information is first received and later thinking about that information (remembering activates emotional markers).
mental models
knowledge structures that we develop to describe, explain, and predict the world around us
Halle is a grocery checkout clerk who does not make her own schedule. She also is rated for the average time it takes to fill a bag. Which stressor is Halle experiencing?
low task control
Establishing a preset level at which the decision is abandoned or reevaluated is recommended mainly to do which of the following?
minimize escalation of commitment
Expectancy theory says
motivation is determined by employee beliefs about expected performance and outcomes.
Drive for autonomy
motivation is self-initiated rather than controlled from an external source
Sources of Feedback
non
Inequity tension
occurs when we believe we are under rewarded or overrewarded
•Emotions influence (potentially distort/bias)
our cognitive thinking (beliefs, feelings, intentions) about the attitude object.
Distributive justice
perception that appropriate decision criteria (rules) have been applied to calculate how various benefits and burdens are distributed •Decision rules (criteria) — such as effort, need, or membership — determine how much each person should receive •Several distributive justice principles and associated criteria •Equality principle: everyone in the group should receive the same outcomes •Need principle: those with greatest need should receive more outcomes than others •Equity principle: people should receive outcomes in proportion to their contribution
Procedural justice
perception that appropriate procedural rules have been applied throughout the decision process
Interactional justice
perception that appropriate rules have been applied in the way employees are treated throughout the decision process
Employee ________ is an individual's emotional and cognitive (logical) motivation, particularly a focused, intense, persistent, and purposive effort toward work-related goals.
persistance
Surface Acting
pretending to feel the expected emotion even though they actually experience a different emotion -stressful and difficult
ways to correct under rewarded inequity
reduce our inputs increase our outcomes increase others inputs reduce others outputs change our perceptions change comparison other leave this field
1. The director of nursing is looking throughout the hospital for a new format of work schedule for the nurses. She evaluates each schedule system as soon as she learns about it. Eventually, she finds a schedule that is good enough for her needs and ends her search even though there may be better schedules available that she hasn't yet learned about. This represents which aspect of decision making?
satisficing
Core Job Characteristics
skill variety task identity task significance autonomy feedback
Learned needs theory
strengthened/weakened (learned) through self-concept, social norms, past experience. •Training can change a person's need strength through reinforcement and altering their self-concept.
________ is the degree of physiological, psychological, and behavioral deviation from healthy functioning.
stress
attitudes
the cluster of beliefs, assessed feelings, and behavioral intentions toward a person, object, or event -judgements with conscious reasoning -more stable over time
Decision making
the conscious process of making choices among alternatives with the intention of moving toward some desired state of affairs.
Organizational justice
the perception that appropriate formal or informal rules have been applied to the situation.
availability heuristic
the tendency to estimate the likelihood that an event will occur by how easily instances of it come to mind
Horace tells his coworker "I am angry. I work so much harder than Timothy, but he got a bigger raise!" Which type of inequity is Horace experiencing?
underrewarded
Potential conflict ("mental tug-of-war")
when cognitive and emotional processes disagree with each other.
Intuition
— Ability to know when a problem or opportunity exists and to select the best course of action without conscious reasoning. -Intuition is an emotional experience -Intuition includes rapid nonconscious analysis
Rational choice approach
— assumes we will evaluate all alternatives against one another at the same -people calculate the alternative with the highest expected satisfaction
Reality (imperfect rationality)
— decision makers evaluate each alternative sequentially against an implicit favorite — people have built-in decision heuristics that bias evaluation of alternatives
Socialized power
— desire power as a means to help others.
Personalized power
— enjoy power for its own sake and use it to advance personal interests.
Effective leaders
— have high need for socialized rather than personalized power.
Evaluation (core affect)
• Emotions generate a global evaluation • Positive or negative valence (e.g., that something is good or bad, helpful or harmless)
Activation
• Emotions put us in a state of readiness • Generate some level of energy within us — primary source of
Normative commitment
•A felt obligation or moral duty to the organization •Applies the norm of reciprocity — a felt obligation and social expectation of helping or otherwise giving something of value to someone who has already helped or given something of value to you
Implicit favorite
•An alternative the decision maker prefers and is the repeated comparison against the other choices •This favorite is "implicit" because decision makers don't make this comparison consciously (often aren't even aware of their favoritism)
Outcome valences
•Anticipated satisfaction/dissatisfaction from receiving an outcome •Positive valence when outcome is consistent with our values and satisfy our needs; negative valance when outcome opposes values and inhibit need fulfillment
Expectancy Theory of Motivation limitations
•Assume people are perfectly rational decision makers; •Mainly explains extrinsic motivation; •Ignores emotions as a source of motivation; •E-to-P and P-to-O expectancies are critical components of expectancy theory, yet the theory does not explain how employees develop these expectancies
Continuance commitment:
•Calculative attachment to the organization •Occur with (a) significant social or economic loss from leaving the company and (b) limited alternative employment opportunities •Outcomes: Lower job performance, less organizational citizenship, more grievances rather than problem solving to resolve conflict
Equity evaluation
•Compare outcome/input ratio with the comparison other. •Result: Perception of equity, under reward inequity or over reward inequity.
Self-justification effect
•Decision makers try to convey a positive public image and demonstrate that their choices will be successful.
Affective commitment:
•Emotional attachment to, identification with, and involvement in an organization. •Psychological bond — intrinsically motivated (not motivated by external forces) •Lower absenteeism, less likely to quit, higher motivation, higher organizational citizenship, better customer service •Risks: higher conformity, lower creativity, more motivated to defend firm through illegal activity
Emotions form preferences before conscious evaluation
•Emotional marker process determines our preferences for each alternative before we consciously evaluate those alternatives.
Variable ratio schedule
•Employee behavior is reinforced after a variable number of times •Makes behavior highly resistant to extinction Because the reinforcers is never expected at a particular time
Employee Engagement
•Employee's emotional and cognitive motivation, particularly a focused, intense, persistent, and purposive effort toward work-related goals. •High self-efficacy (i.e., belief that you have the ability, role clarity, and resources to get the job done) •High level of absorption in the work (i.e., intense focus)—the experience of focusing intensely on the task with limited awareness of events beyond work
Increasing Outcome Valences:
•Ensure that rewards are valued. •Individualize rewards. •Minimize counter valent outcomes (e.g., peer pressure).
Consequences:
•Events following behavior that influences its future occurrence, for example, see new message with valuable information.
Antecedents:
•Events preceding the behavior. •Informs employees that a particular action will produce specific consequences, for example, sound signaling that an email has arrived.
emotions
•Experiences related to an attitude object. •Operate as events, often nonconscious. •People experience most emotions briefly .
Organizational behavior modification (OB Mod):
•Explains employee behavior by the antecedent conditions and consequences of that behavior. •Focuses on environment, not thoughts.
Social sources
•Feedback directly from others, (e.g., boss, customers, multisource) •Multisource feedback: full circle of people around employee. •Potentially more accurate and fairer than from supervisor alone •Potentially expensive, time-consuming, ambiguous, inflated, etc
Nonsocial sources
•Feedback not conveyed directly by people (for example, electronic displays).
employee needs
•Goal-directed forces that people experience. •Motivational forces generated from emotions are channeled toward specific goals •Goals formed by self-concept, social norms, and experience--— guide direction of our effort •Individual differences in needs — self-concept, social norms, and past experience amplify or suppress drive-based emotions
Information processing demands of the job
•High task variability - job duties have high variation, low predictability-motivating because of higher information processing demand. •High task analyzability - use known procedures/rules - less motivating because low information processing demand.
Organizational comprehension
•How well employees understand the organization — strategic direction, social dynamics, and physical layout •Difficult to identify with or feel loyal to something that you don't know very well •Employees need a clear mental model of the organization — announcements, co-worker meetings, learn about history and plans
Maslow's model lacks empirical support
•Incorrectly claims that everyone has the same needs hierarchy — yet people have different needs hierarchies •People have different hierarchies of values, so needs hierarchy also differs and may change over time
anchoring and adjustment heuristic
•Initial anchor point influences our perspective — anchors our view of high vs. low — limited movement away from that point as new information is provided ➡ E.g., high price of an initial contract tender anchors negotiations around that price
Outcome/input ratio
•Inputs — what employee contributes, for example, skill, effort, reputation, performance, experience, hours worked. •Outcomes — what employee receives, for example, pay, promotions, recognition, interesting jobs, opportunities to improve skills.
Low task control
•Lack of control over how and when tasks are performed •Task control as a stressor increases with level of responsibility •e.g. assembly-line workers have low task control but lower stress because of low responsibility; sports coaches lack task control but high responsibility
Organizational constraints
•Lack of resources — equipment, supplies, budget funding, coworker support, information, etc. •Interfere with task performance, indirectly threatens rewards, status, job security •Situational element of MARS model — only element beyond individual's control — undermines human drive to influence our environment
Verification
•Logical evaluation, experimentation, and further creative insight.
Risk of conflict
•Low involvement if employee goals and norms conflict with the organization's goals. •Moderate or lower involvement when employees can't agree on preferred solution — high involvement possible only if consensus is likely.
Problems with job specialization
•Low motivation — jobs become tedious, trivial, and socially isolating •Higher absenteeism and turnover •May require higher wages to offset dissatisfying, narrowly defined work •Affects work quality ➡ Higher quality because easier to master the job ➡ Lower quality due to less attentiveness, lower motivation, and difficulty recognizing problems in work process
Several levels of involvement
•Low: People individually asked for specific information, but the problem is not described. •Medium low: Problem is described, employees are asked for information. •Medium high: Problem is described, employees collectively develop recommendations. •High: Employees identify problem, discover alternatives, choose the best alternative, and implement their choice.
Consequences of Continuance
•Lower performance, less likely to engage in org. citizenship behaviors •Unionized employees use formal grievances (rather than more cooperative problem solving) Not rely on continuance commitment to retain staff, should focus on winning employees' heart
Scientific management
•Maximize work efficiency through job specialization and task standardization •Also advocated employee selection, training, goal setting, work incentives •Championed by Frederick Winslow Taylor in early 1900s
Increasing P-to-O Expectancies:
•Measure job performance accurately. •Clearly explain how rewards are linked to performance. •Provide examples of coworkers rewarded for performance. •Describe how the employee's rewards were based on past performance. Provide examples of others whose good performance has resulted in higher
Emotional intelligence outcomes:
•More effective team members. •Perform better in jobs requiring emotional labor. •Better leaders. •Make better decisions involving others. •More positive mindset for creative work.
Source of decision knowledge
•More involvement when employees have useful knowledge beyond leader's knowledge.
Maslow's Needs Hierarchy
•Most widely known theory of human motivation — physiological, safety, belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization •Two additional categories not in the hierarchy — need to know and need for beauty (beauty includes "beauty, symmetry, and likely simplicity, completion, and order")
Self-enhancement effect
•Natural tendency to think we are above average (lucky, competent) •Creates an optimistic interpretation of poor outcomes, and overestimates our probability of rescuing failing projects •Self-enhancement is mostly nonconscious bias — self-justification is conscious action
Interpersonal conflict
•Organizations need people to work interdependently toward shared goals, but conflict occurs, causing stress •Conflict is stressful because it interferes with own goals or because other person's conflict behavior is personally threatening •Workplace harassment — including workplace bullying, sexual harassment, and other forms of mistreatment by coworkers, managers, or customers
Performance-to-Outcome (P-to-O) expectancy
•Perceived probability that a performance level will lead to a particular outcome •Ranges from 0.0 (no chance) to 1.0 (certainty)
Effort-to-Performance (E-to-P) expectancy
•Perceived probability that our effort will result in a particular level of performance •Ranges from 0.0 (no chance) to 1.0 (certainty)
Incubation
•Period of reflective thought — put the problem aside, maintain low level of awareness. •Assists divergent thinking — Reframing a problem in a unique way and generating different approaches to the issue. Contrasts with convergent thinking — calculating the conventionally accepted "right answer" to a logical problem.
Associative play
•Playful activities — unusual variations of traditional games •Challenge to create something new from existing unrelated products (e.g., design a product to clean cutlery from an electric toothbrush and a hair dryer) •Morphological analysis — listing different dimensions of a system and the elements of each dimension and then looking at each combination
Continuous reinforcement schedule
•Positive reinforcement after every occurrence of the desired behavior •Best for learning new tasks
Decision structure
•Problem is new and complex. •Less involvement for programmed decisions.
Employee involvement
•Psychological ownership and social identity — feel part of company •Involvement demonstrates trust — builds loyalty
Increasing E-to-P Expectancies:
•Select people with the required skills and knowledge. •Provide required training and clarify job requirements. •Assign simpler or fewer tasks until employees can master them. •Provide sufficient time and resources. •Provide examples of similar employees who have successfully performed the task. •Provide coaching to employees who lack self-efficacy.
Positive perspective
•Self-actualization: people are naturally motivated to reach their potential (growth needs) •Earlier research focused on deficiencies (e.g., hunger).
representativeness heuristic
•Tendency to estimate probability of something based on its similarity to known others than by more precise statistics
Creativity
•The development of original ideas that make a socially recognized contribution •Valuable throughout the decision-making process.
Illumination
•The experience of suddenly becoming aware of a unique idea. •Begins with "fringe" awareness (barely perceptible). •Short-term memory — easily forgotten, so need to document.
Employee motivation
•The forces within a person that affect the direction, intensity, and persistence of voluntary behavior. •Motivated employees are willing to exert a particular level of effort (intensity), for a certain amount of time (persistence), toward a particular goal (direction)
Preferred feedback source
•Use nonsocial feedback for goal progress feedback/accomplishment. •Nonsocial more accurate, whereas social sources tend to delay/distort negative feedback •Negative feedback less damaging to self-esteem •Use social sources for conveying positive feedback. •Enhances employee's self-esteem
rational choice decisions
•Use pure logic and all available information to choose highest value choice. •Historically pure rationality considered ideal state of decision making.
Behavior:
•What people say or do, for example, checking phone for a new message.
Negative reinforcement
•When consequence removed, behavior increases. •Example: manager stops criticizing employee when poor performance improves •Desired consequence for reducing undesirable behaviors
Work overload
•Working more hours, more intensely than one can cope •Affected by globalization, consumerism, ideal worker norm
Change the situation
•move out of or into work settings that affect our emotions.
Experiences
•represent changes in our physiological state (e.g., heart rate), psychological state (e.g., thought processes), and behavior (e.g., facial expression)
Modify the situation
•within the same physical location, adapt conditions or events so they alter emotions.
