Exam #2: Psychology

Perceptional Organization

Gestalt Laws of Organization: A series of principles that describe how we organize bits and pieces of info into meaningful wholes. - These principles were set forth in the early 1900s by a group of German psychologists who studied patterns, or gestalts. - Gestalt psychologists argued that the perception of stimuli in our environment goes well beyond the individual elements that we sense. Instead, it represents an active, constructive process carried out within the brain. - Those psychologists discovered a number of important principles that are valid for visual (as well as auditory) stimuli: figure/ground, grouping, contours, context, constancy. FIGURE/GROUND: Objects tend to stand out from a background. There is also something called Reversible Figure/Ground and that is where the background stands out from an object. Mainly the background and the object switch places/purposes. GROUPING: SIMILARITY: It displays a sort of likeness with other things. Say there were columns of circles and squares, (e.g. circle, square, circle, square), however due to similarity, you seem them rather as horizontal rows because they are similar (e.g. ROW 1: circle, circle, circle. ROW 2: square, square, square). PROXIMITY: We perceive elements that are closer together as grouped together. As a result, we tend to see pairs of dots rather than a row of single dots. CONTINUATION: We tend to see it as a smooth path or a form a continuing on course. When there is an intersection between two or more objects, people tend to perceive each object as a single uninterrupted object. This allows differentiation of stimuli even when they come in the visual overlap. We have a tendency to group and organize lines or curves that follow an established direction over those defined by sharp and abrupt changes in direction. CLOSURE: We usually group elements to form enclosed or complete figures rather than open ones. We tend to ignore the breaks and concentrate on the overall form. COMMON FATE: We tend to see them as objects that move together are also grouped together. For example, birds may be distinguished from their background as a single flock because they are moving in the same direction and at the same velocity, even when each bird is seen—from a distance—as little more than a dot. The moving 'dots' appear to be part of a unified whole. SIMPLICITY: When we observe a pattern, we perceive it in the most basic, straightforward manner that we can. For example, there is a picture of a diamond with two lines connected to the outside corners. People could perceive it as that, or a W and an M, or some could see a dinner plate with silverware. (DONE WITH GROUPING SECTION) CONTOURS: Boundaries between the figure and the ground that gives it shape and meaning (camouflage). There are also subjective contours which are no distinguishable physical boundaries. (See boundaries that aren't there). CONTEXT: The setting in which the object occurs. You see the expectation of the object and adapt to its location. CONSTANCY: Even with brightness, color, shape, and size, the shape stays the same, even though the retinal image changes. -If perception were based primarily on breaking down a stimulus into its most basic elements, understanding the sentence, as well as other ambiguous stimuli, it would not be possible. The fact that you were probably able to recognize such an imprecise stimulus illustrates that perception proceeds along two different avenues, called top-down processing and bottom-up processing. Top-down Processing: Perception is guided by higher-level knowledge, experience, expectations, and motivations. You were able to figure out the meaning of the sentence with the missing letters because of your prior reading experience and because written English contains redundancies. Top-down processing is illustrated by the importance of context in determining how we perceive objects. However, it cannot occur on its own. Even though it allows us to fill in the gaps in ambiguous and out-of-context stimuli, we would be unable to perceive the meaning of such stimuli without bottom-up processing. Bottom-up processing: Consists of the progression of recognizing and processing info from individual components of stimuli and moving to the perception of the whole. We would make no headway in our recognition of the sentence without being able to perceive the individual shapes that make up the letters. Some perception, then, occurs at the level of the patterns and features of each of the separate letters. -Top-down and bottom-up processing occur simultaneously and interact with each other, in our perception of the world around us. Bottom-up processing permits us to process the fundamental characteristics of stimuli, whereas top-down processing allows us to bring our experience to bear on perception. As we learn more about the complex processes involved in perception, we are developing a better understanding of how the brain continually interprets info from the senses and permits us to make responses appropriate to the environment.

Sleep Disturbances: Slumbering Problems

- At one time or another, almost all of us have difficulty sleeping-a condition known as INSOMNIA. It is where you are unable to sleep or are sleeping too little. Treatments: - Counting Sheep - It is good for you because the left hemisphere sees it as a reason and the right hemisphere uses the imagery so the two hemispheres start to function. - A progressive relaxation technique (tense and then relaxes). SLEEP APNEA is a condition in which a person has difficulty breathing while sleeping. The result is disturbed, fitful sleep, and a significant loss of REM sleep, as the person is constantly reawakened when the lack of oxygen becomes great enough to trigger an awaking response. - Sleep apnea also may play a role in SUDDEN INFANT DEATH SYNDROME (SIDS), a mysterious killer of seemingly normal infants who die while sleeping. NIGHT TERRORS are sudden awakenings from non-REM sleep that are accompanied by extreme fear, panic, and strong physiological arousal. Usually occurring with 1 hour of going to sleep during stage 4 sleep. They occur most frequently in children between the ages of 3 and 8. NIGHTMARES: Bad dreams that occur toward the morning during REM sleep. More frequent than night terrors. NARCOLEPSY is uncontrollable sleeping that occurs for short periods while a person is awake. No matter what the activity-holding a heated conversation, exercising, or driving-a narcoleptic will suddenly fall asleep. People with narcolepsy go directly from wakefulness to REM sleep, skipping the other stages. The causes of narcolepsy are not known, although there could be a genetic component because narcolepsy runs in families. SLEEPTALKING AND SLEEPWALKING (SOMNAMBULISM): Both occur during stage 4 sleep and about 10% of children have, however, it doesn't go past the age of 12. Sleeptalkers and sleepwalkers usually have a vague consciousness of the world around them, and a sleepwalker may be able to walk with agility around obstructions in a crowded room. It is caused by stress and a fever. Occurs rarely in strange places. SLEEP DEPRIVATION: -Peter Tripp a disk jockey stayed up for 200 hours Randy Gardner stayed up for 264 hours. - Almost any degree of sleepiness can be overcome by physical exercise. If people go without hours of sleep, they will start to hear and see hallucinations. The amount of sleep required to catch up after prolonged wakefulness is about the same as for normal night's sleep (up to 14 hours). HYPERSOMNIA: Excessive daytime sleep. ENURESIS: Bed-wetting. It happens more in males than females, however, it is not usually caused by psychology disturbances. BRUXISM: Teeth grinding.

REM Sleep: The Paradox of Sleep

- The heart rate increases and becomes irregular, their blood pressure rises, and their breathing rate increases. Most characteristic of this period is the back-and-forth movement of their eyes as if they were watching an action-filled movie. This period is called RAPID EYE MOVEMENT (REM SLEEP). REM SLEEP: Sleep occupying 20% of an adult's sleeping time, characterized by increased heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing rate; erections; eye movements; and the experience of dreaming. 20-25 cycles per second. Beta waves. 80% of sleep is slow-wave sleep. 20% of it is REM. - Paradoxically, while all this activity is occurring, the major muscles of the body appear to be paralyzed. And although some dreaming occurs in non-REM stages of sleep, dreams are most likely to occur in the REM period, where they are most vivid and easily remembered. - There is a good reason to believe that REM sleep plays a critical role in everyday human functioning. People deprived of REM sleep-by being awakened every time they begin to display the physiological signs of that stage-show a REBOUND EFFECT when allowed to rest undisturbed. With this rebound effect, REM-deprived sleepers spend significantly more time in REM sleep than they normally would. In addition, REM sleep may play a role in learning and memory, allowing us to rethink and restore info and emotional experiences that we've had during the day. DREAMS: During REM and non-REM sleep. It is described as a mentation through a thought-like or verbal formation. - Research findings: All people dream. It occurs throughout the night, about approximately 90 minutes. - Intervals: Each dream lasts longer than the previous one. - Importance of Dreams: Dream deprivation increases the need to dream. Connects to the REM rebound.

The Function and Meaning of Dreaming

- Using psychoanalytic theory, Sigmund Freud viewed dreams as a guide to the unconscious. In his UNCONSCIOUS WISH FULFILLMENT THEORY, he proposed that dreams represent unconscious wishes that dreamers desire to see fulfilled. To Freud, the MANIFEST CONTENT of the dream is what we remember and report about the dream-its storyline. The manifest content, however, disguises the LATENT CONTENT, which includes the actual, underlying wishes that the dream represents. Because the underlying wishes (the latent content) are threatening to the dreamer, they are hidden in the dream's storyline (the manifest content). - According to the DREAMS-FOR-SURVIVAL Theory, which is based on the evolutionary perspective, dreams permit us to reconsider and reprocess during sleep info that is critical for our daily survival. Dreaming is considered an inheritance from our animal ancestors, whose small brains were unable to sift sufficient info during waking hours. Consequently, dreaming provided a mechanism that permitted the processing of info 24 hours a day. In the dreams-for-survival theory, dreams represent concerns about our daily lives, illustrating our uncertainties, indecisions, ideas, and desires. - Using the neuroscience perspective, psychiatrist J. Allan Hobson has proposed the activation-synthesis theory of dreams. ACTIVATION-SYNTHESIS THEORY: The theory that the brain produces random electrical energy during REM sleep that stimulates memories stored in the brain. - It has been defined by the ACTIVATION INFO MODULATION (AIM) THEORY. According to AIM, dreams are initiated in the brain's pons, which sends random signals to the cortex. Areas of the cortex that are involved in particular waking behaviors are related to the content of dreams. For example, areas of the brain related to vision are involved in the visual aspects of the dream related to motion.

Principles of Learning: Reinforcement schedules

1. Continuous a) Reinforcement: reinforce every response emitted b) Non-reinforcement: response receive no reinforcement c) Neither a nor b are good for maintaining behavior for the long run 2. Intermittent/partial: behavior maintained on partial reinforcement schedules show greater resistance to extinction. (i.e. they persist longer) 3. Interval: Time a) Fixed: reinforcement is given after fixed time intervals; tends to sustain a more persistent effort b) Scalloping: respond slowly after reinforcement/reward and quickly before the next reward is due c) Variable: response is given on average times that vary; e.g. pop quizzes; subject is less likely to slow down responses because it doesn't know exactly when response will come 4. Ratio: 3 of responses (encourages high rates of responding) a) Fixed: response is given every nth response; e.g. piecework in garment factory b) Variable: response is given on average of every nth response; e.g. slot-machine gambling: delayed gratification produces high, constant responses

Principles of Learning: Types of Reinforcement and Punishment

1. Positive: add something to the situation 2. Negative: remove something from the situation 3. Reinforce: increase the probability of response 4. Punishment: decrease the probability of response

The Stages of Sleep

AWAKE: Moves 20-25 cycles per second. Associates with beta waves. Desynchronized high frequency. Low amplitude. DROWSY: 12-14 cycles per second. Associates itself with alpha waves. Larger synchronized waves. Slower process. Start to lose thoughts. And you may tend to jump sometimes. - When people first go to sleep, they move from a waking state in which they are relaxed with their eyes closed into STAGE 1 SLEEP. STAGE 1 SLEEP: The state of transition between wakefulness and sleep, characterized by relatively rapid, low-amplitude brain waves. 9-12 cycles per second and deals with theta waves. - It only lasts for a couple of minutes. During Stage 1, images sometimes appear, as if we were viewing still photos, although this is not true dreaming, which occurs later in the night. - As sleep becomes deeper, people enter STAGE 2 SLEEP, STAGE 2 SLEEP: A sleep deeper than that of stage 1, characterized by a slower, more regular wave pattern, along with momentary interruptions of "sleep spindles". 3-6 cycles per second. Takes up 50% of sleep. If awakened you would say that you were asleep. Difficult to awaken from. - This makes up about half of the total sleep of those in their early 20s. It becomes increasingly difficult to awaken a person from sleep as stage 2 progresses. - People then drift into STAGE 3 SLEEP. STAGE 3 SLEEP: A sleep characterized by slow brain waves with greater peaks and valleys in the wave pattern than in stage 2 sleep. 2-4 cycles per second. Beginning delta waves. Takes up 20-50% of your sleep. Larger, slower waves. Deep sleep. - And by this time, sleepers arrive at STAGE 4 SLEEP. STAGE 4 SLEEP: The deepest stage of sleep, during which we are least responsive to outside stimulation. 1-4 cycles per second. Delta waves. At least 50% of your sleep. Low frequency. High amplitude. Deep sleep. Several sleep disturbances/disorders occur here. -In the first half of the night, sleep is dominated by stages 3 and 4. The second half is characterized by stages 1 and 2-as well as a fifth stage during which dreams occur. - Stages 1 through 4 is also called non-REM sleep.

Levels of Consciousness

CONSCIOUS: Thoughts/memories to which we are FULLY AWARE. Not non-conscious info (e.g. hormone changes, electrical brain activity, etc.) PRECONSCIOUS: Absent but info may be brought to level of consciousness (e.g. first day of this class). UNCONSCIOUS: Connected to memories and feelings. Impulses which are very difficult to bring to awareness (e.g. you hate your mother).

Modes of Consciousness

CONSCIOUSNESS- immediate awareness of both external and internal events. PASSIVE: Meaning UNFOCUSED. Open awareness of surroundings. Relaxed enjoyment (e.g. listening to music). ACTIVE: Meaning FOCUSED. Productive mental activities (e.g. planning; decision-making).

Daydreams: Dreams Without Sleep

DAYDREAMS are fantasies that people construct while awake. - Unlike dreaming that occurs during sleep, daydreams are more under people's control. Therefore, their content is often more closely related to immediate events in the environment that is the content of the dreams that occur during sleep. - Daydreams are a typical part of waking consciousness, even though our awareness of the environment around us declines while we are daydreaming. For example, around 2% to 4% of the population spends at least half their free time fantasizing. - When dealing with complex problem solving, daydreaming may be the only time these areas are activated simultaneously, suggesting that daydreaming may lead to insights about problems that we are grappling.

Classification on Drugs: Depressants

Depressants: Alcohol and barbiturates (Nembutal, Seconal and phenobarbital). EFFECTS: Anxiety reduction, impulsiveness, dramatic mood swings, bizarre thoughts, suicidal behavior, slurred speech, disorientation, slowed mental and physical functioning, limited attention span. WITHDRAWAL SYMPTOMS: Weakness, restlessness, nausea and vomiting, headaches, nightmares, irritability, depression, acute anxiety, hallucinations, seizures, possible death. ADVERSE/OVERDOSE REACTIONS: Confusion, decreased response to pain, shallow respiration, dilated pupils, weak and rapid pulse, coma, possible death. - Rohypnol: EFFECTS: Muscle relaxation, amnesia, sleep. WITHDRAWAL SYMPTOMS: Seizures ADVERSE/OVERDOSE REACTIONS: Seizures, coma, incapacitation, inability to resist sexual assault.

Depth Perception

Depth perception is the ability to view the world in three dimensions and to perceive distance. It is due largely to the fact that we have two eyes. Because there is a certain distance between the eyes, a slightly different image reaches each retina. The brain integrates thee two images into one view, but it also recognizes the difference in images and uses this difference to estimate the distance of an object from us. -The difference in the images seen by the left eye and the right eye is known as BINOCULAR DISPARITY. It is also called Stereoscopic. The closer an object is to your eyes, the more it goes outside the retina view. And the further it is away from your eyes, the less it goes outside the retina view. Binocular vision works only at more than 100 meters. -In some cases, certain cues permit us to obtain a sense of depth and distance with just one eye. These cues are known as MONOCULAR CUES. It is also called Monoscopic, and is very similar to pictorial depth cues (in which artists use) and it is where there is one eye and it depends on the image projected onto the retina. There are many Monocular cues: Linear Perspective: Parallel lines appear to converge and distant objects appear closer together. Aerial Perspective: When it appears closer it is more clear to the eye. Interposition: When one object looks like it is overlapping another object, but it isn't. The closer object is the entire image. Texture Gradients: The closer an object gets to your sight of vision, the more detail it has and it appears more coarse to the eye. Relative Size: Distant objects are smaller and take up less of your visual field. Motion Parallax: The movement near the objects moves faster than the distant objects. Light and Shadow: Objects appear in front of the shadow they cast. The angle and sharpness of the shadow will influence the amount of depth perceived. -The eye muscles are only effective within 10 feet of the object. When the ciliary muscles start bending the lens, it means that it is trying to accommodate for the lack of vision. And it tries to converge when the extra-ocular muscles are moving the entire eye. Subliminal Perception refers to the perception of messages about which we have no awareness. The stimulus could be a written word, a sound, or even a smell that activates the sensory system but that is not intense enough for a person to report having experienced it. For example, in some studies, people are exposed to a descriptive label-called a PRIME-about a person (such as the word smart or happy) so briefly that they cannot report seeing the label. Later, however, they form impressions that are influenced by the content of the prime. Somehow, they have been influenced by the prime that they say they couldn't see, providing some evidence for subliminal perception. Extrasensory Perception is a perception that does not involve our known senses. Although half of the general population of the U.S. believes it exists, most psychologists reject the existence of it.

Altered States of Consciousness

HYPNOSIS: Where people begin to go into a trance like state of heightened susceptibility to the suggestions of others. - Started by Mesmer in the 1700s, created the word "mesmerized". - Deals with the interplay between voluntary and involuntary control. - Uses relaxation, suggestion, restriction of attention, and intense concentration (Hypnotic Conditions). - Despite their compliance when hypnotized, people do not lose all will of their own. Only 8 out of 10 can be hypnotized but only a small % are highly responsive to hypnosis.They will not perform antisocial behaviors, and they will not carry out self-destructive acts. People will not reveal hidden truths about themselves, and they are capable of lying. Moreover, people cannot by hypnotized against their will-despite popular misconceptions. - According to famed hypnosis researcher Ernest Hilgard, hypnosis brings about a DISSOCIATION, or division, of consciousness into two simultaneous components. - People go under hypnosis for certain reasons: - To control pain - Reduce the like of smoking - Treating psychological disorders - To assist la enforcement - To improve athletic performance SLEEP: - FUNCTIONS OF SLEEP: 1) Energy Conservation 2) Restorative Period: forced to conserve energy 3) Behavioral Adaptive (Webb)- a protective device carried out from pre-historic times when we needed to put oneself in a non-responsive state so the threatening environment won't bother us. 4) Use to consolidate memories. - CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS (from the Latin CIRCA DIEM, or "about a day") are biological processes that occur regularly on approximately a 24-hour cycle (Programmed into our daily lives). (Example: 2 weeks to recover from 4 hour change) - Regulated by the hypothalamus. - Several other bodily functions, such as body temperature, hormone production, and blood pressure, also follow circadian rhythms. - The brain's SUPRACHIASMATIC NUCLEUS (SCN) controls circadian rhythms. - However, the relative amount of light and darkness, which varies with the seasons of the year, also plays a role in regulating circadian rhythms. IN fact, some people experience SEASONAL AFFECTIVE DISORDER, a form of severe depression in which feelings of despair and hopelessness increase during the winter and lift during the rest of the year. The disorder appears to be a result of the brevity and gloom of winter days. - AVERAGE SLEEP TIME - Infants: 13-16 hours (Because it becomes overwhelming for them, so they need all the rest they can get.) - Adolescents: 10-11 hours - Adults: 7-8 hours - Takes up about 1/3 of your lifetime. - MEASURING SLEEP: - EEG: records brain electrical activity - EMG: records muscle movement - EOG: records eye movement - KINDS OF SLEEP: 1) Non-rapid eye movement a) NREM b) Brain relatively inactive c) Body highly active d) Eyes hardly moving 2) REM- brain active a) Body immobile (as if paralyzed) b) Eyes moving rapidly c) Most dreams occur here - Characteristics of REM a) Rem rebounds if you miss too much REM sleep, and you make up for it by deleting stage 4 of the sleep cycle. b) Deprivation makes a person grouchy c) Internal organs act as day-time emergency (heart increase, respiration (shallow & fast), blood pressure increases; sex organs may fill with blood) d) REM increases over the duration of the night. - 1st for 10 mins - 2nd After 20 mins later for 20 mins - 3rd 90 minutes later for 40 mins e) REM Time - Early age 50% - Middle age 20% - Later age 14%

Classification on Drugs: Hallucinogens

Hallucinogens: Cannabis (marijuana, hashish, and hash oil) EFFECTS: Euphoria, relaxed inhibitions, increased appetite, disoriented behavior. WITHDRAWAL SYMPTOMS: Hyperactivity, insomnia, decreased appetite, anxiety. ADVERSE/OVERDOSE REACTIONS: Severe reactions rare but include panic, paranoia, fatigue, bizarre and dangerous behavior, decreased testosterone over long-term; immune-system effects. - MDMA: EFFECTS: Heightened sense of oneself and insight, feelings of peace, empathy, energy. WITHDRAWAL SYMPTOMS: Depression, anxiety, sleeplessness. ADVERSE/OVERDOSE REACTIONS: Increase in body temperature, memory difficulties. - LSD: EFFECTS: Heightened aesthetic responses; vision and depth distortion; heightened sensitivity to faces and gestures; magnified feelings; paranoia, panic, euphoria. WITHDRAWAL SYMPTOMS: Not reported. ADVERSE/OVERDOSE REACTIONS: Nausea and chills; increased pulse, temperature, and blood pressure; slow, deep breathing; loss of appetite; insomnia; bizarre; dangerous behavior.

Learning: Classical Conditioning

Learning: any relatively permanent change in behavior that can be attributed to experience or practice. Classical Conditioning (PASSIVE) 1. Names: Classical and Respondent 2. Proponents: Pavlov and Watson 3. Definition: a reflexive (unlearned) behavior to a known stimulant is paired with a neutral stimulus. a) It begins with reflexive behavior b) Complete when a neutral stimulus alone can elicit a reflexive response. 4. Characteristics a) Subject is passive b) Response is involuntary c) Response is elicited d) Pairing 2 stimuli 5. law of Classical Conditioning: a) When the 2 stimuli are paired and the UCS elicits a reflex response (UCR) b) New reflex is created in which a previously neutral stimulus comes to elicit the original reflex response. 6. Terms: a) UCS (Unconditioned Stimulus): any variable that elicits a UCR: the stimulus that initially brings forth the reflex b) UCR (Unconditioned Response): any response elicited by a UCS c) Unconditioned means unlearned; therefore it is reflexive d) Habituation: when a stimulus is repeated without anything else happening so that it becomes a neutral stimulus. e) Neutral stimulus (is nothing of interest to you) and the orienting reflex gradually disappear. 7. Acquisition measurement: as the subject (dog) begins to associate the conditioned stimulus (tone or sound) with the conditioned response (saliva), then: a) The amplitude or amount of response increases (saliva) b) The latency or time it takes to begin responding decreases (salivating) 8. Timing and conditioning: Acquisition (in order of effectiveness) a) Delayed pairing: the conditioned stimulus is presented and while it is on and in at 1/2 seconds, the unconditioned stimulus is presented b) Trace pairing: the conditioned stimulus is presented for short time and then turned off before the UCS is presented c) simultaneous pairing: presenting the conditioned stimulus and the UCS together d) Backward pairing: the UCS is presented, then taken away and then the CS is presented. 1) Jon B. Watson attributed all learning to classical conditioning 2) Both delayed and trace became poorer as time interval between CS: UCS increases 3) Due to the failure of simultaneous and backward conditioning, Rescorla argues that the presence of a predictive contingency (relationship) between CS and UCS is more crucial than timing. 9. Extinction: responses are no longer reinforced 10. Spontaneous Recovery: spontaneous, brief recovery of a response following extinction

Classification on Drugs: Narcotics

Narcotics: Heroin and morphine EFFECTS: Anxiety and pain reduction, apathy, difficulty in concentration, slowed speech, decreased physical activity, drooling, itching, euphoria, and nausea. WITHDRAWAL SYMPTOMS: Anxiety, vomiting, sneezing, diarrhea, lower back pain, watery eyes, runny nose, yawning, irritability, tremors, panic, chills and sweating, cramps. ADVERSE/OVERDOSE REACTIONS: Depressed levels of consciousness, low blood pressure, rapid heart rate, shallow breathing, convulsions, coma, possible death. - Oxycodone: EFFECTS: Pain reduction, shallow breathing, slow heartbeat, seizure (convulsions); cold, clammy skin; confusion. WITHDRAWAL SYMPTOMS: Sweating, chills, abdominal cramps, insomnia, vomiting, diarrhea. ADVERSE/OVERDOSE: Extreme drowsiness, muscle weakness, confusion, cold and clammy skin, pinpoint pupils, shallow breathing, slow heart rate, fainting, or coma.

Learning: Operant or Instrumental

Operant or Instrumental (ON PURPOSE) - They basically mean the same thing. 1. Proponents: E.L. Thorndike; B.F. Skinner 2. Definition: a) Voluntary (active) response of an organism on its environment b) The response is instrumental in bringing about some effect 3. Characteristics: how this differs from classical conditioning a) Response is voluntary b) Subject is active c) Response is emitted d) Association between response and stimulus consequence (effect) 4. Law of instrumental conditioning: a) If an operant response is followed by a reinforcing stimulus (reward) b) Then the probability of the response occurring again is increased (MEANING IF YOU GET REWARDED FOR DOING SOMETHING, YOU ARE LIKELY TO DO IT AGAIN.) c) The response is also controlled by discriminative stimuli present before a reinforced response is made. (THE REWARD DEPENDS ON THE DISCRIMINATIVE STIMULUS) d) The discriminative stimulus sets the discriminative for reinforcement; it provides a cue or signal which indicates that if the response is made. (E.G. HEY BABE AROUND DAD) e) It is likely to be followed by a discriminative reinforcing stimulus. f) Also, if the response is made without the discriminative stimulus. g) Then the reinforcement is discriminative stimulus. h) Reinforcement is contingent (dependent) on the response being made under particular stimulus conditions 5. Core Maxim a) B=F (E) ffects (BEHAVIOR IS A FUNCTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT) b) Consequence c) Behavior can be controlled by arrangements of the contingencies between operant responses and their consequences. 6. Law of effect: a) Any response that produces satisfaction in a given situation becomes associated with that situation and therefore is more likely to be repeated when that situation occurs again. (WHEN YOU GET TO AN ENVIRONMENT, IT TELLS YOU HOW TO BEHAVE. EXAMPLE: FAVORITE RESTAURANT) b) The stamping in of an association between stimulus and response c) Two types: (1) Discrete trial: (Thorndike) a) Must go back and try again and again b) Trial and error c) Instrumental (2) Free-responding: (Skinner) a) Respond at own rate b) Not depending upon researcher being there c) Operant (E.G. SKINNER BOX) 7. Acquisition Measurement: = rate of responding (# of responses per constant unit of time) (e.g. 60 sec) 3 Phases a) Operant level: (base line): rate of responding prior to any known conditioning (EXAMPLE: YOU RUN A MILE, GET TIMED, AND THEN RECEIVE TIME.) b) Conditioning: Reinforcement given for appropriate responding (GET PRAISE FOR IMPROVEMENT) c) Extinction: when operant responses are no longer reinforced, the rate of responding decreases. (IF YOU ARE NO LONGER REWARDED, THE BEHAVIOR GOES AWAY.) 8. Early research: a) Classical and instrumental are separate learning processes b) Classical limited to reflex responses controlled by autonomic nervous system c) operant limited to skeletal muscles under voluntary control 9. Recent Research: a) Both classical and instrumental occur together in complex behavior ( Neal Miller) b) Miller (1967) shows operant conditioning of involuntary respondent (classical) behavior c) Rewards can condition heart rate, etc. (biofeedback)

Perceptional Constancy/Problems Caused by our Default for Constancy

Perceptional constancy is the recognition that physical objects are unvarying and consistent even though our sensory input about them varies. It allows us to view objects as having an unchanging size, shape, color, and brightness, even if the image on our retina changes. For example, despite the varying size or shape of the images on the retina as an airplane approaches, flies overhead, and then disappears, we do not perceive the airplane as changing shape or size. Experience has taught us that the plane's size remains constant. There are many illusions in which take place such as: Ames Room Illusion: A distorted room that is used to create an optical illusion by using altered depth cues and physiological context within the room. Moon Illusion: This happens when we use fewer depth cues when it is high noon, which means, when the moon is up in the sky, we expect it to be further away from the Earth. But when the moon is near the horizon, we use more cues, which makes it look even bigger, meaning we think it is closer to the Earth, however it is the same distance as when it was in the sky. Muller-Lyer Illusion: It is where you add arrows to the same length lines. For example, one explanation for the illusion is that eye movements are greater when the arrow tips point inward, making us perceive the line as longer than it is when the arrow tips face outward. In contrast, a different explanation for the illusion suggests that we unconsciously attribute particular significance to each of the lines. Ponzo Illusion: It's where the parallel lines are on a perspective background. Two horizontal lines appear either against a plain background or with a set of converging lines that provide context. The participants adjust the length of one of the horizontal lines until they perceive the two lines as being of equal length. Impossible Figures: It is where reversible figures blatantly show false beliefs. For example, since it appears to be a 3-D object, but the object seems to change its properties depending on how it is viewed. Covering the left side makes it appear as an object with two prongs. However, covering the right side makes it appear as an object with three prongs, not two. When the entire object is viewed at once, the object seems to switch between having two and three prongs. This impossibility confuses the mind. Necker Cube: It is a simple wire-frame drawing of a cube with no visual cues as to its orientation, so it can be interpreted to have either the lower-left or the upper-right square as its front side. Necker cube is used in studies of human's visual perception. Terms: Allusion: Passing or casual reference. Illusion: Distortion of a physical stimulus. Delusion: Bizarre ideas without foundation/blatantly false beliefs. Hallucination: Perceptions without physical stimuli (sensation). Visual Illusions: Physical stimuli that consistently produce errors in perception.

Biological Constraints on Learning: Preparedness (Seligman)

Prepared: innate predispositions to perform a behavior (BIOLOGICALLY, YOU ARE PREPARED TO SPEAK) Contra-prepared: conflict with species-specific behaviors (EXAMPLE: A BIRD WOULDN'T HIT THE LEVER, SO YOU WOULD NEED TO PUT A DISC IN PLACE OF THE LEVER SO IT CAN PECK AT IT) Unprepared: neither prepared or contra-prepared (e.g. bar pressing) Imprinting: Becomes attached to something they see (EXAMPLE: WHEN A BIRD HATCHES, THEY ATTACH THEMSELVES ON THE 1st THING THAT MOVES) Critical period: learning has to take place at a certain time or it won't take place

Principles of Learning: Principle of Reinforcement

Principle of Reinforcement: any stimulus that increases or maintains the rate of responding above operant level (baseline). Stimulus Response=SR 1. SR: primary reinforce (e.g. food,sleep) a) unconditioned (not learned) b) Primary reinforcing stimuli c) Ability to reinforce without prior learning 2. SR: secondary reinforce a) Conditioned (learned) b) Secondary reinforcing stimulus c) Able to reinforce due to prior association with SR 3. Positive and Negative: a) Positive means to present b) Negative to remove c) Both increase the probability of a response 4. Superstitious behavior - responses that increase in probability not because they cause reinforcing consequences but because they accidentally precede reinforcement (e.g. Skinner's pigeon's, test-taking)

Principles of Learning: Principles of Punishment

Punishment: an aversive (negative) event is presented or a pleasant one removed. 1. Escape training: a) Learning to make a response that leads to the withdrawal of an aversive stimulus b) Already caught c) E.g. bar pressing to escape foot shock 2. Avoidance training: a) Learning to make a response that prevents onset of aversive stimulus b) Don't get caught 3. Learned helplessness: a) Results from exposure to aversive stimuli that can't be controlled b) Leads to failure to respond appropriately in a new situation c) E.g. shuttle box with dogs

Motion Perception

Real movement is where the change in the objects' position in space. They have many cues: - The change in the angle of the light that hits the retina. - Continuous stimulation of movement detectors of the retina. Deals with rods. They fire when they see movement. - The image-retina system which is connected to the eyes, causes them to stay stationary. - The eye and head system cause the head to follow the object. Apparent Motion is the perception that a stationary object is moving. It is also the absence of real motion. It occurs when different areas of the retina are quickly stimulated leading us to interpret motion. - Auto-kinetic (self-movement) is tiny uncontrolled head movements and eye muscles moving. - Induced large background moves while the small object is stationary (at the stop light and semi next to rolls back) we assume that small objects move and large objects are stationary. - Stroboscopic: movement perceived between two stationary lights, but it looks like one light. - Phi phenomenon is the motion picture (Wertheimer) perceptual movement occurs between still pictures 30-200 milliseconds. There is also something called afterimages in which an image continues to appear briefly even after exposure to the actual image has ended.

Cognitive Learning

S:O:R: involves mental processes that intervene between stimulus and response Latent (SHOWS UP LATER; CHANGE) 1. Tolman 2. Learning not immediately revealed by change in behavior 3. Develop mental expectations Insight (LIGHT BULB; DING!) 1. Kohler 2. Results from sudden perception of a problem that leads to solution 3. Monkey with boxes with sticks Observational (PREFERRED WAY) 1. Bandura 2. Learning by watching 3. Modeling

Classification on Drugs: Steroids

Steroids EFFECTS: Aggression, depression, acne, mood swings, masculine traits in women and feminine traits in men. WITHDRAWAL SYMPTOMS: Symptoms can mimic other medical problems and include weakness, fatigue, decreased appetite, weight loss; women may note menstrual changes. ADVERSE/OVERDOSE REACTIONS: Long-term, high-dose effects of steroid use are largely unknown, but can lead to swelling and weight gain.

Classifications on Drugs: Stimulants

Stimulants: Amphetamines (Benzedrine and Dexedrine), cocaine, and Cathinone. EFFECTS: Increased confidence, mood elevation, sense of energy and alertness, decreased appetite, anxiety, irritability, insomnia, transient, drowsiness, delayed orgasm. WITHDRAWAL SYMPTOMS: Apathy, general fatigue, prolonged sleep, depression, disorientation, suicidal thoughts, agitated motor activity, irritability, and bizarre dreams. ADVERSE/OVERDOSE REACTIONS: Elevated blood pressure, increase in body temperature, face picking, suspiciousness, bizarre and repetitious behavior, vivid hallucinations, convulsions, possible death.

Principles of Learning: Stimulus Control of Behavior

Stimulus Control of Behavior: Behavior is also controlled by stimuli present at the time of reinforcement 1. Stimulus Generalization: the tendency for stimuli other than the one originally conditioned, to evoke the conditioned response. 2. Generalization gradient: closer stimulus is to training stimulus, the greater the frequency of responding. 3. Stimulus Discrimination: ability to make distinction among stimuli and to respond in a particular way to be a specific stimulus. This can be established by differential reinforcement. 4. Shaping: reinforcing small steps to the final behavior e=rather than directly reinforcing the desired response. 5. Chain of behavior: a series of responses in which each response produces a reinforcer, which serves as a cue for the next response in the chain (Barnabas from Columbia) 6. Autoshaping: learning appears automatically without rewards; e.g. pigeon learns to peck key on its own 7. Species-specific Response: a response relatively fixed and universal for a given species - E.g. - Dogs circle before lying down - Humans talk - Pigeons peck at conspicuous targets when food is around - Monkeys play with latches

Drugs

TOLERANCE- when a drug becomes less effective due to repeated use. DEPENDENCE- 2 kinds 1) physical- body processes are modified so continued use of the drug is required to prevent withdrawal Sxs. 2) psychological- compulsive use of a drug to produce pleasure or avoid emotional discomfort. ADDICTION: extreme dependence; physiological reaction when denied; euphoria is usually initial motivation but leads to physiological dependence - Opponent-process theory- body tends to resist change and maintain constant internal state; resists effects of drugs at first but then dependent on them; so going cold turkey is often dangerous. - Effects depend ON: 1. the form in which it was taken (jell cap, liquid, powder, etc.) 2. the route by which it entered the body (pill, intravenously) 3. the frequency taken 4. the psychoactive drugs differ according to expectations of user, the setting and hx and personality of user 5. dosage 6. drug interactions Uses- from least harmful to most harmful 1. experimental- trial short-term 2. recreational- among friends for pleasure 3. circumstantial- to cope with a specific personal problem 4. intensive- daily with need to achieve relief or performance 5. compulsive- intense, high frequency, with high percentage of dependence

Perceptional Development: Nature vs. Nurture

Visual Scanning is a function of visual perception that is aimed at detecting and recognizing visual stimuli. Here are some examples of visual scanning: Salapatek conducted a study where subjects (1 month old babies) were presented with a large solid black triangle at a distance of 9 inches. Subjects had both eyes open, but only one was photographed. It was found that the infants rapidly localized a vertex of the triangle and executed a cyclical, mainly horizontal scan across this feature for the duration of the exposure. The interpretation was that visually naive infants select only a single feature (an angle) for introspection. However, when the subjects would become 2 months old, then they would see the entire triangle instead of just an angle. Fantz conducted a study where he would show newborns a normal and a distorted face. The result was that the newborns looked at both for an equal amount of time. However, when they became 4 months old, they would stare more at the normal face rather than the distorted one. - The next type of Perceptual Development is the Visual Cliff. The visual cliff consists of a sheet of Plexiglas that covers a cloth with a high-contrast checkerboard pattern. They would then place the baby's mother on the "drop off" end and then ask her to call her baby over the Plexiglas. Most of the infants can discern the depth by the time they can crawl, because learning and experience plays a role. The only infants that wary of infants are locomotor (likes to move a lot) ones. REISEN once said that visual stimulation is necessary for learning depth perception. Restored vision is very slow and arduous (tiring or difficult). - The last type of perceptual development is Attention or selective perception. - Characteristics of the stimuli: - Intensity - Novelty - Movement - Repetition - Characteristics of the person: - Motives - Needs and others