Exam 2 Questions
What is the evidence for increasing source reduction, and what are some examples of how it is accomplished? [Ch21 Q6]
-*Source Reduction* - Designing, manufacturing, purchasing, or the use of material that reduces the amount, and toxicity, of trash -Reduces the amount of waste that has to be managed. -Evident by the amount of waste produced in the USA: peaked in the 1990s and has since leveled off, and it conserves resources. EXAMPLES: -Reducing the weight of things reduces the amount of material needed for production. -Electronic information has reduced paper use. -Many durable goods are reusable. -Elongating product life keeps it out of the waste stream longer. -Less paper junk mail -Composting is becoming more popular.
Describe the materials that are recycled and how recycling is accomplished. [Ch21 Q8]
-Paper and paperboard -> re-made into pulp and reprocessed into recycled paper, cardboard and other paper products ground and sold as cellulose insulation or shredded and composted. -Glass -> crushed and re-melted into new containers, made into fiberglass, or used in "glassphalt." -Plastic -> re-melted and made into carpetfiber, outerwear, drainage tiles, building materials and sheet plastic. -Metals -> re-melted / re-fabricated into aluminum scraps. Yard Wastes > composted to make humus soil conditioner Textiles > shredded to strengthen recycled paper products Old Tires > remelted or shredded to be used in asphalt
Name and describe three methods of treating raw sludge, and give the end product(s) that may be produced from each method. [Ch20 Q7]
*Anaerobic Digestion* - a process of allowing bacteria to feed on the detritus in the absence of oxygen. This decomposition yields *carbon dioxide, methane, and water*. *Composting* - *Raw sludge* is *mixed* with wood chips, or some other *water-absorbing material*, to *reduce* the *water content*. Bacteria, and other decomposers, break down the organic materials which results in rich humus-like materials that make an excellent treatment for poor soil. *Pasteurization* - *sludge* is *heated* sufficiently to *kill* any *pathogens*. The product is a *dry, odorless organic pellet*.
Explain the difference between oligotrophic and eutrophic waters. Describe the sequential process of eutrophication. [Ch20 Q10]
*Oligotrophic* - Water that is nutrient poor and unable to support much phytoplankton. *Eutrophic* - Nutrient-rich water supporting an abundant growth of algae or other aquatic plants at the surface. Process of eutrophication *starts* with *nutrient enrichment*, and proceeds to the *growth* and *die-off of phytoplankton*, the *accumulation* of *detritus*, the *growth* of *bacteria*, and, finally, the *depletion* of *dissolved oxygen* and the *suffocation* of *higher organisms*
What are the eight major primary air pollutants and their sources? [Ch19 Q3]
*Particulates* - soot, smoke, metals, and carbon from combustion; dust, salts, metal, and dirt from wind erosion; atmospheric reactions of gases. Reduces lung function, affects respiration, and cardiovascular disease *Volatile Organic Compounds* - Incomplete combustion of fossil fuels; evaporation of solvents and gasoline; emission from plants. Major agent of ozone formation. *Carbon Monoxide* - Incomplete combustion of fuels. Aggravates cardiovascular disease. *Nitrogen Oxides* - From nitrogen gas due to high combustion temperatures when burning fuels. Aggravates respiratory disease; major source of acid rain; contributes to ozone formation. *Sulfur Oxides* - Combustion of sulfur-containing fuels, especially coal. *Lead* - Battery manufacturing; lead smelters; combustion of -leaded fuels and solid wastes. *Air toxics* - Fuel combustion in vehicles; Industrial processes *Radon* - Rocks and soil. Natural breakdown of radium and uranium.
Describe and compare submerged aquatic vegetation and phytoplankton. Where and how does each get nutrients and light? [Ch20 Q9]
*Phytoplankton* - Float freely and absorb nutrients from the water. *Benthic* - Rooted in the bottom soil and get nutrients from soil in stream bed.
Trace the political history of the international efforts to address global climate change. What is the "climate emissions gap"? [Ch18 Q16]
*framework convention of climate change* in 1992 where the heads of the states agreed to reduce GHG levels,but because the *approach was voluntary* it had *failed* because the developed countries had increased GHG emissions by 7%-9% and the developing countries increased by 25%. then the second effort was the kyoto in 1997 where parties to the FCCC met to make an agreement on reducing GHG emissions. where 38 industrial and former eastern bloc nations had agreed to *reduce emissions of six GHG's to 5.2% below 1990 levels*. the *kyoto protocol had a weakness* because the *major GHG emitters* India, China, and the u.s. *weren't participating*. the U.S. had withdrew from the treaty in 2001 and recently japan, canada, and russia had withdrew aswell.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of WTE combustion? [Ch21 Q5]
ADVANTAGES: -Reduces the weight of trash by more than 70% and the volume by 90% which extend the life of a landfill. -Toxic / hazardous substances get concentrated into 2 streams of ash: "fly ash" or "bottom ash," which can safely be managed within the landfill or converted into concrete blocks. -Burning MSW releases approximately 35% as much energy as coal -The plants have "resource recovery" in which some materials are recovered before / after combustion. DRAWBACKS -Combustion involves air pollution and bad odor. -Combustion facilities are expensive to build and no-one wants to live near one. -Combustion ash is loaded with heavy metals and hazardous substances that have to be handles carefully. -To justify their cost, the plants have to have constant flow of MSW.
What is the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC)? How does it work? What are the impacts of El Nino/La Nina Southern Oscillation (ENSO)? [Ch18 Q5]
AMOC - The pattern of ocean currents that involves global seawater movements between the surface and great depths. Salty water flows to the North Atlantic is cooled and sinks and that forms the North Atlantic Deep Water system. This flow goes southward and is joined by Antarctic water and then extends into the Indian and Pacific Oceans. Surface currents then go in opposite directions and returns water to the North Atlantic. El Nino / nina result in hotter / colder global temperatures.
What are the three major uses of water? What are the major sources of water to match these uses? [Ch10 Q10]
Agriculture, industry, domestic; groundwater and surfacewater
Describe how water demands might be reduced in agriculture, industry, and households [Ch10 Q14]
Agriculture: Plant native species Drip irrigation systems. Developers: Can mimic predevelopment conditions with stormwater management Industry and homes can use less water by using toilets that require less water, replacing leaking faucets, using low flow alternatives. Using "used" water for irrigation.
How does changing Earth's surface (for example, by deforestation) change the pathway of water? How does it affect streams and rivers? Humans? Natural ecology? [Ch10 Q8]
As forests are cleared or land is overgrazed, the pathway of the water cycle is shifted from infiltration and groundwater recharge to runoff, so the water runs into streams of rivers almost immediately. This can cause a flood or bring sediments & pollutants to rivers because of erosion.
What are the principles involved in removing biological nutrients from waste, and what is accomplished by doing so? Where do nitrogren and phosophate go in the process? [Ch20 Q6]
Awareness of eutrophication has caused *activated-sludge systems* to become added. They are being modified and operated to remove nutrients as well as oxidizing detritus (process known as "biological nutrient removal"). Nitrogen gets converted back to nonnutritive nitrogen gas in the atmostphere by bacteria (*denitrification*). Phosphorus is removed as the excess organisms are removed from the system.
Define bioaccumulation and biomagnification. [Ch13 Q5]
Bioaccumulation - The accumulation of small, seemingly harmless amounts of a chemical over time, achieving toxic levels in an organism. Biomagnification - Concentration of small doses of a chemical through the food chain from the large biomass at the base to the smaller biomass near the top of the biomass pyramid.
What two laws pertaining to the disposal of hazardous wastes were passed in the early 1970s? Describe how the passage of the laws shifted pollution from one part of the environment to another. [Ch22 Q6]
Clean Air Act of 1970 and Clean Water Act of 1972. Limits discharges into air / waterways
Describe recent U.S. climate change policy. What is the main reason for U.S. inaction to pass climate change legislation? [Ch18 Q17]
Climate change policy in the U.S. can be described as, scientific research, national legislation, regulatory action and state and local action. Democrat house passed *American Clean Energy and Security Act* but Republican senate prevented it. Bush also pulled out of Kyoto protocol in 2001.
Provide a brief synopsis of global climate change. What are the main issues and trends? [Ch18 Q3]
Climate system is warming. Atmosphere is warmer, oceans are warmer, more precipitation, more extreme weather events, glaciers are melting and sea levels are rising. Increase of GHGs. Good chance that this is happening because of human-made greenhouse gases, mainly CO2, coming from the burning of fossil fuels. !!!!!The Earth over almost a decade has seen an increase in greenhouse gases due to the result of use of fossil fuels over this time. The atmosphere and oceans are considerably warmer, along with an increase in precipitation, extreme weather events such as hurricanes, floods, droughts and heat waves. In addition, the glaciers are melting and sea levels are rising. Our current technologies to produce energy mostly require the use of fossil fuels and there has not been an adequate push toward other alternative energy sources. Without a sincere push and desire by the world, community to find alternative energy sources and develop new technologies to replace our current ones the greenhouse gases will continue to climb. Furthermore, with our continued appetite for fossil fuel use, if we do not slow down there will be no fossil fuels for future generations. Our primary problem is they we cannot come to a consensus at vary levels of the government on agreeing that global climate is happening and the best ways to address the problem.
What are the major steps being taken to reduce emissions from passenger vehicles? What are the CAFE standards, and how are they changing? [Ch19 Q13]
Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) standards are intended to regulate the fuel economy of American cars and light trucks. CAFE standards are intended to increase overall fuel efficiency by making it more expensive for automaker to sell cars with low mpg because they face penalties (goal - 35 mpg by 2020)
Name and describe the facility and the process used to remove debris, grit, particulate organic matter, colloidal and dissolved organic matter, and dissolved nutrients from wastewater. [Ch20 Q4]
Debris and grit: rags, plastic bags, coarse sand, gravel and other objects flushed down toilets or washed through storm drains. Removed by *primary treatment*. Then by a *bar screen* and then a *grit chamber*. Particulate organic material: fecal matter, food wastes from garbage-disposal units, toilet paper, and other matter that tends to settle in still water. They flow through a large tank called *primary clarifiers*. Colloidal and dissolved organic material: very fine particles of particulate organic material, bacteria, urine, soaps, detergents, and other cleaning agents. *Biological treatment* is used, uses organisms that feed on the materials. Dissolved inorganic material: nitrogen phosphorus, and other nutrients from excretory wastes and detergents. It is disposed through the process of *biological nutrient removal*
What is meant by desertification? Describe how the process of erosion leads to a loss of water-holding capacity and, hence, to desertification. [Ch11 Q11]
Desertification - The diminishing of water holding capacity by erosion to a point where plant growth is suppressed. Happens when clay, humus, and nutrients are removed from the soil and nutrients can no longer be held.
What are the two classes of chemicals that pose the most serious long-term toxic risk, and how do they affect food chains? [Ch22 Q4]
Heavy metals and their compounds (lead, mercury, arsenic, cadmium, tin, chromium, zinc, copper) and organic compounds. Affects food chain via biomagnification.
What naturally occurring cleanser helps to remove pollutants from the atmosphere? Where does it come from? What other mechanisms also act to cleanse the atmosphere of pollutants? [Ch19 Q1]
Hydroxyl radical (OH) oxidizes many gaseous pollutants to products that are harmless or that can be brought down to the ground, or water, by precipitation. Sea salts also act as cleansers aiding in the forming of raindrops. Sunlight also breaks organic molecules apart.
Describe the data for atmospheric CO2. What are significant sources and sinks for atmospheric CO2? Why can CO2 be called "the atmosphere's control knob?" [Ch18 Q10]
Increasing levels of CO2 from fossil fuels. Ocean is a sink (absorbs CO2 / phytoplankton) Because it is the "key gas" that governs Earth's temperature.
Explain how climate change and atmospheric pollution can affect the hydrologic cycle. [Ch10 Q9]
It can change both the timing and intensity of precipitation, snowmelt, and runoff. Atmospheric pollution affects the hydrologic cycle because rainfall is suppressed. The atmospheric cleansing is suppressed, and pollutants remain in the atmosphere longer than usual. With suppressed rainfall come drier conditions.
What is meant by mineralization? What causes it? What are its consequences for soil? [Ch11 Q8]
Mineralization - loss of organic material and collapse of soil structure. Only sand, silt and clay is left. Ruins water and nutrient holding capacity as well as aeration.
What are some possible reasons for current skepticism about climate change in the U.S. public? [Ch18 Q14]
New CO2 comes from natural sources.
What are three major cultural practices that expose soil to the weather? [Ch11 Q13]
Over cultivation, overgrazing, and deforestation.
What are the major problems with placing waste in landfills? How can these problems be managed? [Ch21 Q3]
PROBLEMS: -Leachate generation and groundwater contamination -Methane generation -incomplete decomposition -settling IMPROVEMENTS: -Put new landfills on high ground and well above water table and away from airports. -Contour the floors so liquid will run into a tile leachate collection system while the sides are lined with plastic and compacted soil -The entire landfill is surrounded by groundwater-monitoring systems that have to be monitored continually.
Discuss each of the following categories of water pollutants and the problems they cause: pathogens, organic wastes, chemical pollutants, and sediments. [Ch20 Q2]
Pathogens - Disease causing bacteria, viruses, and other organisms. Cause sickness and death. Organic wastes - wastes that contain organic matter. Creates serious problems if it enters bodies of water untreated. Chemical pollutants - inorganic chemicals that include heavy metals (lead, mercury, arsenic, nickel, and so forth), acids from mine drainage (sulfuric and nitric acids), and road salts. There are also organic chemicals which are toxic even at low concentrations. Some may pass up the food chain in a process called biomagnification. Sediments - *Weathering* causes a certain amount of sediment to enter streams and rivers. *Erosion* (from farmlands, deforested slopes, overgrazed rangelands, construction sites, mining sites, stream banks, and roads) can greatly increase the load of sediment entering waterways.
What is radiative forcing? Describe some warming and cooling forcing agents. [Ch18 Q6]
Radiative Forcing - influence any particular factor has on the energy balance of the atmosphere-ocean-land system. Warming > car sitting in sunlight with windows up heats as sunlight is absorbed by interior objects which converts light energy into heat energy and releases it as infrared radiation which is blocked by the windows glass. Cooling > snow and sea ice reflect sunlight.
What law was passed to ensure the safe land disposal of hazardous wastes? What are the main features of the legislation? [Ch22 Q10]
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act All disposal factories have to be sanctioned by permit Requires that toxic waste destined for landfills be pretreated to convert them to forms that will not leach Requirement of "cradle-to-grave" tracking of all hazardous wastes (log everything)
What is meant by salinization, and what are its consequences? How does salinization result from irrigation? [Ch11 Q14]
Salinization - Buildup of mineral salts in the soil to the point where plant growth is suppressed. (over-irrigation) This happens because water is put on soil, but that water evaporates and leaves the salt behind. This happens over and over again and the salt accumulates.
What are the major secondary pollutants, and how are they formed? [Ch19 Q4]
Secondary pollutants are ozone, peroxyacetyl nitrates, sulfuric acid, and nitric acid. It's formed when primary pollutants undergo further reactions in the atmosphere and produce additional undesirable compounds.
Why is secondary treatment also called biological treatment? What is the principle involved? What are the two alternative techniques used? [Ch20 Q5]
Secondary treatment is also called biological treatment because it *uses organisms—natural decomposers and detritus feeders.* The *two alternative* techniques are the *trickling-filter system and the activated-sludge system.*
TAKE NOTES ----> ONENOTE 10/17
Sewage treatment process CH20 Table 19-1 pg 478 (8 categories of pollutants and 4 categories of secondary pollutants) Figure 19-11 on page 481 and Figure 19-12 Additional help -> temperature inversion, atmospheric cleansing. Check bio blackboard for diagram.
What are the main components of our weather, and how is weather related to climate? [Ch18 Q2]
Temperature, air pressure, wind, humidity, precipitation Climate is the result of long-term weather patterns in a region.
What are the criteria pollutants and the National Ambient Air Quality Standards, and how are the standards used? [Ch19 Q10]
The criteria pollutants are *carbon monoxide, lead, nitrogen and sulfur dioxide, ozone, and particulate matter.* The NAAQS are the *allowable levels of ambient criteria air pollutants set by EPA regulation*. The primary standard for each pollutant is based on the *presumed highest level that can be tolerated by humans without noticeable ill effects*
What evidence do global land and ocean temperature provide for a warming earth? [Ch18 Q7]
The upper 3000 meters of the ocean have warmed measurably since 1955, one that is much more drastic than that of the atmosphere. Oceanic warming accounts for 90% of the heat increase of Earth systems over the past decades. The consequences include rising land temperatures, and rising sea levels due to polar ice melts.
What impacts does air pollution have on human health? Give the three categories of impact, and distinguish among them. [Ch19 Q7]
Threat to the respiratory system. The three categories of impact are: *Chronic Effects* (caused by long term exposure) *Acute Effects* (air pollution reaches levels that cause death, although such deaths usually occur among people already suffering from critical respiratory or heart disease or both) *Carcinogenic Effects* (the heavy-metal and organic constituents of air pollution include many chemicals known to be carcinogenic in high doses. Linked to cancer and heart conditions)
What two major acids are involved in acid deposition? Where does each come from? [Ch19 - Q6]
Two major acids are involved in acid deposition are *sulfuric acid and nitric acid.* Both are oxidized by hydroxyl radicals in the trophosphere (from oxides to acids), and Nitrogen fertilizers. *Sulfuric Acid* - Volcanoes, sea spray, microbial processes *Nitric Acid* - Lightning, burning of biomass, microbial processes
Which of the GHGs are the most significant contributors to global warming? How do they work? [Ch18 Q9]
Water Vapor and CO2. Sunlight (short wave-length; high energy) comes through atmosphere, strikes the Earth, Earth absorbs it and converts it to heat. That heat is infrared radiation (long wave-length; low energy), goes back into the atmosphere and is absorbed by GHGs which leads to warming in the atmosphere. !!Solar radiation that reaches Earth's surface is converted to infrared radiation and is radiated upward. GHG in the atmosphere intercept this radiation and are warmed. The GHG in turn reradiate heat energy, and much of this is directed back toward Earth's surface.
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Water erosion starts with splash erosion or when falling raindrops break up the clumpy structure of topsoil. The loose soil clogs other soil pores and decreases infiltration and aeration. Decreased infiltration results in more runoff water and fine particles from the surface; called "street erosion". All of that running water runs into streams and starts running faster and erodes into gullies called "gulley erosion". Water erosion happens when raindrops land on bare soil and break down its structure through "splash erosion". Water erosion can also happen when pore spaces are blocked and water moves over the pores called "sheet erosion". Two parts of sheet erosions can meet to create a rill (small stream) which can then combine with other rills and cause "gulley erosion". This all increases volume & velocity. Wind erosion is caused by wind picking up particles and then throwing them thus reducing nutrients and infiltration. Water-- Splash erosion breaks down structure > sheet erosion happens when water goes over blocked pore spaces > sheet erosion meets to create a rill > rills meet to create gulley erosion
What is the impact of water and wind on bare soil? Define and describe the process of erosion in detail. [Ch11 Q10]
Wind erosion is caused by wind picking up particles and then throwing them thus reducing nutrients and infiltration. Water-- Splash erosion breaks down structure > sheet erosion happens when water goes over blocked pore spaces > sheet erosion meets to create a rill > rills meet to create gulley erosion
List the major components of MSW. [Ch21 Q1]
paper / paperboard yard waste food waste plastics metals rubber / leather / textiles wood grass other
Describe the negative effects of pollutants on crops, forests, and other materials. Which pollutants are mainly responsible for these effects? [Ch19 Q8]
plants are more sensitive than humans to air pollution. ozone goes through the plants' stomata (pores) and result in black flecks and yellow leaves. Acid precipitation damages soils due to chemical interactions.