Exam 2 Review
Changes in Pressure and Volume
-Only looking at gas phases Increase P, Decrease V = Decrease P, Increase V= -Delta n = # of moles of products - # of moles of reactants -When delta n=0 Its at equilibrium -delta n < 0 equilibrium shifts to -----> , -delta n > 0 equilibrium shifts to <----- ,
chemical equilibrium
-The state reached by a reaction mixture when the rates of forward and reverse reactions have become equal. -A state in which the concentration of reactants and products no longer change (net) - Reactants are being converted to products and products are being converted to reactants at the same rate so there is no NET change. A + B <-----> C + D - All reactions are reversible to some extent.
1) Bronsted-Lowry Theory & 2) Conjugate acid-base pair is...
1) Acid-base reactions are proton-transfer reactions. 2) Conjugate acid-base pair is chemical species whose formulas differ only by one proton. a) BL Acid, loses a H and it's conjugate base has a negative charge. A weak acid has a strong CB. Favored in <---- A strong acid has a weak CB.Favored in ---> b) BL Base, gains a H and it's conjugate acid gains a positive charge. A weak base has a strong CA. Favored in <---- A strong base has a weak CA.Favored in --->
Relationship b/w Ka & Kb
1) Ion-product constant for water, Kw: equilibrium value of the ion-product --> [h30+] [oh-] Kw @ 25C Kw= 1.0x10^-14 - Kw= [h30+][oh-]=1x10^-14 -Kw = Ka + Kb 2) As the strength of an acid increases (larger Ka), the strength of its CB decreases (smaller Kb)
Factors that Affect Acid Strength
1) The strength of the H-A bond is the enthalpy required to dissociate HA into H+and A-ions. 2.The polarity of the H-A bond increases with an increase in the electronegativity of A a)This is related to the ease of electron transfer from H atom to an A atom to give H+and A- **b)The weaker the H-A bond, the stronger the acid. The stronger the bond, the weaker the acid. **c)The more polar the H-A bond the stronger the acid. 3) Weak acids= overlap increases, bond strength increase, atomic radius decreases 4) Strong acids= overlap decreases, bond strength decrease, atomic radius increases
How to calculate Titration with
1. Find Mol of given acid/Naoh 2. Find all the mols of given acid/Naoh 3. Find pH----> pH=-log[h30+] or pOH=[OH-] then pH=14-poh a) if you begin with more acid, use [h30+], =mols acid-mols base/ Tot Volume b) if you have more base before equilibrium [oh-], =mols base-mols acid/ Tot Volume 4. ph= 7 when mols acid=mols of base
Calculate the pH of all concentrations
1. Write Equation 2. Complete ICE table 3. Ka = products/reactants= given Ka 4. Ka = x^2/ (given M -x) Assume x<<< given M find x -check? given M - X= given M 5. pH= -log[x]
Link between Equilibrium and Kinetics
A + B <---> C + D Assuming that the forward and reverse reactions occur in a single bimolecular step, elementary steps, we can write the following rate laws Rate of forward reaction = kf[A] [B] Rate of reverse reaction = kr[C] [D] When t=0 [C] = [D] = 0 As A and B are converted to C and D the rate of the forward reaction decreases and the rate of the reverse reaction is increasing, until they are equal, chemical equilibrium -The right side of this equation is the equilibrium constant expression for the forward reaction, which equals the equilibrium constant Kc kf[A] [B] = kr[C] [D] Kf [C] [D] Kc = -------- = --------- Kr [A] [B]
Weak Base
A base that is only partly ionized in H2O equilibrium favors the reactants ex: NH3, C5H5N
Equilibrium Mixture
A mixture of reactants and products in the equilibrium state.
Buffer
A solution characterized by the ability to resist changes in pH when limited amounts of acid or base are added to it.
Lewis Acid
A species that can form a covalent bond by accepting an electron pair to another species "electron cookie monster" - an electron pair acceptor - electron poor - May have a positive or neutral charge - Also called an electrophile ex: AICI3 (most famous LA) Ag+, S02, Cr3+
Lewis Base
A species that can form a covalent bond by donating an electron pair to another species - an electron pair donor -Electron rich (has at least 1 lone pair of electrons or a pi-bond) -May have a negative charge or be neutral -Also called a nucleophile ex: OH-, CI-, NH3, H20
Write/Label conjugate acid and conjugate base? a)H2SO4(aq)+ h20 <---> b)HSO4-(aq)+ h20 <---> c)H3O+(aq)+ h20 <---> d)NH4+(aq)+ h20 <--->
Acid, loses a H and it's conjugate base has a negative charge. Base, gains a H and it's conjugate acid gains a positive charge. a)HSO4-(aq)+ H30+ CB CA b)SO4-2(aq)+ h30+ CB CA c)H2O(aq)+ h30+ CB CA d)NH3(aq)+ h30+ CB CA
Arrhenius acid
An acid is a substance that when dissolved in water, increases the concentration of hydronium ion [h30+]. HA (aq) <--> H+ (aq) + A- (aq) -Acids are substances that dissociate in water to produce hydrogen ions Ex: HCl → H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq), sulfuric acid (H2SO4), hydrobromic acid (HBr), and nitric acid (HNO3)
Weak Acids/MEMORIZE
An acid that only partly ionizes in H20 equilibrium favors the reactants (100%) HN02 HF CH3C02H HSO4- -Weak acids have strong bonds, and don't break apart easily; 100% goes toward the reactants <---- -weaker the acid, the lower polarity HSO4-+ H2O <--> SO42-+ H3O+ therfore, Equilibrium mixture is Mostly reactants b/c HS04- is a weak acid
Equilibrium Constant, Kp
An equilibrium constant for a gaseous reaction in terms of partial pressures: aA (g) + bB (g) <--> cC (g) + dD (g) (PC)c (PD)d Kp = --------------- (PA)a (PB)b ANSWER MUST BE WRITTEN LIKE: 1.3 X10^-3 @ 25 Celsius
Acidic Solution
Any solution that has a higher concentration of hydrogen ions than water. pH< 7 [H30+] > [OH-] [H30+] > 1 x 10^-7 [OH-] <1 x 10^-7 Ka>Kb
Basic Solution
Any solution that has a higher concentration of hydroxide ions than hydrogen ions. pH> 7 [H30+] < [OH-] [H30+] < 1 x 10^-7 [OH-] > 1 x 10^-7 Ka<Kb
Bronsted-Lowry base
Any substance that can accept a proton. -proton acceptor ex: HCIO4 + NH3 <--> NH4+ + CIO4- NH3 is the BL base, because it's conjugate acid (CA) gained a H+ proton (NH4+). The CA gains a H+ proton and gains a positive charge
Bronsted-Lowry acid (BL Acid)
Any substance that can transfer a proton [H+] to another substance -proton donor ex: HCIO4 + NH3 <--> NH4+ + CIO4- HCIO4 is the acid because it lost a H+ proton A BL Acid, has a Conjugate Base (CB). The CB is CIO4-, because it lost the H and gain a negative charge
Catalyst
Catalyst does not affect the composition of the equilibrium mixture. Adding a catalyst only increases the rate of a chemical reaction. Does not increase the temperature of a rxn. Catalyst is not consumed in a chemical reaction.
Test Moz
Ch 14: https://testmozusercontent.com/2050347/student/review Ch 15 https://testmozusercontent.com/2050363/student/review CH 16 https://testmozusercontent.com/2050387/student/review
Acid Strength with periodic trends
Columns: The closest to fluorine is the weakest acid. further from fluorine is the strongest acid. Periods/Rows: The closet to fluorine is the strongest acid. further from fluorine is the weakest
Strong Base
Completely ionizes in an aqueous sol'n to give OH- and a cation ex: NaOH (s) + H2O <--> Na+ (aq) + OH-(aq) Stronger base, higher Kb, lower pKb
Neutral Solution
Concentrations of H30+ and OH- remain equal pH=7 [H30+] = [OH-] [H30+] = 1 x 10^-7 [OH-] = 1 x 10^-7 Ka=Kb
Adding an inert gas
Does nothing to the equilibrium
Changes in concentration
Equilibrium shifts? A <-----> D increase/add [a], go to the ----> increase/add [d], go to <----- decrease/remove [a], go to <----- decrease/remove [d], go to ----->
Changes in Temperature
Exothermic Rxn: - negative Delta H means exothermic A + B <---> C+D+Heat a) Increase Temp, equilibrium shifts to the <---- b) For an exothermic reaction heat is absorbed by net reaction in the reverse direction, so Kc decreases with temperature, and the reaction would shift to the left (reactants) Endothermic rxn: -positive delta H means endothermic A + B + HEAT <---> C + D a) Increase Temp, equilibrium shifts the ----> b) For an endothermic reaction heat is absorbed by reaction in the forward direction. The equilibrium shifts to the right at the higher temperatures, Kc increases with increasing temperature
Reaction Quotient, Qc
Expression that has the same form as the equilibrium expression but whose concentration (Molarity= mol/L) values aren't necessary at equilibrium. - As time passes Qc changes toward the value of Kc. - Qc=Kc when reached equilibrium state Qc allows us to predict the direction of reaction by comparing the values of Kcand Qc: a)If Qc< Kc, -------> towards the products, net reaction goes from left to right, (reactant to products), rxn hasn't reached equilibrium yet b)If Qc> Kc, <------ towards reactants, net reaction goes from right to left, (products to reactants), rxn has gone past equilibrium c)If Qc= Kc, no net reaction occurs, rxn at equilibrium
identify the Lewis acid and the Lewis base: a) AlCl3 + Cl-→ AlCl4- b) 2 NH3 + Ag+→Ag(NH)2+
First look for a positive (LA) or negative (LB) charge: a) LA: AICI3 LB: CI- b) LA: Ag+ LB: NH3
List the following from strongest to weakest acid: H2S H2O H2Te H2Se
H2TE-Strongest acid H2SE H2S H20 - Weakest acid -Same column, further from fluorine is the strongest acid.
Ka, acid-dissociation constant
HA + H20 <--> H30+ + A- PROD [H30+] [A-] Ka= ------- = ---------------- REACT [HA] pKa= -log Ka -Larger the Ka the stronger the acid, -Smaller the pKa the stronger the acid H20 is admitted because it's pure liquid!
List the following from strongest to weakest acid: H2S PH3 SiH4 HCl
HCI - Strongest acid H2S PH3 SiH4 - weakest acid -same row, The closet to fluorine is the strongest acid.
Le Chatelier's Principle
If a stress is applied to a reaction mixture at equilibrium, net reaction occurs in the direction that relieves the stress 1.Stress means a change in the concentration, pressure, volume, or temperature that disturbs the original equilibrium 2.Reaction then occurs to change the composition of the mixture until a new state of equilibrium is reached 3.The direction that the reaction takes (reactants to products or products to reactants) is the one that reduces the stress 28
Kp = Kc(RT)^delta n
In general, the value of Kp is different from that of Kc. delta n = # moles of gaseous product -# moles of gaseous reactant R = 0.0821 L∙atm/mol∙K 16 T= Temperature
Equilibrium Equation
Kc= [C]c [D]d Products ------------- [A]a [B]b Reactants
Which of the following is A BL Base: NaOH HCI NH3 H2S03
NH3 -NaOH is arrenhius base HCI is an acid H2S03 is an acid
Kb, base-dissociation constant
NH3 + H20<--> NH4+ + OH- [NH4+] [OH-] Kb= ------------------------ [NH3] pKb= -log Kb -Stronger base, higher the Kb, lower the pKb -Weaker base, lower Kb, higher pKb H20 is admitted because it's pure liquid!
Strong Acids/ MEMORIZE
Substance that completely ionizes in aqueous solutions to give H30+ (aq) and an anion HCIO4 HCI HBr HI HNO3 H2SO4 -almost completely dissociate in water -strong acids have weak bonds and break apart easily -stronger the acid, the higher polarity - acid-dissocation equilibrium lies nearly 100% towards the products, favored towards products ---> -a conjugate base with the most resonance structure (most stable) has the strongest acid. H2SO4+ H2O -> HSO4-+ H3O+ therefore, Equilibrium mixture is Mostly products b/c h2s04 is strong acid
Why do we leave pure liquids and solids out of equilibrium expressions?
The Concentration (Molarity), of a pure liquid and solid never changes.
Buffer capacity
The amount of acid or base the buffer can react with before giving a significant pH change.
If you have an basic solution what would you expect? 1.[H3O+] < 1 x 10-7 2.[OH-] > 1 x 10-7 3.[H3O+] > 1 x 10-7 4.[OH-] = 1 x 10-7
The answer is 1 & 2 B/C [H30+] < 1 X 10^-7 [OH-] > 1 X10^-7 [H30+] < [OH-]
If you have an acidic solution what would you expect? 1.[H3O+] < 1 x 10-7 2.[OH-] > 1 x 10-7 3.[H3O+] > 1 x 10-7 4.[OH-] = 1 x 10-7
The answer is 3 [H30+]>[OH-] [H30+] > 1x10^-7 [OH-] < 1 x10^-7
When will Kc = Kp
The delta n will be equal to zero. ex: CO (g) + H20 (g) <--> CO2 (g) + H2 delta n = moles of gaseous product -moles of gaseous reactant delta n = 2 moles of products - 2 moles of reactants = 0 Therefore, Kp=Kc
pH
The negative of the logarithm of the molar hydrogen ion concentration [h30+] pH= -log[h30+] [h30+]= 10^-pH pH 0-14 pH<7 acidic pH=7 neutral pH> 7= basic
pOH
The negative of the logarithm of the molar hydroxide concentration [OH-] pOH= -log[OH-] pH + pOH = 14 [OH-]= 10^-pOH
common ion effect
The shift in an ionic equilibrium caused by the addition of a solute that provides anion that takes part in the equilibrium.
Equilibrium Constant, Kc
The value obtained for the equilibrium-constant expression when the equilibrium concentrations are substituted. aA + bB <----> cC + dD Kc= [C]c [D]d ------------- [A]a [B]b Direction Favored: 1.Large value for Kc> 10^3 ----> reaction proceeds essentially to 100% (mostly products) 2.Small value for Kc< 10^-3 <----- reaction proceeds hardly at all before equilibrium is reached (mostly reactants) 3.If a reaction has an intermediate value of Kc= 10^3to 10^-3 a)Appreciable concentrations of both reactants and products are present in the equilibrium mixture
Nitric oxide reacts with oxygen to form nitrogen dioxide: 2 NO(g) + O2(g) <---->2 NO2(g) What is K'c for the reverse reaction if the equilibrium concentration of NO is 0.300 M, O2 is 0.200 M, and NO2 is 0.530 M at 25C? a) 0.0641 b) 15.6 c) 0.624 d) 0.0340
[A]a [B]b [NO]^2 [02] K'c= ---------- = ------------- [C]c [D]d [NO2]^2 = [.300]^2 [.200] ---------------- = 0.06407 [.530]^2 K'c =0.0641
% Dissociation
[HA] dissociated = ------------------- x 100 [HA] inital The higher the % diss. the stronger the acid % diss. increases Ka, pKa decrease % diss. in weak acids increases, dilution increases
How to find the pH of a buffer: a) buffer pH b) acid added c) base adder
[base] a) pH=pKa+ log ---------- [acid] [base]= [given base mol/L x (given volume (L)] [acid]= [given acid mol/L x (given volume (L)] [base - new acid] b) pH=pka+log ----------------- [acid + new acid] [previous base mol - new acid (mol)] [previous acid mol + new acid (mol) ** The pH should decrease c) [base + new base] b) pH=pka+log ----------------- [acid - new base] [previous base mol + new base (mol)] [previous acid mol + new base (mol)] **The pH should increase
Arrhenius base
a substance that increases the concentration of hydroxide ions [OH-] in aqueous solution. (when it dissolves in water) Ex: MOH (aq) <--> M+ (aq) + OH- (aq) sodium hydroxide (NaOH), potassium hydroxide (KOH)
Which is the strongest acid? a) % diss = 98% b) % diss = 62% c) % diss = 13% d) % diss = 4%
a) % diss = 98% The higher the % diss. the stronger the acid
Which equilibrium below is homogeneous? a) 2 CO(g) + O2(g) <--> 2 CO2(g) b) BaSO4(s) <--> Ba2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) c) NH4NO3(s) <--> N2O(g) + 2 H2O(g) d) 2 H2O(l) <--> 2 H2O2(l) + O2(g)
a) 2 CO(g) + O2(g) <-->2CO2(g) all in a gaseous state
Which of the following statements about a catalyst is true? a) A catalyst provides a lower energy pathway for a reaction b) A catalyst is consumed in a chemical reaction c) A catalyst changes the position of the equilibrium in a reaction d) A catalyst increases the temperature of a reaction
a) A catalyst provides a lower energy pathway for a reaction B/C a catalyst is a substance which increases the rate of reaction without undergoing any chemical change by decreasing the energy activation (Ea).
A crude type of disappearing ink is based on the following endothermic equilibrium: [Co(H2O)6]Cl2(aq) <---> [CoCl2(H2O)4](aq) + 2 H2O(g) Colorless Blue If the reactant solution is used to write on a piece of paper and the paper is allowed to partially dry, what can be done to bring out the colored handwriting? a) Add water b) Put paper in the oven c) Put paper in the freezer d) Decrease the volume
a) Add water [Co(H2O)6]Cl2(aq) <---> [CoCl2(H2O)4](aq) + 2 H2O(g) Color will be produced if the reaction favor backward. This can be achieved by adding more water in the reaction.
a) Homogeneous Equilibrium b) Heterogeneous Equilibrium
a) An equilibrium that involves reactants and products in a single phase ex: 2CO (g) + 02 (g) <---> 2CO2 (g) all in gaseous state b) An equilibrium that involves reactants and products in more than one phase ex: 3 Fe (s) + 4H20 (g) <---> Fe3O4 (s) + 4H2 (g) In a gaseous state and solid
As a rule, which of the following phases are not included in the equilibrium constant expression? I. Pure liquids II. Pure solids III. Aqueous solutions IV. Gases a) I, II b) I, IV c) II, III d) III, IV
a) I, II Pure Solids and Liquids are not in the equilibrium constant expression because their concentration (molarity) never changes.
For the reaction, A(g) + 2 B(g) <--> 2 C(g), Kc = 1 x 10-10 @ 25C. Which of the following statements is true? a) The reaction is favored in the reverse direction b) The concentration of the products is greater that the concentration of the reactants c) The value of Kp will be larger than the values of Kc d) deltan = +1
a) The reaction is favored in the reverse direction Because, Kc <10^-3 <---- Reaction is favored in reverse delta n = 2-3= -1 concentration is greater on the reactants side Kp = 4.8 x 10^-11, is smaller than Kc
Which of the following statements about the equilibrium constant, Kp, is false? a) Total pressures are used in the equilibrium equation in place of molar concentrations b) The relationship between Kp and Kc is: Kp = Kc (RT)deltan c) The units for Kp are usually omitted d) Delta n is equal to the sum of the coefficients of the gaseous products minus the sum of the coefficients of the gaseous reactants
a) Total pressures are used in the equilibrium equation in place of molar concentrations B/C The total pressure is not used in Kp. The partial pressures of the gaseous components are used.
Which is the strongest acid? a) [H30+] = 1x10^5 b) [H30+] = 1 x 10 ^4 c) [H30+] = 1 x 10^3 d) [H30+] = 1 x 10^2
a) [H30+] = 1 x 10 ^5 Higher [H30+], stronger the acid
If Kc is the equilibrium constant for a forward reaction what is K'c for the reverse reaction? a) -Kc b) 1/Kc c) Kc d) none
b) 1/Kc K'c is the reverse of Kc [A]a [B]b K'c= ------------ [C]c [D]d
Which of the following changes in reaction conditions will not alter the composition of a homogeneous equilibrium mixture of gases? a) Addition of reactants or products b) Addition of a catalyst c) Decreasing the temperature d) Increasing the pressure or volume
b) Addition of a catalyst Catalyst doesn't alter the equilibrium
Which of the following changes in reaction conditions will NOT alter the equilibrium concentrations? a) Decreasing the pressure or volume b) Addition of an inert gas to the reaction mixture c) Addition of reactants or products d) Increasing the temperature
b) Addition of an inert gas to the reaction mixture - Concentration of reactants, products; Pressure, volume; Temperature; only affect the equilibrium Inert (noble) gases, and catalyst do not alter the equilibrium
The overall reaction for photosynthesis can be represented by the following equation: 6 CO2(g) + 6 H2O(l) <---> C6H12O6(s) + 6 O2(g) The enthalpy change for this reaction is 2802 kJ. Which of the following changes in condition will shift the equilibrium to the right? a) Remove CO2 b) Increase temperature c) Remove C6H12O6 d) Increase the pressure of O2
b) Increase temperature Reaction is Endo, ----> shifting towards the products would increase the temperature
Which is the strongest acid? a) Ka = 1.3 x 10^-3 b) Ka = 2.7x 10^-2 c) Ka = 3.9 x 10^-2 d) Ka = 1.4 x 10^-6
c) Ka = 3.9 x 10^-2 Larger the Ka the stronger the acid
Which of the following statements is false regarding the equilibrium constant Kc? a) When quoting Kc it is customary to omit units b) The numerical value of Kc depends on the form of the balanced equation c) Kc for the reverse reaction is the negative of Kc for the forward direction d) Kc for a reaction at a particular temperature always has the same value
c) Kc for the reverse reaction is the negative of Kc for the forward direction Kc for reverse reaction is the inverse of the Kc (k'c) for the forward reaction not the negative of the Kc for forward direction.
Which of the following statements does not describe the equilibrium state? a) The concentration of the reactants and products reach a constant level b) Equilibrium is dynamic and there is no net conversion to reactants and products c) The concentration of the reactants is equal to the concentration of the products d) The rate of the forward reaction is equal to the rate of the reverse reaction
c) The concentration of the reactants is equal to the concentration of the products Equilibrium is obtained when the rate of forward reaction is equal to the rate of backward reaction and there is no net production of any product when a reaction attains equilibrium. **In an equilibrium, the concentration of the reactant may or may not be equal to the concentration of the product.
Given the reaction: 2 HI <--> H2 + I2. If K'c for the reverse reaction is 1.85 x 10-2 at 425C, what is Kc for the forward reaction at the same temperature? a) 3.70 x 10-2 b) 1.85 x 10-2 c) -1.85 x 10-2 d) 54.1
d) 54.1 B/c K'c = 1/Kc = 1/(1.8x10^-2) = 54.05~ 54.1
Iron oxide ores are reduced to iron metal by exothermic reaction with carbon monoxide: FeO(s) + CO(g) <---> Fe(s) + CO2(g) Which of the following changes in condition will cause the equilibrium to shift to the right? a) Raise the temperature b) Add FeO c) Add CO2 d) Add CO
d) Add CO FeO(s) + CO(g) <---> Fe(s) + CO2(g) + Heat Exo- heat is added to the products Therefore, Adding more CO will shift it to the ----> towards the products, you are increasing the concentration of [a], ---->
"If a stress is applied to a reaction mixture at equilibrium, the reaction occurs in the direction that will relieve the stress." This statement is called: a) The 1st Law of Thermodynamics b) The Law of Mass Action c) The Law of Combining Volumes d) Le Chateliers Principle
d) Le Chateliers Principle
The dissolution of calcium hydroxide is exothermic. Ca(OH)2(s) <---> Ca2+(aq) + 2 OH-(aq) What happens when the solution of Ca(OH)2 is heated? a) The amount of Ca(OH)2 remains unchanged b) The amount of Ca(OH)2 decreases c) The Ca(OH)2 completely dissolves d) The amount of Ca(OH)2 increases
d) The amount of Ca(OH)2 increases Exo rxn, therefore heat is added to products Ca(OH)2(s) <---> Ca2+(aq) + 2 OH-(aq) + Heat Increasing temp, equilibrium will shift towards the reactants <---- therefore, the amount of Ca(OH)2 will increase
Which is the strongest acid? a) [OH-] = 1x10^5 b) [OH-] = 1 x 10 ^4 c) [OH-] = 1 x 10^3 d) [OH-] = 1 x 10^2
d) [OH-] = 1 x 10^2 the lower [OH-] stronger the acid
Which of the following changes in reaction conditions will alter the composition of an equilibrium mixture of gases? a) Increase the temperature b) Decrease the pressure or volume c) Addition of reactants or products d) All of the above
d) all of above
Which is the strongest acid? a) pKa = 2 b) pKa = 3 c) pKa = 10 d) pKa = 1.6
pKa= 1.6 The smaller the pKa, the stronger the acid
Given the reaction at 35.0C: 2 HI(g) <----> H2(g) + I2(g). At equilibrium, the partial pressure of HI is 1.8 x 10-3 atm, and the partial pressures for H2 and I2 are 0.10 atm each. Find Kp at 35.0C:
(PC)c (PD)d Kp= ---------------- (PA)a (PB)b (0.10) (0.10) = ---------------- = 3.08 x 10^3 (1.8 x 10^-3) ^2 Kp = 3.1 x 10^3 @ 35C
