Exam 2 Study Guide A&P 2

3 types of extracellular fiber

1) Collagen 2) Elastic 3) Reticular

What are the 2 main components of connective tissue

1) Collagen ??? 2) Elastic Fiber ???

3 types of ECM Fibers:

1) Collagen; 2) Elastic: 3) Reticular;

Lymphatic system functions:

1) Collect excess interstitial fluid; 2) Transports dietary lipids; 3) Provides immune response.

Structures of the lymph nodes

1) Cortex B-cells (also memory B-cells) dendritic cells; 2) Medulla B-cells, plasma cells (differentiated B-cells that secrete antibodies) Macrophages; 3) Capsule; 4) Afferent vessels coming in; 5) Efferent vessel leaving;

2 types of Epithelial tissue:

1) Covering and lining: Outer coverings of skin and internal organs; forms inner lining of blood vessels, ducts, body cavities, interior of the respiratory, urinary and reproductive tracts. 2) Glandular: Secreting portion of glands such as the thyroid, adrenal, and sweat.

Physical characteristics of blood:

1) Denser and more viscous than water; 2) Slightly sticky, due to all the stuff that is in the blood; 3) About 1 degree higher than oral or rectal temperatures. This is from the friction of being pumped through the circulatory system. 4) Slightly alkaline pH 7.35-7.45 5) Color varies with oxygen content: - lots of oxygen = bright red. - less oxygen = dark red. 6) Makes up 20% of our ECF or 8% of total body mass; 7) The average adult female has between 4-5 and the average male has 5-6 liters of blood.

The two functions of hemoglobin

1) Efficiently carries oxygen from the lungs to the tissues of the body. 2) Helps in the transportation of carbon dioxide and hydrogen ions back to the lungs.

Characteristics of Elastic Fibers:

1) Form fibrous network within connective tissue; 2) Contain elastin surrounded by glycoprotein called fibrillin; 3) Can be stretched 150% without breaking;

Transport function of blood

1) Gases, namely oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2), between the lungs and rest of the body 2) Nutrients from the digestive tract and storage sites to the rest of the body 3) Waste products to be detoxified or removed by the liver and kidneys 4)Hormones from the glands in which they are produced to their target cells 5)Heat to the skin so as to help regulate body temperature

Characteristics of epithelial tissue:

1) Has it's own nerve supply; 2) Is avascular: 3) Depends on diffusion of substances from the blood vessels of the basement membrane. 4)Subject to high stress, cells constantly renew themselves.

2 Types of T-cells

1) Helper T-cells AKA CD4 T-cells as they have CD4 in the plasma membrane. Help with both Cell-mediated and Antibody-mediated immune responses. 2) Cytotoxic T-cells AKA CD8.

2 types of adaptive immunity

1) Humoral immunity; 2) Cellular immunity;

3 stages of inflammation

1) Inflammatory response; 2) Repair and regeneration; 3) Remodeling and maturation.

Physical characteristics of blood

1) Is denser and more viscous than water 2) Feels slightly sticky 3) Temperature - 38 °C - 100.4 °F 4) Slightly alkaline pH ranging from 7.35 - 7.45 5) Makes up 20 % of extra cellular fluid - 8 % of total body mass 6) Adult male has 5-6 liters & the adult female has 4-5 liters

Characteristics of "Ground Substance."

1) Is the component of connective tissue between cells and fibers. 1a) can be fluid, semi-fluid, gelatinous, or calcified. 2) Plays an active role in how tissue develops, migrates, proliferates, changes shape, metabolic functions. 3) Contains water and large organic molecules; 3a) complex combinations of polysaccharides and proteins.

Secondary lymphatic tissue:

1) It is where antigen is localized so that it can be exposed to mature lymphocytes. 2) Initiate adaptive immune response. Function listed on the handout: Immune response.

Protection function of the blood

1) Leukocytes, or white blood cells, destroy invading microorganisms and cancer cells 2) Antibodies and other proteins destroy pathogenic substances 3) Platelet factors initiate blood clotting and help minimize blood loss

Characteristics of Reticular Fiber:

1) Made of collagen coated with glycoproteins; 2) Form a branching network; 3) Provide support and strength; 4) Normally found where there are a lot of cells; 4a) lymph nodes, spleen, liver.

Agranulocytes

1) Monocyte 2) Lymphocyte

Actions of an Antibody

1) Neutralize antigen: - bacterial toxins; - prevents virus from entering cell; 2) Immobilize bacteria: - antibody against cilia or flagella 3) Agglutinizing and precipitating antigen: - antibodies can bind more than one antigen; - can cross-link pathogens (agglutination); -Phagocytic cells ingest agglutinized microbes more easily. 4) Activating complement: - proteins made by the liver and circulating in the blood; - destroy microbes and prevent excessive damage to tissues. 5) Enhancing phagocytosis: - due to agglutination and precipitation.

Granulocytes consist of

1) Neutrophils 2) Eosinophil 3) Basophil

Steps in blood clot formation

1) Platelet adhesion; 2) Platelet release reaction; 3) Platelet aggregation;

5 Main functions of Epithelial tissue

1) Protection 2) Absorption 3) Secretion 4)Filtration 5) Sensory reception

Name these structures of the spleen

1) Red pulp; 2)White pulp with spleenic nodules; 3)Central artery.

Hypoxia

deficiency in the amount of oxygen reaching the tissues.

Platelet adhesion

Platelet's proteins on surface bind to collagen fibers of connective tissue only exposed if blood vessel is breached.

Complement proteins

Poke holes in the cell walls of bacteria which allows our immune system to kill it off.

Rh- factor and pregnancy

Problems during pregnancy can occur when Rh antibodies from an Rh-sensitized woman cross the placenta and attack the blood of an Rh-positive fetus. The Rh antibodies destroy some of the fetal red blood cells. This causes hemolytic anemia, where red blood cells are destroyed faster than the body can replace them.

Adherens junctions:

Protein complexes that occur at cell-cell junctions in epithelial tissues; they are usually more basal than tight junctions.

Cytokines

Proteins secreted by many types of cells that regulate adaptive immune responses. Hormone like chemicals facilitating communication between brain and immune system

Platelet aggregation

Release of ADP causes platelets to become sticky; Activated platelets stick to one another; When enough platelets aggregate, a platelet plug is formed;

Structures of the Hemoglobin

is a globular protein with quaternary structure. It consists of four polypeptide subunits; 2 alpha chains and two beta chains.

B-cells vs T-cells

T cells (thymus cells) and B cells (bone marrow- or bursa-derived cells) are the major cellular components of the adaptive immune response. T cells are involved in cell-mediated immunity, whereas B cells are primarily responsible for humoral immunity (relating to antibodies).

Functions of T-cells and B-cells

T cells (thymus cells) and B cells (bone marrow- or bursa-derived cells) are the major cellular components of the adaptive immune response. T cells are involved in cell-mediated immunity, whereas B cells are primarily responsible for humoral immunity (relating to antibodies).

Platelet release reaction

after adhesion, platelets become activated; Alpha and dense granules fuse with membrane of platelet and exocytose their contents ADP and thromboxane A2 play role in -activating nearby platelets -serotonin and thromboxane A2 act as vasoconstrictors.

Interferon proteins

Interfere with a virus's ability to replicate itself inside the cell. This is a natural protein that can be synthesized in the lab and given to an individual with a bad immune system.

Facts about Antibody-mediated adaptive immunity:

- B-cells become plasma cells and these plasma cells make antibodies. -antibodies bind to specific antigens. - extracellular pathogens (viruses, bacteria, fungi).

Facts about Cell-mediated adaptive immunity:

- Cytotoxic T-cells attack invading organisms; - Effective against intracellular pathogens (viruses, bacteria, fungi;, some cancers, foreign tissue. - Cells attacking cells.

Facts about Exogenous antigens

- Found OUTSIDE of cells; - bacteria, toxins, parasitic worms, pollen, dust, viruses that have gotten into a cell. - Antigen-presenting cells process these antigens. -dendritic cells, macrophages, certain B- cells. -found where antigens are likely to penetrate defenses. -epidermis, dermis, mucus membranes (GI, respiratory, reproductive and urinary tracts), lymph nodes.

Facts about the Lymphatic Nodules

- Is not surrounded by connective tissue also called the Capsule; - Found in mucus membranes of GI tract, Urinary tract, reproductive tract, respiratory tract. - Can be solitary or in groups in specific parts of the body such as the: -Tonsils & Peyer's patches in the ileum of the. small intestine.

Facts about the Spleen

- Largest mass of lymphatic tissue in the body; - Between stomach and diaphragm - Consists of white and red pulp -White has lymphocytes and macrophages surrounding the central artery locations. -B & T cells carry out immune functions. -Red has venous sinuses (blood) and splenic cords (RBC's, macrophages, lymphocytes, plasma cells, granulocytes) -Macrophages remove old RBC's and platelets from circulation. -Storage of platelets (about 1/3). - Production of RBC's during fetal development.

Facts about lymph nodes

- Lie along lymphatic vessels - About 600 total - Superficial and deep - Grouped: mammary glands, axillae, groin; - Divided into compartments.

Characteristics of plasma.

- Mostly water (91.5%); - 7% proteins; - The amount of proteins in your blood is what makes your blood sticky; - Hepatocytes synthesize most plasma proteins (proteins ONLY found in plasma) ~albumin, globulins, and fibrinogen; - Antibodies (immunoglobulins) are plasma proteins important in immune response; - Electrolytes, nutrients, enzymes, hormones and wast products are also found in plasma.

Facts about inflammation:

- Pathogens, abrasions, chemical irritants, distortion of other disturbance to the cell, extreme temperatures. -Four characteristics of inflammation: 1) redness; 2) pain; 3) heat; 4) swelling; -Can cause loss of function of the area. - Attempt to dispose of microbes, toxins, foreign materials and prevent spread.

Adaptive immunity

- This type of immunity is specific, - Immune response caused by antigens, - anything capable of eliciting an immune response. - This type of immunity also builds a memory for an antigen.

Processing of endogenous antigens

- digestion of antigens into peptides - binding of peptides to MHC-1 - presentation of antigen-MHC-I complex on the cell surface.

Facts about Endogenous antigens

- found INSIDE of cells. - viral proteins after virus enters cell, toxins from intra-cellular bacteria, abnormal proteins from cancerous cell.

Complement system

- in blood plasma and plasma membranes. - when activated, enhance immune reactions. - causes bursting of microbes, promotes phagocytosis, inflammation. Is a part of the immune system that enhances (complements) the ability of antibodies and phagocytic cells to clear microbes and damaged cells from an organism, promotes inflammation, and attacks the pathogen's plasma membrane.

Processing exogenous antigens

- ingestion of antigen (phago or endocytosis); - digestion of antigen into peptides; - binding of antigenic peptides to MHC-II - presentation of antigen-MHC-II complex on cell surface.

Interferons

- made by cells infected with a virus. - attach to uninfected cells and induce synthesis of antiviral proteins. -interfere with viral replication - activate neutrophils and macrophages.

MHC

- self antigens embedded in the membranes of cells (except RBC's); - also called human leukocyte antigens of HLA; - first identified in white blood cells. - unique to each individual; - plays an important role in self vs non-self identification. - responsible for tissue rejection; - MHC-I (all cells except RBC's) and MHC-II (antigen presenting cells).

Innate immune system

-Consists of physical & chemical barriers: Skin and mucus membranes. - Also includes internal defenses: antimicrobial substances, NK cells, phagocytes, inflammation, fever. Refers to nonspecific defense mechanisms that come into play immediately or within hours of an antigen's appearance in the body. These mechanisms include physical barriers such as skin, chemicals in the blood, and immune system cells that attack foreign cells in the body. The innate immune response is activated by chemical properties of the antigen.

Simple Columnar Epithelium

1) Ciliated cells of these epithelia are found in the fallopian tubes and endometrium and are involved in the movement of the ovum. 2) Non-ciliated cells are seen in the stomach, small intestine, large intestine and rectum.

Characteristics of a fever:

-abnormally high body temp, -hypothalamic thermostat resets, -the elevated temp intensifies activity of interferons, speeds up reactions (blood flow, respiratory rate), inhibits growth of some microbes.

3 Types of cell junctions

1) Adherens junctions, desmosomes and hemidesmosomes (anchoring junctions) 2) Gap junctions (communicating junction) 3) Tight junctions (occluding junctions)

Name the three cell surfaces

1) Apical 2) Lateral 3) Basal

How does a fever help the innate immunity?

1) Begins as a viral or bacterial infection; 2) Stimulates lymphocytes to proliferate, producing cells that secrete interlleukin-1 AKA: IL-1; AKA "fire maker from within" 3) IL-1 raises the thermoregulatory set point in the brain's hypothalamus to maintain a higher body temp. 4) The higher temp. indirectly counters microbial growth due to the spleen and liver sequestering iron which is triggered by the high temp. which reduces the amount of iron in the blood. 5) Bacteria and fungi require iron for normal metabolism, so their growth and reproduction slows and may cease all together. 6) Phagocytic cells attack more vigorously with a higher temp. (a low grade fever for a short duration may be a desired natural response, not a symptom to be treated).

Name the 5 structures of a lymph node.

1) Capsule 2) Trabecula 3) Central arteriole 4) White pulp 5) Red pulp Need to be able to identify everything but the Trabecula due to it being very hard to identify.

Name the 13 structures of a spleen

1) Capsule 2) Trabecula 3) Splenic cords 4) Splenic sinusoids 5) Arterioles and capillaries 6) Red pulp 7) White pulp 8) Central artery 9) Splenic artery 10) Splenic vein 11) Splenic artery 12) Splenic vein 13) Hilum

Parts of the Thymus and the cells located in each section

1) Capsule 2)Cortex: Immature T-cells; dendritic cells (antigen presenting cells); epithelial cells; macrophages; 3) Medulla: Mature T-cells, dendritic cells, epithelial cells, macrophages. 4)Interlobular septum; 5) Thymic lobe; 6) Thymic corpuscle;

Name the structures of the spleen

1) Capsule; 2) Trabecula; 3) Central arteriole; 4) White pulp; 5) Red pulp;

Regions of lymph nodes

1) Cervical: Neck; 2) Subclavian: Clavicle; 3) Thoracic: Chest; 4) Axillary: Armpit; 5) Cubital: Elbow; 6) Lumbar: Upper abdomen/lower back; 7)Iliac: Pelvis 8) Inguinal: groin 9)Popliteal: Knee

Characteristics of Reticular lamina

1) Closer to the connective tissue, below the basal almina; 2) Contains collagen.

T-cells kill in 2 ways:

1) Release granzymes: -trigger apoptosis; -phagocytes kill microbes after infected cell is killed. 2) Release perforin and granulysin: -perforin makes channel and ecf flows into cell and cytolysis occurs. -granulysin enters through channels and destroys microbes (makes holes in their plasma membranes)

3 main functions of epithelial tissue:

1) Selective barriers: limit or aid transfer of substances into and out of the body. 2) Secretory surface: release products produced by cells. 3) Protective surface: resist abrasive influences of environment.

Two things in our body that help to keep the lymphatic system flowing

1) Skeletal muscle pump: compresses lymphatic vessels and veins; 2) Respiratory pump pressure changes during breathing also help move blood and lymph the valves help keep fluid from back flowing.

Secondary lymphatic organs

1) Spleen 2) Lymph nodes 3) Tonsils 4) Appendix 5) Peyer's patches

3 Types of Lymphocytes

1) T cells 2) B cells 3) Natural killer cells.

Primary lymphatic tissue:

1) Thymus, location where T-cells mature. 2) Red bone marrow, location where B and T cells are born, but only the B cells mature here. Function listed on the handout: Immune cell formation and maturation.

Name the structures

1) Thyroid Cartilage; 2) Trachea; 3) Lungs; 4) Thyroid Gland; 5) Thymus.

3 Functions of blood

1) Transport 2) Protection 3) Regulation.

Characteristics of Collagen Fibers:

1) Very strong. 2) Collagen will differ depending on which tissue it is in. 3) Collagen is the most abundant protein in our body.

The 2 components of blood

1) blood plasma watery liquid ECM that has dissolved substances 2) formed elements cells and cell fragments When blood is centrifuged, cells sink to the bottom plasma forms layer on top White blood cells and platelets are less dense than red blood cells but more dense than plasma form a thin buffy coat between RBCs and plasma. The better hydrated you are the clearer the plasma is.

Characteristics of Basal lamina

1) close to the epithelial cells; 2) secreted by the epithelial cells; 3) contains proteins like laminin and collagen; 4) also contains glycoproteins and proteoglcans. 5) Is the only layer of the epidermis which divides to create new cells.

Three basic stages of a inflammatory response.

1) vasodilation and increased permeability of blood vessels. - substances pass easily from blood to tissues. - blood clotting factors help in repairing injured vessel. 2) phagocytes moving into area. - clean up microbes and damaged cells. 3) Tissue repair.

Leukocytes

A colorless cell that circulates in the blood and body fluids and is involved in counteracting foreign substances and disease A white (blood) cell. There are several types, all amoeboid cells with a nucleus, including lymphocytes, granulocytes, monocytes, and macrophages.

Humoral immunity

A form of immunity mediated by circulating antibodies (immunoglobulins IgA, IgB, and IgM), which coat the antigens and target them for destruction by polymorphonuclear neutrophils. Circulating antibodies are produced by plasma cells of the reticuloendothelial system. The interaction of antibody with antigen also activates the complement system.

Erythrocytes

A red blood cell that (in humans) is typically a biconcave disc without a nucleus. Erythrocytes contain the pigment hemoglobin, which imparts the red color to blood, and transport oxygen and carbon dioxide to and from the tissues.

Leukopenia

A reduction in the number of white cells in the blood, typical of various diseases.

Antigen

A substance that the immune system perceives as being foreign or dangerous. The body combats an antigen with the production of an antibody.

Type's of Blood groups

A; B; AB; and O with either RH+ or and RH- factor

Which blood type is the universal recipient

AB+ blood is called the universal recipient type because a person who has it can receive blood of any type.

Immunocompetent

Able to develop an immune response. An immunocompetent body is able to recognize antigens and act against them. Immunocompetent is the opposite of immunodeficient

Activated platelets vs un-activated

Activated appear spiky, this is to increase surface area. Un-activated appear spherical.

Clonal selection

After an immune cell recognizes a pathogen, it undergoes clonal selection. - lymphocyte proliferates and differentiates when it binds to an antigen. - occurs in secondary lymphatic organs and tissues. - effector cells die after immune response and memory cells can last decades.

Gap Junction

Allow the exchange of ions, second messengers, and small metabolites between adjacent cells and are formed by two unrelated protein families, the pannexins and connexins. Mutations in connexin genes cause a variety of genetic disorders, implicating a critical role in tissue homeostasis.

Reticulocyte

An immature red blood cell without a nucleus, having a granular or reticulated appearance when suitably stained.

Leukocytosis

An increase in the number of white cells in the blood, especially during an infection.

Catenin:

Any of a class of proteins that have a role in cell adhesion.

Cadherin:

Any of a class of transmembrane proteins important in maintaining tissue structure.

Simple Cuboidal Epi.

Are found on the surface of ovaries, the lining of nephrons, the walls of the renal tubules, and parts of the eye and thyroid. On these surfaces, the cells perform secretion and absorption.

Collectins:

Are proteins that provide broad protection against bacteria, yeasts, and some viruses. They home in on slight differences in the structures and arrangements of sugars that protrude from the surfaces of pathogens. They detect the patterns of the sugars, grabbing them like velcro making the pathogen easy to be phagocytized:

Granzymes

Are serine proteases that are released by cytoplasmic granules within cytotoxic T cells and natural killer (NK) cells. They induce programmed cell death in the target cell, thus eliminating cells that have become cancerous or are infected with viruses or bacteria.

Peyer's patches

Are small masses of lymphatic tissue found throughout the ileum region of the small intestine. Also known as aggregated lymphoid nodules, they form an important part of the immune system by monitoring intestinal bacteria populations and preventing the growth of pathogenic bacteria in the intestines.

Neutrophils

Are the first responders of the innate immune system. They migrate from the bloodstream into infected tissues and use phagocytosis and NETs to effectively kill microbes and prevent them from spreading throughout the body.

Functions of the Primary lymphoid organs:

Are where lymphocytes are formed and mature. They provide an environment for stem cells to divide and mature into B- and T- cells: There are two primary organs in this system: the red bone marrow and the thymus gland.

Histology of the Thymus:

Areolar tissue holds numerous lobules together within each lobe. The lobules are made up of small follicles, with each follicle containing a cortex and medulla portion.

Loss of self-tolerance leads to:

Autoimmune diseases.

Location of spleen:

Between the stomach and the diaphragm.

Description of the "Thymus"

Bi-lobed; Between sternum and aorta; Outer cortex and central medulla Cortex: immature T cells, dendritic cells (antigen presenting cells), epithelial cells, macrophages: Medulla: mature T cells, dendritic cells, epithelial cells, macrophages.

Function of the spleen

Blood reservoir houses macrophages that remove foreign particles, damaged RBC's and cellular debris from the blood; it contains lymphocytes/WBC's It recycles anything useful from the old blood cells it breaks down and sends it back into the system to be used again such as Iron.

Type O blood has antibodies for which type of blood.

Both type A and type B

Histology of the spleen:

Capsule: connective tissue: Red pulp: like cortex; medium-dark stain; White pulp: like medulla; dark stain; Central artery: stains pale in white pulp.

Description of Red Blood Cells

Carry oxygen. They contain hemoglobin and it is the hemoglobin which permits them to transport oxygen (and carbon dioxide). Hemoglobin, aside from being a transport molecule, is a pigment.

Skin and Mucus and the role it plays in the "innate immunity system."

Epidermis: Keratinized cells, shedding removes microbes. Is the best protection we have IF unbroken, if broken microbes can enter. Mucus: Traps microbes, trapping particles expelled by coughing or sneezing, swallowing sends pathogens to the stomach.

Psuedostratified Epi

Ciliated cells are found in the linings of the trachea as well as the upper respiratory tract. Non-ciliated cells are located in the membranous part of male vas deferens. Nuclei are not all in the same place, a key point in identifying psuedo from columnar cells.

Lymphatic capillaries are:

Closed at one end, located in spaces between cells Lymphatic vessels, look like small veins, thinner walls and smaller valves. Flow through lymph nodes, contain B cells and T cells.

What is the most abundant protein in our body?

Collagen

Atrial natriuretic peptide / ANP

Comes about when your blood pressure is too high it causes the sodium to be left in the kidney tubules then water follows.

The difference's between Epithelial cells and Connective tissue.

Common sense tells us that epithelial cells make up epithelial tissues. They are arranged in a single or multiple layers. These comprise the internal and external linings of body cavities like the skin, lungs, kidneys, mucous membranes and so on. These cells are very close to each other and have very small matrix amid them. Between the cells are snug junctions that regulate the passage of substances. There are no blood vessels or capillaries found in these tissues, but they get their nutrients from an underlying thin sheet of connective tissues known as the basement membrane.

The difference's between Connective tissue and Epithelial cells.

Connective tissues are composed of fibers forming a network and a semi fluid intracellular matrix. It is where blood vessels and nerves are embedded. It is responsible for distributing nutrients and oxygen throughout the tissues. It forms the skeleton, the nerves, fat, blood and the muscles. It functions not only to support and protect but it binds other tissues to promote a way for communication and transport. In addition the adipose, one type of connective tissue is responsible for providing heat in the body. The connective tissues are vital and significant component of almost all organs in the body.

Collagen Fiber

Consist of the protein collagen, strong and tough, but very flexible; provides high tensile strength; stronger than steel.

Facts about the Basement membrane:

Consists of 2 layers: basal lamina, and reticular lamina. Attaches to and supports the overlying epithelial tissue.

Gastric juices and the role it plays in the "innate immunity system."

Contains the protein-splitting enzyme pepsin. Has a low pH due to hydrochloric acid in the stomach. The combination of pepsin and Hydrochloric acid kill many pathogens that enter the stomach.

B-cells are created and mature where?

Created and mature in the "B" for Bone marrow.

T-cells are created and mature where?

Created in the Bone marrow: Mature in the "T" for Thymus;

Other functions of the basement membrane

During development it guides migrating primordial cells to their destinations. It is of prime importance during early development. Early basement membranes are primarily laminin, and non-functional laminin prevents development. Basal lamina also is a barrier to cell penetrating migration, preventing contact between fibroblasts and epithelia, and it is not breached by epithelia except in cases of malignancy. It is permeable, however, to macrophages, lymphocytes, and nerve processes.

Life cycle of a Red Blood Cell

Erythrocyte differentiation takes place in 8 stages. It is the pathway through which an erythrocyte matures from a hemocytoblast into a full-blown erythrocyte. The first seven all take place within the bone marrow. After stage 7 the cell is then released into the bloodstream as a reticulocyte, where it then matures 1-2 days later into an erythrocyte. The stages are as follows: 1) Hemocytoblast, which is a pluripotent hematopoietic stem cell 2) Common myeloid progenitor, a multipotent stem cell 3) Unipotent stem cell 4) Pronormoblast 5) Basophilic normoblast also called an erythroblast. 6) Polychromatophilic normoblast 7) Orthochromatic normoblast 8) Reticulocyte

Apical Surface

Faces the lumen (cavity) or outside of the organ and is exposed to fluid or air

Elastic Fiber

Flexible and "stretchy" fibers that add elasticity to tissue (like in skin, lungs); formed from the protein elastin.

Structure of Red Blood Cells

Flexible disc shaped cells with a concave surface to increase surface area to volume ratio of these small cells.

Skin and the mucous membrane that line passageways of the Resp., Digestive, urinary, and Reproductive systems and how they contribute to the "innate immunity system.

Form a mechanical barrier that prevent the entrance of some infectious agents. As long as they are intact, many pathogens can not penetrate them. Sloughing of the outer cells removes superficial bacteria with it. The mucus-coated ciliated epi. that lines the resp. passages entraps particles and sweeps them out of the airways and into the pharynx, where they are swallowed. Hair traps infectious agents associated with the skin and mucous membranes and sweat and mucus rinse away organisms before they become firmly attached.

What does Hemoglobin break down into

Globin is broken down into amino acids Iron removed from heme taken to bone marrow RBC precursor cells re-use it Heme converted to biliverdin (green), then to bilirubin (yellow-orange) bilirubin taken to liver, released into bile, goes to small then large intestine in large intestine, bacteria convert bilirubin to urobilinogen Some urobilinogen converted to urobilin (yellow) and excreted in urine Most urobilinogen converted to stercobilin (brown) and excreted in feces.

What is the difference between a granular and agranular leukocyte.

Granular white blood cells contains numerous granules in the cytoplasm, & their nuclei are lobed. Agranular white blood cells have few or no granules in the cytoplasm & have a large spherical nucleus.

What is the difference between ground substance and fibers

Ground Substance: unstructured, gel-like material that fills the spaces between cells and surrounds connective tissue fibers. Contains interstitial fluid, cell adhesion proteins and proteoglycans. Fibers: Offer support and are made up of 3 different types; 1) Collagen (most abundant in our body) 2) Elastic and 3) Reticular

Adhesion molecules

Help WBCs stick to the endothelium endothelial cells display selectins when there is an injury nearby selectins stick to the carbohydrate groups on neutrophils integrins (also on the surface of neutrophils) help them move through the blood vessel.

Functions of the Lymphatic system

Helps body defend against disease; 1) drains excess interstitial fluid; 2) transports dietary lipids; 3) immune responses; From the book: Filter foreign particles & debris from lymph; produce & house lymphocytes that destroy foreign particles in lymph; house macrophages that engulf and destroy foreign particles and cellular debris carried in lymph.

Regulation function of the blood

Helps to regulate the: 1) pH by interacting with acids and bases 2) Water balance by transferring water to and from tissues

Lacrimal apparatus and the role it plays in the "innate immunity system."

Helps wash particles away. Contains lysosyme, - breaks down cell walls of bacteria.

Histology of lymph nodes:

Hilum; Afferent lymphatic vessel: brings lymph to lymph node; Valves: promotes one-way lymph flow; Capsule: Connective tissue; Cortex: outer layer of lymph node; stains darkly; Germinal Center: pale circle in inner cortex; Medulla: inner layer of lymph node; stains pale; Efferent lymphatic vessel: lymph exits lymph node.

Function of the Thymus

Houses lymphocytes; differentiates thymocytes into T-lymphocytes.

Cellular immunity

Immune responses mediated by activated, antigen-specific T lymphocytes. These T cells may function as effector cells or may orchestrate propagation of the inflammatory response and cellular recruitment through their secretion of cytokines and chemokines.

Fibrin

In-insoluble protein formed from fibrinogen during the clotting of blood. It forms a fibrous mesh that impedes the flow of blood. When the clotting process is finished, fibrin is broken down and the cells are carried away.

Formation and flow of lymph

Interstitial fluid composed of nutrients, gases, hormones filters through capillary walls. -more fluid filters out of blood capillaries than flows into them -excess fluid drains into lymphatic vessels contains only small amount of protein (too large to leave blood capillaries) proteins can get into lymph fluid and will eventually be returned to the venous system.

Antimicrobial substances of the innate immunity

Iron-binding proteins: inhibits growth of -certain bacteria by reducing iron. - transferrin (blood, tissue fluids), lactoferrin (milk, saliva, mucus), ferritin (liver, spleen, red bone marrow), hemoglobin. antimicrobial proteins -short peptides -dermicidin (sweat glands), defensins and cathelicidins (neutrophils, macrophages, epithelia), thrombocidin (platelets). -microbes don't develop resistance to these.

Renin

Is a proteolytic enzyme that is released into the circulation by the kidneys. Its release is stimulated by: sympathetic nerve activation (acting through β1-adrenoceptors) renal artery hypotension (caused by systemic hypotension or renal artery stenosis) decreased sodium delivery to the distal tubules of the kidney.0

Transitional Epithelium

Is a stratified tissue made of multiple cell layers, where the cells constituting the tissue can change shape depending on the distention in the organ. When the organ is filled with fluid, cells on the topmost layer of this epithelium can stretch and appear flattened. Alternately, they can also appear cuboidal with a rounded shape when the fluid pressure is low.

Granulysin

Is a substance released by cytotoxic T cells (CD8) when they are attached to infected body cells. It functions to create holes in the target cell membrane and destroy it. Granulysin is able to induce apoptosis in target cells and also has antimicrobial action.

Melanocytes

Is a type of cell that's primarily located in the basal layer of the epidermis. They produce melanin, a brown pigment that is responsible for skin coloration and protecting against the harmful effects of UV light.

Buffy Coat

Is a yellowish orangish color. Is the fraction of an anti-coagulated blood sample that contains most of the white blood cells and platelets following density gradient centrifugation of the blood.

Rhesus (Rh) factor

Is an inherited protein found on the surface of red blood cells. If your blood has the protein, you're Rh positive. If your blood lacks the protein, you're Rh negative.

Adaptive immune system

Is called into action against pathogens that are able to evade or overcome innate immune defenses. There are two types of adaptive immune responses: humoral immunity, mediated by antibodies produced by B lymphocytes, and cell-mediated immunity, mediated by T lymphocytes.

Transitional Epi. is found where?

Is found in urothelium, including that of the renal pelvis, urinary bladder, the ureters, the superior urethra, and the prostatic and ejaculatory ducts of the prostate.

Aldosterone system

Is part of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) This system plays an important role in regulating blood volume and systemic vascular resistance, which together influence cardiac output and arterial pressure. As the name implies, there are three important components to this system: 1) renin, 2) angiotensin, and 3) aldosterone. Renin, which is released primarily by the kidneys, stimulates the formation of angiotensin in blood and tissues, which in turn stimulates the release of aldosterone from the adrenal cortex.

Lymphatic nodule

Is smaller than lymph nodes and lack connective tissue covering, not found along the lymph vessels. They are usually located in the loose connective tissue beneath wet epithelial (covering or lining) membranes, as in the digestive system, respiratory system, and urinary bladder.

VDJ recombination

Is the process by which T cells and B cells randomly assemble different gene segments - known as variable (V), diversity (D) and joining (J) genes - in order to generate unique receptors (known as antigen receptors) that can collectively recognize many different types of molecule.

Agglutinizing

Is the process that occurs if an antigen is mixed with its corresponding antibody called isoagglutinin. This term is commonly used in blood grouping. This occurs in biology in three main examples: The clumping of cells such as bacteria or red blood cells in the presence of an antibody or complement.

Hematocrit

Is the proportion, by volume, of the blood that consists of red blood cells. The hematocrit (hct) is expressed as a percentage. For example, a hematocrit of 25% means that there are 25 milliliters of red blood cells in 100 milliliters of blood.

Function of the basement membrane

Is to anchor down the epithelium to its loose connective tissue (the dermis) underneath. This is achieved by cell-matrix adhesions through substrate adhesion molecules (SAMs).

Basal Surface

It is the bottom edge of the cell or tissue adjacent to the basement membrane. In particular, the epithelial tissue is a group of cells (called epithelial cells) that lie together to carry out a common function. The epithelial tissue acts as a covering.

As an adult hematopoiesis takes place in 2 different places

It occurs in the bone marrow and lymphatic tissues.

Hematopoiesis takes place prenatally in 3 different places:

It occurs in the yolk sack, then in the liver, and lastly in the bone marrow.

The structure of the lymphatic capillaries and why this is important to their function

Lymphatic capillaries are slightly larger in diameter than blood capillaries, and have closed ends (unlike the loop structure of blood capillaries). Their unique structure permits interstitial fluid to flow into them but not out. The ends of the endothelial cells that make up the wall of a lymphatic capillary overlap.

MHC stands for:

Major Histocompatibility Complex

Anti-diuretics

Make you retain water. Ethanol, in alcoholic drinks, blocks ADH Anti-diuretic Hormone making you have to pee a lot causing you to become dehydrated which in-turn is where the hangovers come from.

Types of cells found in the lymph nodes and their locations:

Medulla: Macrophages & T-cells; Germinal center: B-cells; Subcapsule: Macrophages & B cells.

Chemotaxis

Movement of a motile cell or organism, or part of one, in a direction corresponding to a gradient of increasing or decreasing concentration of a particular substance.

Function & Location of Non-keratinized Stratified Squamous Epithelium

Multiple layers of cells, basal, cuboidal, apical squamous cells are alive & moist. Protection of underlying tissue. Found in lining of oral cavity, part of pharynx, esophagus, vagina, & anus

The development of a platelet

Myeloid stem cells develop into megakaryocyte cells megakaryocytes split into 2000-3000 fragments called platelets (thrombocyte) Platelets break off in the bone marrow then enter circulation 150-400K platelets are present in 1 microliter of blood!!! Platelets do NOT have a nucleus or most organelles!

NK cells

Natural Killer cells

Type AB blood has antibodies for which type of blood?

Neither A or B

NET's

Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) are made of processed chromatin bound to granular and selected cytoplasmic proteins. NETs are released by white blood cells called neutrophils, maybe as a last resort, to control microbial infections.

Neutrophils characteristics

Nucleus that has 2 - 5 lobes; cytoplasmic granules stain Phagocytes

Which blood type is the universal donor?

O- blood is called the universal donor type because it is compatible with any blood type.

Pluripotent stem cells

One of the "cells that are self-replicating, are derived from human embryos or human fetal tissue, and are known to develop into cells and tissues of the three primary germ layers.

Tight Junctions

Seal adjacent epithelial cells in a narrow band just beneath their apical surface. They consist of a network of claudins and other proteins. They perform two vital functions: They limit the passage of molecules and ions through the space between cells.

Simple Squamous Epithelial Tissue

Single layer of cells, when viewed from the side, look like fried eggs. These are located in areas of fast absorption such as the lungs.

Steps in the Red Blood Cells life, (another look at it)

Step 1. Hemoatopoiesis = blood cell formation, occurs in red bone marrow, or myeloid tissue. Step 2. Hemocytoblast stem cells = The origin of all formed elements give rise to Myeloid stem cells. Step 3. Myeloid stem cells = origin of erythrocytes, platelets, monocytes, neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils. Erythrocytes synthesize huge amounts of hemoglobin which when accumulated, the nucleus and most organelles are ejected and the cell collapses forming a reticulocyte Step 4. Since erythrocytes = RBC- are anucleate, they are unable to synthesize proteins, grow, or divide. Step 5. = As they age, RBC's become more rigid and begin to fragment or fall apart. Step 6.= Damaged or worn red blood cells rupture as they pass through the spleen or liver. Step 7. = Macrophages = Macrophages, in these organs, phagocytize and destroy damaged red blood cells and their contents, iron and bilirubin, are recycled Step 8 = Negative feedback is controlled by erythropoietin in response to oxygen levels. If enough of the cells are destroyed, oxygen levels will drop and the hormone will stimulate hematopoiesis to begin again.

Stratified Cuboidal Epi

Stratified cuboidal epithelium is one of the many types of epithelial tissue. It is less common than other types of epithelial tissue, and it has several locations in the body: sweat gland ducts; egg-producing vesicles, or follicles, of the ovaries; and sperm-producing ducts, or seminiferous tubules, of the testis. The functions of this tissue include sweat secretion, aiding in sperm production and secretion of ovarian hormones.

Why exogenous processing occurs

T cells can not recognise native antigens • Antigens must be processed for recognition by T cells • Antigens catabolism occurs inside cells • Only metabolically active cells can process antigen • Antigen presentation does not require metabolically-active cells • Antigen processing involves the lysosomal system • Catabolism reduces antigens to peptides • Because extracellular antigens are dealt with by the lysosomal system, lysosomal antigen processing is part of the EXOGENOUS antigen processing pathway

Location and function of the "Lacteals."

The lymphatic vessels of the small intestine that absorb digested fats.

Saliva and the role it plays in the "innate immunity system."

The mouth is slightly acidic. Saliva conatains lysosymes which break down the cell walls of bacteria.

Epitope (antigenic determinant)

The part of an antigen molecule to which an antibody attaches itself.

Diapedesis

The passage of blood cells through the intact walls of the capillaries, typically accompanying inflammation.

Self-tolerance

The physiological state that exists in an organism when its immune system has proceeded far enough in the process of self-recognition to lose the capacity to attack and destroy its own bodily constituents. First Known Use: 1964.

Melanin

The pigment that gives human skin, hair, and eyes their color. Dark-skinned people have more melanin in their skin than light-skinned people have. Melanin is produced by cells called melanocytes.

Self-recognition

The process by which the immune system of an organism distinguishes between the body's own chemicals, cells, and tissues and those of foreign organisms and agents.

Erythropoiesis

The production of Red Blood Cells

Hemopoiesis (hematopoiesis)

The production of blood cells and platelets, which occurs in the bone marrow.

Lateral Surface

The surface that is attached to other cells

Processing of exogenous antigens

The vast majority of antigens are exogenous antigens. They are introduced into the body from outside via various infections agents such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa, helminthes etc., or environmental substances such as dust mites, foodstuff, pollen etc. by inhalation, ingestion, or injection. APCs can actively intake exogenous antigens by endocytosis or phagocytosis and process into fragments in order to initiate the antigen- processing pathways. After initiating the pathway, the fragments are presented on the membrane together with MHC class II molecules and are recognized by TH cells.

Clonal selection

Theory of lymphocytes: 1) A hematopoietic stem cell undergoes differentiation and genetic rearrangement to produce 2) immature lymphocytes with many different antigen receptors. Those that bind to 3) antigens from the body's own tissues are destroyed, while the rest mature into 4) inactive lymphocytes.

Adherens Junction

These junctions are involved in a number of critical functions, including providing additional structural support. For example, they hold cardiac muscle cells tightly together as the heart expands and contracts. These junctions are built primarily from cadherins, whose extracellular segments bind to each other and whose intracellular segments bind to catenins. Catenins are connected to actin filaments.

Lymphatic system

This system consists of lymph, lymphatic vessels, structures and organs that contain lymphatic tissue (tissue that contains lymphocytes), red marrow.

How do WBC's leave blood vessels

Through a process called emigration, diapedesis, or leukocyte extravasation. They roll along endothelium of blood vessel, stick to the cell and, squeeze through. There are specific signals for each type of WBC.

The most important function of our lymphatic system is:

To help drain interstitial fluid or extracelluar fluid / ECF. The pressure of the lymphatic system squeezes out blood plasma into the interstitial space and the lymphatic system reclaims it. If we had no way to reclaim this we would end up with edema.

Functions of WBC's

To protect the body against pathogens -they have to leave the bloodstream -collect at areas of infection or inflammation -granular leukocytes and monocytes can't get back into circulation -lymphocytes can

Which WBC's are phagocytes

Two types of white blood cells, neutrophilic leukocytes (microphages) and monocytes (macrophages), are phagocytic. Neutrophils are small, granular leukocytes that quickly appear at the site of a wound and ingest bacteria. Monocytes are larger, with a large, kidney-shaped nucleus; they appear about three days after infection and scavenge for bacteria, foreign particles, dead cellular material, and protozoa. Most phagocytic activity takes place outside the vascular system, among the cells.

Type B blood has antibodies for which blood type?

Type A

Type A blood has antibodies for which blood type?

Type B

Cytokine

Type of protein/polypeptide, secreted by a T-cell that attacks viruses, virally infected cells, and cancer cells.

Stages of endogenous and exogenous antigen processing

UPTAKE Access of native antigens and pathogens to intracellular pathways of degradation DEGRADATION Limited proteolysis of antigens to peptides ANTIGEN-MHC COMPLEX FORMATION Loading of peptides onto MHC molecules ANTIGEN PRESENTATION Transport and expression of peptide-MHC complexes on the surface of cells for recognition by T cells

Specialized feature of lymphatic vessels

Valves: Allows only unidirectional flow of lymph; like blood veins.

Reticular Fiber

Very thin highly branched fibers found in connective tissue, provide delicate support; found in basement membrane of epithelial tissue to support this laminae)

What platelets do have

What they DO have are alpha and dense granules that contain dozens and dozens of proteins needed for clot formation too few platelets= bleeding too many platelets=thrombotic (clotting) events Platelets only circulate 5-9 days aged and dead platelets removed by macrophages in spleen and liver.

What is the difference between Endogenous and Exogenous Antigens?

• Exogenous antigens are foreign compounds entered the body from outside, whereas exogenous antigens are the compounds that have been generated within the body. • Exogenous antigens are actively taken up into antigen presenting cells, whereas endogenous antigens are already present within the cytoplasm of antigen presenting cells. • Active phagocytosis is required to take up exogenous antigens, unlike endogenous antigens. • An endogenous antigen can be a tumor- or virus-derived product. In contrast, exogenous antigen can be a product of viruses or bacterial cells that are processed by antigen presenting cells. • In antigen processing pathways, endogenous antigens are recognized in association of MHC class I, whereas exogenous antigens are recognized in association of MHC class II. • Endogenous antigens on MHC class I molecules are recognized by Tcyt cells. In contrast, exogenous antigens presented on MHC class II molecules are recognized by TH cells.