Exam 3

treeline

10C (50F) mean monthly isotherm, the line beyond which it is too cold and/or the growing season is too short for trees to thrive.

desert tundra

expanses of bare rocks may be covered by colorful lichens

food web

feeding network within an ecosystem

grass tundra

hummocky and water soaked during the summer

Parent Atom

the atom that goes through radioactive decay, parent atoms decay to what is known as daughter atoms, half life is time it takes for half of parent atoms to decay to daughter atoms

Deciduous

trees and other vegetation that drop their leaves in either a dry period or a cold period, lose their leaves in the dry low-sun season to reduce moisture loss through transpiration

savanna

tropical vegetation consisting primarily of coarse grasses, often associated with scattered low-growing trees or patches of bare ground

Theories about the causes of past and future climate change

variations in Earth's orbital relation to the sun; changes in oceanic circulation; changes in landmasses and ocean basins; asteroid and comet impacts; and changes in Earth's atmosphere.

treeline

elevation in mountain regions above which cold temperatures and wind stress prohibit tree growth, elevation above which low winter temperatures and severe wind stress eliminate vegetation that does not grow low to the ground, where they can be protected from winds by a blanket of snow during the coldest months

first law of thermodynamics

energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can only be changed from one form to another

short-grass prairie

environment where the dominant vegetation type is short grasses, coincides with the zone where moisture rarely penetrates more than 60 centimeters (2 ft) into the soil, and the subsoil is permanently dry

habitat

location within an ecosystem occupied by a particular organism

Equatorial islands

have the lowest annual temperature ranges in the world, with almost no differences in temperature from month to month over the whole year.

tundra

high-latitude or high-altitude environments or climate regions that are not able to support tree growth because the growing season is too cold or too short, a mixture of grasses, flowering herbs, sedges, mosses, lichens, and occasional low-growing shrubs

corridors

in biogeographic terms, any linear feature that crosses the general vegetation cover in an area (for example, rivers, power line clearings, and roads)

Allen's Rule

in warm-blooded species, the relative size of exposed parts of the body decreases with decreasing mean temperatures

galleria forest

jungle-like vegetation extending along and over streams in tropical forest regions, Tree cover that forms a "roof" over a water channel

zones of transition

an area of gradual change from one region to another

glaciations

an interval of glacial activity

greenhouse gas

atmospheric gases which hinder the escape of Earth's heat energy, Atmospheric CO2 is transparent to incoming shortwave radiation, yet it impedes outgoing longwave radiation

negative feedback

changes in one of the variables induce the system to remain stable, can also affect the likelihood or rate of climate change

bush tundra

consisting of dwarf willow, birch, and alder

exposure

direction of mountain slopes with respect to prevailing wind direction

climatic aridity

precipitation received is significantly less than potential ET

topoclimates

tall mountains often possess vertical zones of vegetation that reflect changes in the microclimates as one ascends from the base of the mountain (which may be surrounded by a tropical-type vegetation) to higher slopes with midlatitude vegetation types to the summit covered with ice and snow

zooplankton

tiny animals that float and drift with currents in water bodies

phytoplankton

tiny plants, algae and bacteria, that float and drift with currents in water bodies

ecotone

transition zone of varied natural vegetation occupying the boundary between two adjacent and differing plant communities, the overlap, or zone of transition, between two plant or animal communities

arboreal

tree-dwelling, Because of the darkness and extensive root systems present on the forest floor, animals of the tropical rainforest are primarily arboreal

Estuaries

where rivers flow into the sea, create a variety of nutrient-rich environments, including associated wetlands. These coastal ecosystems are among the most productive on Earth in terms of net primary productivity

lianas

woody vine found in tropical forests that roots in the forest floor but uses trees for support as it grows upward toward available sunshine

nutrient cycles

process of moving nutrients from the physical environment to living organisms, and their return of nutrients to the physical environment

ecological optimum

refers to the environmental conditions under which a particular species will thrive

Secondary productivity

refers to the rate of formation of new organic material at the consumer level, results from the conversion of plant materials to animal substances

symbiotic relationship

relationship between two organisms that is mutually beneficial to both organisms

biotic associations

relationships of animals to plant communities

transhumance

seasonal movement of herds and herders between alpine pastures and villages in the valleys

buttressed trunks

Most common in tropical rainforests, they also occur in some midlatitude and subtropical forests with very wet climates, used for support because their root systems are shallow

daily (diurnal) temperature ranges

difference between the highest and lowest temperatures of the day

Tall-Grass Prairie

environment where the dominant vegetation type is tall grasses, with a few scattered trees

hypoxia

oxygen starvation

Plankton

passively drifting or weakly swimming marine organisms, including phytoplankton (plants) and zooplankton (animals), made up mostly of the ocean's smallest—mainly microscopic—plants & animals, form the basis of the oceanic food chain

permafrost

permanently frozen subsoil and underlying rock found in climates where summer thaw penetrates only the surface soil layer

Exotic species

plants or animals that people have introduced to a place that is not their native environment

muskeg

poorly drained vegetation-rich marshes or swamps usually overlying permafrost areas of polar climatic regions

ecological efficiency

rate of energy transfer from one trophic level to the next, is low

Primary productivity

refers to the formation rate of new organic matter through photosynthesis by producers

chaparral

sclerophyllous vegetation growing in Mediterranean climate regions of the western United States; these seasonal, drought-resistant plants are mainly low-growing shrubs, with small, hard-surfaced leaves and deep, water-probing roots

food chain

sequence of levels in the feeding pattern of an ecosystem

generalists

species that can survive on a wide range of food supplies

Natural Causes of Climate Change

the amount of solar energy entering the Earth system, the amount of energy the Earth system stores, and the amount of energy Earth loses to space

eccentricity cycle

the change in Earth's orbit from slightly elliptical to more circular, and back to its earlier shape every 100,000 years, eccentricity cycle's impact also depends on the influence of the other two factors in this theory, seems to fit well with the record of glaciations and interglacials during the Pleistocene, Orbits that are more elliptical seem to be associated with warm periods, and more circular orbits may correspond to Ice Ages.

gap creation

an area within the territory occupied by a plant community when the climax vegetation has been destroyed or damaged by some natural process, such as a hurricane, forest fire, or landslide, soil still typically exists and seeds may be lying dormant in that soil, ready to invade the newly opened gap, can occur much more quickly than primary succession

consumers or heterotrophs

an organism that consumes organic material from other life forms, including all animals and parasitic plants

carnivores

animal that eats only other animals

Respiration

combination of oxygen with chemical compounds in living cells that can occur at any trophic level, is the major form of oxidation

boreal forests

coniferous forest dominated by thin spruce and fir trees growing in subarctic conditions poleward of 50 north latitude

Mediterranean Sclerophyllous Woodland

consists of relatively low-growing shrubs and small trees, with small, hard-surfaced leaves and roots that probe for water, general look of the vegetation is a thick scrub plant community, called chaparral

Classification of Terrestrial Ecosystems

Earth's terrestrial ecosystems can be categorized into one of four basic types: forest, grassland, desert, and tundra, Latitudinal and/or elevational effects on temperature and solar radiation and the availability of moisture are key factors in the location of major biomes on a world regional scale.

mesothermal climates (C)

Koppen System, climate region or condition with hot, warm, or mild summers that do not have any months that average below freezing, vegetation retains foliage throughout the year, The Mediterranean, or dry summer, mesothermal (Csa, Csb) climate (like Southern California or southern Spain)

mosaic

a plant community and the ecosystem on which it is based, viewed as a landscape of interlocking parts by ecologists

partial pressure of oxygen gas

amount of oxygen available for human respiration

Volcanic Activity

causes climatic cooling, all of the coldest years on record over the past two centuries have occurred a year or so after a major eruption

Jungle

dense tangle of trees and vines in areas where sunlight reaches the ground surface (not a true rainforest), a dense tangle of vines and small trees that develops where direct sunlight reaches the ground, as in clearings cut though the forest for roads and along the banks of rivers and streams

annual temperature range

difference between the mean monthly temperatures for the warmest and coolest months of the year

climographs

graphic means of giving information on mean monthly temperature and rainfall for a select location or station

meteoroids

stone or iron mass that enters our atmosphere from space, becoming a meteor as it burns up in the atmosphere, orbit the sun

Coniferous Forest

survive where most of broadleaf species cannot endure the climatic severity and poor soils, The hard, narrow needles of coniferous species transpire less moisture compared with broad leaves so that needleleaf species can tolerate unavailability of moisture because of high soil permeability, or a dry season, or because of frozen soil water, well adapted to regions having long, severe winters combined with summers warm enough for vigorous plant growth.

Productivity

the rate at which new organic material is created at a particular trophic level

Secondary succession

the reestablishment of an ecosystem in an area after having been destroyed or seriously disrupted

ecological niche

A combination of the role and habitat for a particular species

Tropical Rainforest

Temperatures are high enough to promote constant growth, and water is always sufficient. These forests consist of an amazing number of broadleaf evergreen tree species.

species diversity on islands

The farther an island is from the area from which species must migrate, the lower the species diversity. Islands nearer to large land masses tend to have higher diversity than those that are more distant. The larger the island, the greater the species diversity. This is partly because larger islands tend to offer a wider variety of environments to colonizing organisms than smaller islands do. Larger islands also offer more space for species to occupy. An island's species diversity results from a balance between the rates of extinction of species on the island and the colonization of species. If the island's extinction rate is higher, only a few hardy species will live there; if the extinction rate is lower compared to the colonization rate, more species will thrive and the diversity will be higher.

biomass

The total amount of living material in an ecosystem, amount of living material or standing crop in an ecosystem or at a particular trophic level within an ecosystem, Because the energy of an ecosystem is stored in the biomass, scientists measure the biomass of each trophic level to trace energy flow through an ecosystem, biomass decreases with each successive trophic level

Bergmann's Rule

Within a warm-blooded species, the body size of the subspecies usually increases with the decreasing mean temperature of its habitat

oxidation

when oxygen combines with the chemical compounds of organic materials

arid climates (B)

Koppen System, climate region or condition where annual potential evapotranspiration greatly exceeds annual precipitation, considerable year-round moisture deficiency, penetrate deep into the continents, interrupting the latitudinal zonation of climates that would otherwise exist, In desert (BW) climates, the annual amount of precipitation is less than half of the annual potential ET, steppe (BS) climates—semi-arid climates that are transitional between the extreme aridity of the deserts and the moisture surplus of the humid climates

Marine Ecosystems

The oceans over the continental shelves have the highest concentration of marine life. The chemical nutrient supply is greater near the coasts where nutrients are washed into the sea from rivers. Marine organisms are also concentrated where deeper waters rise (upwelling) to the surface layers where sunlight is available. These vertical exchanges are generally the result of variations in salinity or density. Marine life is also abundant in areas where there is a mixing of cold and warm ocean currents, as there is off the northeastern coast of the United States.

Midlatitude Grasslands

occupy the zone of transition between the deserts and forests of the middle latitudes

Thornbush and Scrub Forests

tend to be found on the subtropical margins of the rainforests and in locations where the soils are especially poor in nutrients. The vegetation of this category varies greatly but is generally lower growing in comparison to rainforest, without a tiered structure, and is denser at ground level. It is commonly thorny, which is a defense against browsing animals, and resists drought by dropping leaves to conserve moisture during the dry low-sun season

precipitation effectiveness

the amount of precipitation actually available for use by plants and animals, The basis for determining whether a climate is desert, semiarid, or humid, related to temperature as well as rainfall totals

Climate

the average weather for a place that occurs at a place over the seasons

obliquity cycle

the change in the tilt of the Earth's axis relative to the plane of the ecliptic over a 41,000-year period, variation in the tilt of Earth's axis from a maximum 24.5* to a minimum of 22* and back, When Earth's axis has a greater tilt, seasonal differences are greater in the middle and high latitudes. Less tilt should bring cooler summers to the polar regions and less melting of ice sheets, which may promote Ice Age conditions.

slope aspect

the direction a mountain slope faces in respect to the sun's rays, South-facing slopes receive direct rays of the sun and are hotter and drier than the more shaded north-facing slopes

matrix

the dominant area of a mosaic (ecosystem supporting a particular plant community) where the major plant in the community is concentrated

range of tolerance

the extent of limits on environmental conditions under which an organism can survive (for example: a range of temperature, or a range of annual precipitation), determines where a species may exist, and species with wide ranges of tolerance will be the most widely distributed geographically

climax community

the final step in the succession of plant communities that occupy a specific location

Pleistocene Epoch

the interval of Earth history immediately before the present (Holocene) epoch that experienced times of glacial advance and lasted from about 2.6 million to 10,000 years ago

Biogeography

the study of how environmental factors affect the locations, distributions, and life processes of plants and animals. Basically, this discipline seeks explanations for the geography of life forms, delineate the spatial boundaries of natural environments and investigate how and why environmental characteristics change spatially and over time, study ecosystems, concerned with both human and natural impacts on organisms and their ecosystems

plant communities

variety of individual plants living in harmony with each other and the surrounding physical environment, aggregations of vegetation species that have adapted to existing environmental conditions

natural vegetation

vegetation that has been allowed to develop naturally without obvious interference from or modification by humans

second law of thermodynamics

whenever energy is transformed from one state to another, there will be a loss (dissipation) of energy through heat

moderate-summer subtype (Csb)

Mediterranean subclimate, lower summer temperatures associated with coastal fogs and a strong maritime influence

Ice Sheet (EF)

Polar Climate Region, precipitation exceeds potential evaporation, Summerless; all months average below freezing; world's coldest temperature; extremely meager precipitation in the form of snow, evaporation even less; gale-force winds, climate type where the average temperature of every month of the year is below freezing, most severe and restrictive climate on Earth, primary reason for continually low temperatures of ice-sheet climates is the minimal effective solar radiation received in these regions

Tundra (ET)

Polar climate region, At least 9 months average below freezing; low evaporation, precipitation exceeds potential evapotranspiration, characterized by treeless vegetation of polar regions and very high mountains, consisting of mosses, lichens, and low growing shrubs and flowering plants, even though the annual temperature ranges in tundra climates are large, they are not as large as those of subarctic climates, and winter temperatures are not as severe, average monthly temperatures are below freezing 9 months of the year, Diurnal temperature ranges are small because insolation is uniformly high during the long summer days and uniformly low during the long winter nights. Precipitation is generally low because of exceedingly low absolute humidity and the influence of the polar high, except in eastern Canada and Greenland

Glacial Ice Cores

Glaciers record yearly snowfall accumulations in ice layers that can provide short-term evidence of climate changes, Oxygen-isotope analysis is used along with other techniques to analyze the glacial ice cores

Polar climates (E)

Koppen System, climate region that does not have a warm season and is frozen either for much, or all of the year, areas that do not have a month with an average temperature exceeding 10C (50C), ice sheet (EF) climate (no month with an average temperature above 32F (0C), tundra (ET) climate (at least 1 month averages above OC (32F)).

tropical climates (A)

Koppen System, climate regions that are warm all year, tropical rainforest climate (Af), tropical savanna (Aw) climate, tropical monsoon (Am) climate

Mixed Forest

Poleward and equatorward, the broadleaf deciduous forests in North America, Europe, and Asia gradually merge into mixed forests, including needleleaf coniferous trees, mainly pines

Holocene

The modern climate epoch, the last 12,0000 years, a time of relatively stable, warm temperatures when compared with most of the last 2.6 million years, which experienced intermittent glaciations and interglacials

Monsoon Rainforest

The number of species, however, is less than that of the equatorial rainforests, and the overall height and density of forest vegetation are also somewhat less. Some of the species are evergreen, but many are also deciduous, responding to the dry monsoon

Broadleaf Deciduous Forest

To avoid frost damage during the cold winters and to survive moisture deprivation when the ground is frozen, leaves with large transpiring surfaces drop from the trees as they become dormant, to be replaced by new leaves after the danger period has passed, the natural vegetation in much of western Europe, eastern Asia, and eastern North America

Subarctic (Dfc, Dfd, Dwc, Dwd)

cool summers, cold winters poleward; usually year-round precipitation, winter drought (Asia), Brief, cool summers; long, bitterly cold winters; largest annual temperature ranges; lowest temperatures outside Antarctica; low precipitation, climate type that produces a boreal forest (taiga) landscape, the farthest poleward and most extreme of the microthermal climates, poleward boundary of subarctic climates is also the latitudinal limit of forest growth, found only in the Northern Hemisphere, experience short, cool summers and long, bitterly cold winters, As a direct result of the intense seasonal heating and cooling of the land, the subarctic has the largest annual temperature ranges of any climate, The brief summers and long, cold winters severely limit the growth of vegetation in subarctic regions, permafrost

Epiphytes

a plant that grows on another plant, but does not take its nutrients from the host plant, sometimes called air plants, grow on the limbs of the forest trees, deriving nutrients from the water and plant debris that falls from higher levels

climate regions

a region defined by the similarity of climatic conditions in the area within its boundaries

The ecosystem concept

a valuable model for examining the structure and function of living communities and their life forms

pioneer community

a vegetation community that is the first to colonize an unvegetated, barren area, invades the bare substrate (whether it be volcanic lava, glacially deposited sediment, or a bare beach, among others) and begins to alter the environment

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)

a worldwide group of distinguished atmospheric scientists, released a series of comprehensive reports on global warming that involved input from more than 800 climate scientists from 130 countries, conclusion of the IPCC was that it is "very likely" (90% probability) that emissions of greenhouse gases from anthropogenic activities have caused "most of the observed increase in globally-averaged temperatures since the mid-twentieth century

competitive relationship

an adverse effect on one or both species

specialist

an animal that can survive only on a single or a very limited food type for its nutrition

herbivores

an animal that eats only living plant material

Omnivores

animal that can feed on both plants and other animals, may belong to several trophic levels because they eat both plants and animals

potential evapotranspiration

approximates the use of water by plants if an unlimited water supply were available, a theoretical value that increases with increasing temperature, winds, and length of daylight hours, but decreases with increasing humidity

Forests

associations of large, woody, perennial tree species, generally several times the height of a person and with a more or less closed canopy of leaves overhead, exist only where the annual moisture balance is positive—where moisture availability exceeds potential evapotranspiration

Broadleaf Evergreen Forest

broadleaf trees remain evergreen (active throughout the year) in significant areas only in certain Southern Hemisphere locations,

Katabatic winds

caused by the downslope drainage of heavy cold air over the dome-shaped ice sheets, are common along the edges of the polar ice

selva

characteristic tropical rainforest comprising multistoried, broadleaf evergreen trees with relatively little undergrowth,

Mediterranean Climate (Csa, Csb)

climate type characterized by warm dry summers and cool moist mild winters, and abundant sunshine, Effective precipitation is lower than actual precipitation, and the summer drought condition can be as intense as that of the desert.

Slope aspect

direction that a slope on a hill or a mountain faces in respect to the sun's rays, direct effect on vegetation patterns in areas outside of the equatorial tropics, North-facing slopes in the middle and high latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere have microclimates that are cooler and wetter than those on South-facing exposures

impact winter

dust ejected into the atmosphere by a meteor impact blocks insolation and causes a drastic drop in temperature

snow line

elevation in mountain regions above which snow covers the land, this elevation changes seasonally, locally, and even daily depending on weather conditions, elevation above which summer temperatures are insufficient to melt all of the preceding winter's snowfall, glaciologists call this the equilibrium line

midlatitude deserts

have distinct seasons, including below-freezing temperatures during winter, Annual temperature ranges are usually greater in midlatitude deserts

humid continental, hot summer (Dfa, Dwa)

hot summers; usually year-round precipitation, winter drought (Asia), Hot, often humid summers; occasional winter cold waves; rather large annual temperature ranges; weather variability, climate type characterized by hot, humid summers and mild, moist winters, Higher summer temperatures and a longer growing season permit a wide variety of agriculture

Highland or Mountain Climate Regions

indicated on the world climate map wherever there are considerable local variations in climate as a consequence of elevation, and exposure, experience many climatic conditions in a small area, highland areas are also biotic islands, supporting a flora and fauna adapted to cooler and wetter conditions that could not survive in the surrounding lowlands, The weather in mountains can be highly variable, changing from hour to hour and from place to place, Strong orographic flow over mountains can cause clouds to form quickly, leading to thunderstorms and rains that often do not affect the surrounding cloud-free lowlands, Mountains that are high enough rise into zones of tundra and areas of perennial snow cover.

Near Earth Objects (NEOs)

large celestial bodies, such as comets and asteroids, that might come close enough to collide with Earth

abiotic

natural, nonliving component of an ecosystem, parts of the ecosystem in which the plants and animals live, provides life-supporting elements and compounds in the soil, groundwater, and atmosphere

patterned ground (frost polygons)

natural, repeating, often-polygonal designs of sorted sediment seen on the surface of periglacial environments, commonly found in subarctic and tundra regions of seasonal freezing and thawing

trophic level

number of feeding steps that a given organism is removed from the autotrophs (e.g., green plant—first level, herbivore—second level, carnivore—third level, etc.)

island biogeography

offers an explanation for how natural factors interact to affect either the successful colonization or the extinction of species that come to live on an island

biomes

one of Earth's major terrestrial ecosystems, classified by the vegetation types that dominate the plant communities within the ecosystem, associated with certain climatic conditions, such as temperature ranges, critical annual or seasonal precipitation, and evaporation characteristics

Sunlight

one of the most critical factors related to climate that influence an ecosystem, provides the energy for plant photosynthesis, and it strongly influences the behavior of both plants and animals.

Tropical Savanna Grasslands

ordinarily includes a scattering of trees, commonly occur on red-colored soils, leached of all but iron and aluminum oxides, which become bricklike when dried. They likewise coincide with areas where the water table (the zone below which all subsurface pore space is water saturated) fluctuates dramatically

decomposers or detritivores

organism that promotes decay by feeding on dead plant and animal material and returns mineral nutrients to the soil or water in a form that plants can utilize

producers or autotrophs

organism that, because it is capable of photosynthesis, is at the foundation of a food web and is considered a basic producer,

succession

progression of natural vegetation from one plant community to the next until a final stage of equilibrium has been reached with the natural environment, usually begins with a relatively simple plant community

cloud forests

rainforest that is produced by nearly-constant light rain on the windward slopes of mountains, moisture-laden maritime air is lifted up on the windward slopes of mountains. orographic precipitation may fall as heavy rain showers or from thunderstorms but these regions tend to experience almost constant misty fogs, can receive enough moisture to qualify as a rainforest

Polar Climate Regions

situated at the greatest distance from the equator, All of the average monthly temperatures in polar climate areas are below 50F, Trees cannot survive under these conditions, 2 types Tundra & Ice Sheet, large net annual radiation loss, The North and South Poles experience 6 months of relative darkness when the sun is positioned below the horizon, alternating with 6 months of daylight when the sun stays above the horizon.

Thornthwaite moisture index (MI)

MI=100*((P-Potential ET)/Potential ET), If precipitation (P) exceeds potential ET, the index is positive for humid or wet climates. If potential ET exceeds precipitation, the index is negative for semiarid or arid locations.

krummholz

stunted, and crooked trees, growing low to the ground, under very harsh conditions of cold and wind at the elevational limit of tree growth, the boundary between the subalpine and alpine tundra zones

Arctic and Alpine Tundra

Proceeding upward in elevation and poleward in latitude, regions with growing seasons that are too brief to support tree growth, vast realm dominated by sub-freezing temperatures and thin snow cover much of the year, Vegetation in these regions must be equipped to tolerate frozen subsoil (permafrost), icy winds, a low sun angle (except in low-latitude, high-elevation locations), summer frosts, and waterlogged during the short growing season.

primary succession

a bare substrate is the beginning point, No soil or seedbed exists yet

nekton

classification of marine organisms that swim in the oceans, includes fish, squid, marine reptiles, and marine mammals such as whales and seals

Desert Environments

Where the potential evapotranspiration greatly exceeds available moisture throughout the year, special forms of plant life have evolved or the surface is bare, presence of plants that are either drought resisting or drought evading, and resistant to being browsed by animals

ecosystem

a community of organisms that occupy a given area, along with their interdependent relationships with each other and with characteristics of the nonliving environment, can be used in reference to the Earth system in its entirety or to any group of organisms that occupy a given area and function together with their nonliving environment, open systems, 4 basic components (abiotic, producers or autotrophs, consumers or heterotrophs, decomposers or detritivores)

patches

a gap or area within a matrix (territory occupied by a dominant plant community) where the dominant vegetation is not supported due to natural causes

benthos

classification of marine organisms that live on the ocean floor, includes corals, sponges, and many algae; such burrowing or crawling animals as barnacles, crabs, lobsters, and oysters; and attached plants such as turtle grass and kelp

precession cycle

changes in the time (date) of the year that perihelion occurs; the date is determined on the basis of a major period 21,000 years in length and a secondary period 19,000 years in length, Currently, Earth is closest to the sun in early January and, as a result, January receives about 3.5% greater than average insolation

paleoclimates

the climatic conditions of the past; typically refers to prehistoric times

desertification

the impact of either climate change toward aridity or from injurious human impacts that produce desert conditions or a desert-like landscape, persistent degradation of dryland ecosystems by unsustainable overcultivation, overgrazing, clear-cutting of vegetation, and salt accumulation in the soil

Tropical Rainforest (Af)

Coolest month above 18C (64.4F); driest month with at least 6 cm (2.4 in.) of precipitation. High year-round insolation and precipitation of doldrums (ITCZ); rising air along trade wind coasts. Geographic Distribution: Amazon R. Basin, Congo R. Basin, east coast of Central America, east coast of Brazil, east coast of Madagascar, Malaysia, Indonesia, and Philippines. Constant high temperatures; equal length of day and night; lowest 2-3C annual temperature ranges; evenly distributed heavy precipitation; high amount of cloud cover and humidity. Tropical rainforest vegetation (selva); jungle where light penetrates; tropical iron-rich soils; climbing and flying animals, reptiles, and insects; slash-and-burn agriculture, hot, wet climate that promotes the growth of rainforests high temps & humidity, no real seasons, diurnal range greater than annual range, heavy precipitation received in tropical rainforest climates is associated with the warm or hot, humid air of the equatorial low and the unstable conditions along the ITCZ (Intertropical Convergence Zone)

Tropical Monsoon

Coolest month above 18C (64.4F); one or more months with less than 6 cm (2.4 in.) of precipitation; excessively wet during rainy season. Summer onshore and winter offshore air movement related to shifting ITCZ and changing pressure conditions over large landmasses; also transitional between rainforest and savanna. Geographic Distribution: Coastal areas of southwest India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Myanmar, southwest Africa, Guyana, Surinam, French Guiana, northeast and southeast Brazil. Heavy high-sun rainfall (especially with orographic lifting), short low-sun drought; 2-6C annual temperature range, highest temperature just prior to rainy season. Forest vegetation with fewer species than tropical rainforest; grading to jungle and thorn forest in drier margins; iron-rich soils; rainforest animals with larger leaf-eaters and carnivores near savannas; paddy rice agriculture, climate characterized by alternating rainy and dry seasons, alternating air circulation (from sea to land and from land to sea) is related to the shifting ITCZ, Heavy cloud cover during the rainy summer monsoon reduces insolation and temperatures during that time of year.

Tropical Savanna

Coolest month above 18C; wet during high-sun season, dry during lower-sun season Alternation between high-sun doldrums (ITCZ) and low-sun subtropical highs and trades caused by shifting winds and pressure belts. Geographic Distribution: Northern and eastern India, interior Myanmar and Indo-Chinese Peninsula; north Australia; Congo River borderlands; south central Africa; llanos of Venezuela, campos of Brazil; western Central America, south Florida, and Caribbean Islands Distinct high-sun wet and low-sun dry seasons; rainfall averaging 75-150 cm (30-60 in.); highest temperature ranges for humid tropical climates. Grasslands with scattered, drought-resistant trees, scrub, and thorn bushes; poor soils for farming, grazing more common; large herbivores, carnivores, and scavengers, warm, semi-dry climate that promotes tall grasslands, A distinct seasonal precipitation pattern identifies the tropical savanna. This is caused by seasonal shifts in the wind and pressure belts that follow the latitudinal shift in sun angle. Savanna regions are under the influence of the rain-producing intertropical convergence zone (equatorial low) for part of the year and dominated by rain-suppressing subtropical highs for the other part, referred to as tropical wet and dry climates, rainfall less predictable

coastlines

boundaries between land and ocean regions

plankton

Different species of these organisms only thrive in certain surface water temperatures; therefore, the sequence of thin mud layers that contain these fossils can produce a history of climate related fluctuations in ocean temperature

highland climates (H)

Koppen System, a general climate classification for regions of high, yet varying, elevations

microthermal climates (D)

Koppen System, climate regions or conditions with warm or mild summers that have winter months with temperatures averaging below freezing, vegetation loses leaves during winter, found exclusively in the Northern Hemisphere

asteroids

Rocky or metallic solar system bodies, usually less than 800 kilometers (500 mi) in diameter

Koppen System 6 Major Climate Categories

The first four are based on temperature characteristics and having adequate annual moisture: (A) humid tropical climates, (C) humid mesothermal climates (mild winter), (D) humid microthermal climates (cold winter), and (E) polar climates. Another category, arid climates (BW and BS) includes desert climates (extremely arid) and steppe climates (semi-arid), characteristically dry regions identified by comparing the low yearly precipitation they receive to their annual temperature characteristics. The final category, (H) highland climates, denotes the world's mountainous regions where vegetation and climate vary rapidly because of changes in elevation and exposure.

Deep Sea Sediment Record

The oxygen isotopes in the calcium carbonate fossil shells reflect the surface seawater temperature at the time they were formed, global climates tend to rest at one of two extremes: a very cold interval characterized by major glaciers and lower sea levels and shorter intervals between the glacial advances marked by warm temperatures and high sea levels.

The Humid Tropical Climates

Tropical Rainforest, Tropical Monsoon, and Tropical Savanna

Mediterranean

Warmest month above 10C (50F)‍; coldest month between 18 & 0C; summer drought; hot summers (inland), mild summers (coastal), West coast location between 30 and 40 N and S latitudes; alternation between subtropical highs in summer and westerlies in winter Central California; central Chile; Mediterranean Sea borderlands, Iranian highlands; Cape Town area of South Africa; southern and southwestern Australia,Mild, moist winters and hot, dry summers inland with cooler, often foggy coasts; high percentage of sunshine; high summer diurnal temperature range; frost danger, Sclerophyllous vegetation; low, tough brush (chaparral); scrub woodlands; varied soils, erosion in Old World regions; winter-sown grains, olives, grapes, vegetables, citrus, irrigation, classified among the humid climates, because the rain comes during cooler months, when evapotranspiration rates are lower, and annual precipitation is sufficient to qualify as a humid climate.

Marine West Coast

Warmest month above 10C (50F)‍; coldest month between 18 & 0C; year-round precipitation; mild to cool summers, West coast location under the year-round influence of the westerlies; warm ocean currents along some coasts, Coastal Oregon, Washington, British Columbia, and southern Alaska; southern Chile; interior South Africa; southeast Australia and New Zealand; northwest Europe Mild winters, mild summers, low annual temperature range; heavy cloud cover, high humidity; frequent cyclonic storms, with prolonged rain, drizzle, or fog; 3- to 4-month frost period Naturally forested, green year-round; soils require fertilization; root crops, deciduous fruits, winter wheat, rye, pasture and grazing animals; coastal fisheries

Humid Subtropical

Warmest month above 10C‍ (50F); coldest month between 18‍ and 0C (64.4-32)‍; hot summers; generally year-round precipitation, winter drought (Asia), East coast location between 20 and 40 N and S latitudes; humid onshore (monsoonal) air movement in summer, cyclonic storms in winter, Southeastern United States; southeastern South America; coastal southeast South Africa and eastern Australia; eastern Asia from northern India through south China to southern Japan High humidity; summers like humid tropics; frost with polar air masses in winter; precipitation 62-250 cm (25-100 in.), decreasing inland; monsoon influence in Asia, Mixed forests, some grasslands, pines in sandy areas; soils productive with regular fertilization; rice, wheat, corn, cotton, tobacco, sugarcane, citrus

anthropogenic change

a change in environmental conditions related to or as a direct result of human activities

positive feedback

a change in one variable will cause changes in other variables that magnify the amount of original change

oxygen-isotope analysis

a dating method used to reconstruct climate history; it is based on the varying evaporation rates of water molecules containing different oxygen isotopes and the changing ratio between the isotopes

climate classification system

a method for determining categories of climate types based on climatic and weather data and characteristics, based on numerical weather data combined with seasonal and annual similarities of precipitation and temperature

Little Ice Age

a period of generally cooler conditions and growth of glaciers from the mid-16th to the mid-19th centuries, Cold periods occurred during the early Middle Ages and again beginning about 1150 to 1460 in the North Atlantic region and 1560 to 1880 in continental Europe and North America

dendroclimatology

a short-term climate record can be determined through careful examination of tree rings

Actual evapotranspiration

actual amount of moisture loss through evapotranspiration measured from a surface, reflects the real (actual) evaporation loss and transpiration by plants at a location

steppe climate (BS)

an area where annual precipitation is less than potential ET but more than half the potential ET

Altithermal

an interval of time about 7000 years ago when the climate was warmer than it is today, melted glaciers and evaporated lakes, mainly affected the Northern Hemisphere, characterized by the dominance of grasslands in the Sahara and severe droughts on the Great Plains

steppe climate

characterized by relatively treeless, midlatitude semi-arid vegetation, and dominated by short bunch grasses, often referred to as a semiarid climate, receives an annual precipitation that is more than half but less than the total potential ET, Precipitation more than half but less than potential evapotranspiration mean annual temperature above 18C (low-lat.), below (mid-lat.), Same as deserts; usually transitional between deserts and humid climates, Geographic Distribution: Peripheral to deserts, especially in Argentina, northern and southern Africa, Australia, central and southwest Asia, and western United States, Semiarid conditions, annual rainfall distribution similar to nearest humid climate; temperatures vary with latitude, elevation, and continentality, Dry savanna (tropics) or short grass vegetation; highly fertile black and brown soils; grazing animals in vast herds; predators and small animals; ranching and dry farming, These moisture-deficient climate types share the controlling factors of the subtropical high pressure systems, rain shadow location, continentality, or some combination of these three, Precipitation in steppe regions, like in deserts, is unpredictable and varies widely in total amounts from year to year, the differences in winter temperatures can produce annual ranges in midlatitude semiarid regions that are two or three times as great as those in the low-latitudes

microclimate

climate associated with a small area at or near Earth's surface; the area may range from a few inches to 1 mile in size

global warming

climate change that causes Earth's temperatures to rise.

Thornthwaite system

climate classification based on moisture availability and of greatest use at the local level; climate types are distinguished by examining and comparing potential and actual evapotranspiration, a system that concentrates on a local scale, and is most useful for water resources specialists, soil scientists, and agriculturalists, determines moisture availability (or shortages) at a subregional scale, recognizes climate zones based on the relationship between the precipitation a location receives, and the potential evapotranspiration at that location, recognizes three climate zones based on potential ET values: low-latitude climates, with potential ET greater than 130 centimeters (51 in.); midlatitude climates, with potential ET fewer than 130 but greater than 52.5 centimeters (20.5 in.); and high-latitude climates, with potential ET fewer than 52.5 centimeters

Köppen system

climate classification based on monthly and annual averages of temperature and precipitation; boundaries between climate classes are designed so that climate types coincide with vegetation regions, most widely used climate classification, based on regional temperature and precipitation patterns, derived precise numerical definitions for each climate region, Köppen's climate boundaries often reflect "vegetation lines.", Köppen did not consider winds, cloud cover, precipitation intensity, and humidity, although these factors exert important influences on local weather and climate., divides the world into six major climate categories

marine west coast climate (Cfb, Cfc)

climate type characterized by cool, wet conditions much of the year, receives ample precipitation and no monthly temperatures average below freezing (mild-summer marine west coast climate (Cfb), cool-summer variety (Cfc)), difference between the daily maximum and minimum temperatures is small, reputation as one of world's cloudiest, foggiest, rainiest, and stormiest climates, The small annual temperature ranges, mild winters, long growing seasons, and abundant precipitation all favor plant growth.

humid subtropical climate (Cfa)

climate type characterized by hot humid summers, found in the subtropical regions of the world, extends inland from continental east coasts between 15-20 & 40 N and S latitudes, a modified monsoon effect affects many humid subtropical climates by increasing summer precipitation as moist, unstable tropical air is drawn in over the land, the year-round precipitation for humid subtropical locations usually exceeds that for the seasonally wet Mediterranean locations, subject to tropical storms, Vegetation generally thrives in humid subtropical regions, which experience abundant rainfall, high temperatures, and long growing seasons.

desert climate

climate where the amount of precipitation received is less than one-half of the potential ET, Precipitation less than half of potential evapotranspiration; mean annual temperature above 18C (low-lat.), below (mid-lat.), Descending, diverging circulation of subtropical highs; continentality often linked with rain shadow location, Geographic Distribution: Coastal Chile and Peru, southern Argentina, southwest Africa, central Australia, Baja California and interior Mexico, North Africa, Arabia, Iran, Pakistan and western India (low-lat.); inner Asia and western United States (mid-lat.) Aridity; low relative humidity; irregular and unreliable rainfall; highest percentage of sunshine; highest diurnal temperature range; highest daytime temperatures; windy conditions, Xerophytic vegetation; often barren, rocky, or sandy surface; desert soils; excessive salinity; usually small, nocturnal burrowing animals; nomadic herding, The concentration of deserts in the vicinity of the two lines of the tropics is directly related to the subtropical high pressure systems, The second concentration of deserts is located within continental interiors that are remote from moisture-carrying winds.

climatology

concerned with generalized atmospheric conditions of the past and present, and in forecasting future climates, study atmospheric conditions that affect large areas and changes in climate that occur from year to year or over periods of many years

Rainforest clearing

contributes to the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere in two ways. Rainforest trees take in huge amounts of CO2, and after forest clearing burning, the leftover debris puts more CO2 into the atmosphere.

Radiocarbon dating

developed in the 1950s, began to be widely used to measure the absolute ages of organic material found in association with glacial landforms and deposits, only applicable back to about 50,000 years, so its main application is in climate studies of relatively recent geologic time.

Mesothermal climates

experience seasonality, with distinct summers and winters that distinguish them from the humid tropics, receive an annual precipitation that exceeds the annual potential evapotranspiration, 3 types (Mediterranean, Humid Subtropical, Marine West Coast)

hot-summer subtype (Csa)

located farther inland and reflects an increased influence of continentality, higher summer and daytime temperatures along with cooler winter and nighttime temperatures compared with its coastal counterpart, and it also has greater annual and diurnal temperature ranges

Palynology

method of determining past climatic conditions using pollen analysis, well-established way of reconstructing past environments in order to understand the climate associated with the vegetation that existed during a certain time in the past, Lakes and organic bogs are among the best places to extract pollen samples for analysis, can represent accumulations of hundreds or thousands of years

Dendrochronology

method of determining past climatic conditions using tree rings, involves an examination of annual tree rings exposed by cores drilled through the middle of certain tree species, Each ring, by its thickness, color, and texture, can reveal information about the climate conditions (temperature, precipitation, and moisture availability) during that particular year of the tree's growth

Humid Continental, Mild Summer (Dfb, Dwb)

mild summers; usually year-round precipitation, winter drought (Asia), Moderate summers; long winters with frequent spells of clear, cold weather; large annual temperature ranges; variable weather with less total precipitation, climate type characterized by mild, humid summers and cold, and moist winters, a more continental or severe-winter version of its equatorward counterpart, characterized by distinct seasonality

Global Circulation Models (GCMs)

numerical/computer systems for forecasting climatic impacts and shifts resulting from variations in processes and interactions among the atmosphere, oceans, and other climate-related environmental variables, sophisticated computer simulations of climatic conditions and trends based on the relationships among multiple variables that can affect Earth's climate system—sun angles, temperature, evaporation rates, effects of land versus water, energy transfers, and so on

Ice Ages

period of Earth history when large areas of Earth's land surface were covered with massive continental ice sheets and other kinds of glaciers. The most recent ice age occurred during the Pleistocene Epoch, times when glaciers (masses of flowing ice) were widespread in midlatitude mountains and large areas of the Northern Hemisphere continents were covered by huge sheets of ice.

climate types

primarily classified by statistical averages of weather elements such as temperature and precipitation, the description of a climate type also includes the potential for infrequent weather conditions such as severe storms, frosts, and droughts, as well as unusual precipitation, temperature, and weather events

Regional climatology

seeks to use classifications of climate types to map their geographic distribution, and to explain the spatial patterns of climates on Earth, The two most common indicators for describing the climate of a location or a region are temperature and precipitation

comets

small objects of rocky or iron materials held together by ice, orbit the sun

microthermal climate

temperatures high enough during part of the year to have a recognizable summer with at least one month averaging over 50F and a distinct winter with the coldest month averaging less than 32F, It is the cold winters that distinguish microthermal climates from the moderate winter mesothermal climates, The three microthermal climates are humid continental, hot summer; humid continental, mild summer; and subarctic, which has a cool summer and in extreme cases, a long, bitterly cold winter. all experience a surplus of precipitation over potential evapotranspiration and most receive precipitation all year, The degree of continentality and the size of a continent significantly affect both summer and winter temperatures and, as a result, on the annual temperature range, In all three microthermal climates, precipitation tends to decrease poleward

effective temperatures

the temperatures we feel, temperatures as they might be experienced by a person at rest, in ordinary clothing, in a motionless atmosphere, 2 factors: atmospheric & human, Atmospheric: First is the actual air temperature; thermometers will help distinguish between cold and warm days. Second is humidity; because the evaporation of sweat is a cooling process for the human body, humid days feel warmer than dry days. Third is wind speed; winds not only carry heat from the body but can also accelerate the evaporation of sweat. Fourth is the percentage of clear sky; shady areas are cooler than sunny areas. Human: First is respiration; breathing in a lungful of cold air will make one feel colder. Second is perspiration; the evaporative cooling process is quite efficient for the human body, but it differs from one individual to another. Third is the amount of activity involved; physical work or playing a physical sport can heat the body rapidly. Fourth is the amount of exposed skin; tank tops versus sweatshirts can make a world of difference.

Milankovitch theory

the theory that long-term climate change is related to periodic changes in Earth's axis and the planet's motions in space, also called astronomical theory, These orbital cycles produce regular variations in the amount of solar energy that reaches Earth that may favor either the Northern or Southern Hemisphere.

slash-and-burn

typical subsistence agriculture of indigenous societies in the tropical rainforest. Trees are cut, the branches are burned, and crops are planted between the larger trees or stumps before rapid deterioration of the soil forces a move to a new area, farming is possible for only 2 or 3 years before the soil is completely exhausted of its small supply of nutrients, also called shifting cultivation

xerophytic or xerophytes

vegetation (xerophytes) that is able to withstand extended periods of drought, may have thick bark, little foliage, small waxy leaves, and grow in a compact shape close to the ground, all of which reduce loss of water by transpiration, Sharp thorns on xerophytic plants, and often a bitter taste as well, tend to keep browsing animals away, which can injure plants and make survival even more difficult, another adaptation is storing moisture in stems or leaf cells, as in the many types of cactus (saguaro, barrel, and prickly pear cacti), vegetation (xerophytes) that is able to withstand extended periods of drought

sclerophyllous

vegetation type commonly associated with the Mediterranean climate; characterized by tough surfaces, deep roots, and thick, shiny leaves that resist moisture loss, drought resistant

interglacials

warmer period between glacial advances during which continental ice sheets and many valley glaciers retreat and disappear or are greatly reduced in size

wastelands

what deserts are sometimes erroneously referred to as

low-latitude deserts

where temperatures are relatively high year-round and frost is absent or infrequent even along poleward margins, world's greatest diurnal temperature ranges