Exam 3: Adulthood Ch. 14, 16, 18, 19
At around the age of 35, women have also traditionally become more aware that their
"biological clocks" is ticking
We rarely hear cohabitation referred to as
"living in sin" as we once did
People today are more likely to refer to cohabitation with value-free expressions such as
"living together"
Persons who marry late or who remarry tend not to select partners so close in age because they are
"out in the world" - rather than in school or fresh out of school—and tend to work with or otherwise meet people from different age groups
It is also useful if one partner is the workaholic and the other partner is the
"people person" or social butterfly -They each then have their domains of expertise and are unlikely to clash
While some theorists present portraits of middle-aged people suddenly focusing on tragedy, loss, or doom, others find people to be in or entering the
"prime of life"
Ego transcendence versus ego preoccupation
Ego transcendence means preparing in some way to go beyond the physical limitations of one's own life span. As death comes nearer, some prepare to transcend death by helping secure the futures of their children or grandchildren. Others work more broadly to benefit a church, synagogue, or mosque, or to leave planet Earth in "better shape" than they found it
Generativity versus Stagnation
Erikson's seventh stage of psychosocial development, in which the life crisis is the dichotomy between generativity (as in rearing children or contributing to society) and stagnation (a state characterized by lack of development, growth, or advancement).
With whom will I share my retirement years?
If life partners are not in agreement about retirement activities and residences, the stresses of an unwanted living situation can provide a continuous source of stress.
How accurate is the disengagement theory?
Probably not very. It seems that well-being among older adults generally increases when they pursue goals rather than withdraw from society. -Goals might have to be adjusted so that they are consistent with the person's physical and cognitive abilities, but disengagement does not appear to be the path to adjustment. Moreover, relationships between children and parents change as parents travel the years of late adulthood, but children—who are now middle-aged—often maintain close, supportive ties with aging parents, and despite some diminished capacities, aging parents may become founts of wisdom.
Intimacy vs. Isolation
Sternberg's triangular theory of love: intimacy, passion, & commitment
Administered a battery of psychological tests to nearly 200 middle-aged adults, many of whom were identified as high in generativity and many of whom were identified as high in stagnation:
The more generative group scored significantly higher in the personality variable of conscientiousness, and the more stagnating group scored significantly higher on the personality variable of neuroticism.
How will I decide?
There are many phases of retirement decision making: imagining the possibility of retirement, deciding whether and when it is time to let go of a long-held job, and when and how to put concrete plans to retire into action
Broadly speaking, many people in the United States today want to get married because they believe that they will
be happier -The National Marriage Project suggests that most of them are correct, even if the percentages of those reporting that their marriages are "very happy" have declined since the 1970s
And many women do become pregnant in their late 30s and early 40s. However, more careful monitoring of the fetus is usually recommended for women who
become pregnant at 35 or later
Although the overall percentage of American households made up of married couples has been decreasing, the great majority of women and men aged 30 to 44 have
been married
Adolescents strive for independence and, as they mature and gain experience, parents generally
begin to share control with them
Romantic love
a form of love fueled by passion and feelings of intimacy
Polygamy
a person has more than one spouse and is permitted sexual access to each of them
Midlife transition
a psychological shift into middle adulthood that is theorized to occur between the ages of 40 and 45 as people begin to believe they have more to look back upon than forward to.
In the long term, however, both men and women may seek to invest in
a relationship, feelings of love, companionship, and a sharing of resources
Midlife Crisis
a time of dramatic self-doubt and anxiety during which people sense the passing of their youth and become concerned with their own aging and mortality
Midlife crisis
a time of dramatic self-doubt and anxiety during which people sense the passing of their youth and become concerned with their own aging and mortality.
Most of the research on gay men and lesbians has focused on
adolescents and young adults
Once beset by the crisis, there may be attempts to deny aging, such as
an extramarital affair to prove that we remain attractive, buying a sports car (red, of course), or shifting careers.
Studies find that women of ______ weight with a waist-to-hip ratio of 0.7 to 0.8 are rated as most attractive and desirable for relationships
average -Neither gaunt nor obese women are found to be as attractive
In-depth interviews with the church-goers found several reasons for their relative longevity, including
avoidance of negative coping methods such as aggressive behavior and drinking alcohol, success in evading victimization by violence, a sense of hopefulness, and social support.
"Big Five" personality traits
basic personality traits derived from contemporary statistical methods: extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism (emotional instability), and openness to experience
A study of more than 5,000 German, British, Spanish, Czech, and Turkish people suggests that the factors are related to people's
basic temperaments, which are largely inborn
Leisure and informal social activities contribute to life
satisfaction among retired people
Sharing power in the relationship and dividing household tasks contributed to
satisfaction in the relationships
The second and third groups were not as
satisfied with retirement -They were in poorer health, less likely to be married, and lower in socioeconomic status then the first group -Another way to look at this data is to suggest that retirement per se didn't change these people's lives in major ways.
Generativity not only contributes to future generations, it also enhances one's
self-esteem and sense of meaning in life
Levinson and his colleagues also found that the later 30s are often characterized by
settling down or planting roots -At this time, many people feel a need to make a financial and emotional investment in their homes. -Their concerns become focused on promotion or tenure, career advancement, mortgages, and, in many or most cases, raising their own families
For traditionalists, marriage legitimizes _____ relations
sexual
it is widely believed that reddish skin tones are a
sexual signal that attracts mates
It is more often the man who is unwilling to make a commitment, because men are typically more interested in
sexual variety, at least in the short term
Gay men in long-term partnerships are less likely to incur
sexually transmitted infections
"Being in love" can refer to states of passion or infatuation, whereas friendship is usually based on
shared interests, liking, and respect
Most adult sibling relationships are close, but they tend to reflect the nature of
sibling relationships in childhood -Then, too, sisters tend to have more intimate relationships than brothers
One of the purposes of arranged marriage is to make certain that the bride and groom share
similar backgrounds so that they will carry on family traditions
Researchers have found that people who are involved in committed relationships are most likely to be
similar to their partners in their attitudes and cultural attributes
Some women bearing children late have considered their options and chosen to have and raise their children as
single parents
Single, never-married—and noncohabiting—adults without children make up a
small minority of the adult American population
People also rate the attractiveness of faces higher when they are
smiling than when they are not smiling
Siblings (and children) of the widowed tend to ramp up their
social contacts and emotional support
In order to regulate their emotional lives as they grow older, people limit their
social contacts to a few individuals who are of major importance to them
Height plays a key role in choice of a mate because it suggests
social dominance, status, access to resources, protection, and a positive heritable trait
Yet the involuntary nature of being widowed is much more likely to lead to
social isolation than marital separation -The reasons for isolation are physical, cognitive, and emotional
Family and social relationships provide some of the most obvious—and most important—elements in the
social lives of older adults
Parents also seem to be more likely than people without children to have the sort of
social network that permits them to avoid nursing homes or other residential care upon physical decline
Therefore, religion and religious activities provide older adults a vast arena for
social networking
Women were relatively more likely to desire men who had a
steady income (74% versus 97%) and made a lot of money (47% versus 69%)
When two people in close quarters each want a task completed in her or his own way, there is likely to be _______
conflict
Researchers attribute children's problems following divorce not only to the divorce itself but also to a
consequent decline in the quality of parenting.
Romantic love may burn brightly and then flicker out. Or it may develop into a more complete love, called
consummate love, in which all 3 components flower
Butler (2002) also argues that health-care professionals rely far too much on ______ to ease the discomforts of older adults
drugs
Thus young married or cohabiting adults with children more often than not areu
dual-earner families
Caring for children was connected with declines in well-being for dual-earner women, but, ironically, with increases in well-being for
dual-earner men -Perhaps the men were relieved of much stress by the second income.
Adolescents are often parts of cliques and crowds, and young adults often have large numbers of friends. In middle adulthood, the number of friends tends to
dwindle, and couples and individuals tend to place more value on the friends they keep
The nature of romantic relationships and the satisfaction of the partners strongly affect the well-being of
each member of the couple at various stages throughout adulthood
When a household splits, the resources often cannot maintain the
earlier standard of living for each partner.
But age homogamy reflects the tendency to marry in
early adulthood
But bearing children in developed nations is generally seen as something that ideally occurs in
early adulthood, although a few hundred thousand teenage girls bear children in the United States each year
Frequency of contact and emotional closeness declined from
early to middle adulthood but increased again in late adulthood (mean age = 71.5 years)
Young adults may decide to cohabit because of the
economic advantages of sharing household expenses
More women today have the _____ ____ of breaking away from a troubled marriage
economic means -Also, today more people consider marriage an alterable condition than in prior generations.
On the other hand, the fact that their mothers work did encourage the adolescents—female and male—to say they believed in gender
egalitarianism
As a perennial optimist, Erikson believed that people who achieved positive outcomes to earlier life crises—for example, generativity rather than stagnation in middle adulthood—would be more likely to obtain
ego integrity than despair in late adulthood
Erikson labeled his eighth or final stage of life the stage of
ego integrity versus despair
Many people become more aware of their bodies and their bodies' limitations as they age, which, for some, may lead to
ego transcendence
Women aged 22 to 49 were most likely to reject jobs because they conflicted with
family life or because of work conditions
Supporters of arranged marriage also argue that it is wiser to follow
family wisdom than one's own heart, especially since the attraction couples feel is often infatuation and not a deep, abiding love -Proponents also claim a lower divorce rate for arranged marriages than for "self-arranged marriages" (but it must be noted that couples who enter arranged marriages are generally more traditional to begin with) -In Hong Kong, for example, as arranged marriage declines and couples marry whom they wish, the divorce rate is increasing
Within the samples of unemployed middle-aged adults, those for whom work was more important, who had fewer financial resources and less social support, and who tended to blame themselves for losing their jobs
fare worst -Those who had emotional and financial resources and social support, who could structure their time, and who had realistic strategies for job hunting or finding substitutes for jobs fare best
Interestingly, women tend to dress and ornament themselves in more appealing ways when they are in the ______ phase of their ovulatory cycle
fertile
In late adulthood stage, couple report less disagreement over
finances, household chores, and parenting (or grandparenting), but may have concerns about emotional expression and companionship
Divorce is usually connected with _______ and ______ problems
financial and emotional
Remember, however, that these samples are of college-educated women, so they may be less likely than the general population to incur certain
financial and health problems in late adulthood
In this patriarchal society, the son's priorities often run like this:
first, his own children; second, his parents; third, his wife
Men who are widowed are more likely than women to remarry, or at least to
form new relationships with people of the other gender
Grandparents and adult grandchildren often act as
friends and confidants -As they experience life events together, their relationships can seem precious and capable of being cut short at any time.
Generativity is the ability to
generate or produce
A study found particular benefits for life satisfaction in activities involving the next
generation, the visual and performing arts, and spiritual and religious matters -However, there was also value in independent activities in the home
Erikson and others also note that grandparenthood provides additional opportunities for
generativity
Erikson believed that the major psychological challenge of the middle years is
generativity versus stagnation
It doesn't address the fact that some grandparents hardly get to see—or never get to see—their grandchildren because of geographical
geographical separation or because of harsh feelings following family conflict.
Middle-aged adults are more likely to be settled
geographically and vocationally, although midlife career changes and relocation are certainly possibilities
Cohabiting individuals who receive public assistance risk losing support if they
get married
Romantic partners may have deep feelings for each other but are not ready to
get married
These findings are all consistent with evolutionary theory: women are relatively more concerned with a partner's ability to
help provide an environment conducive to successful child rearing
Pilot programs suggest that therapists may be able to relieve depression and other psychological problems in older adults by
helping them reminisce about their lives
Physical characteristics associated with a woman's youthfulness, such as smooth skin, firm muscle tone, and lustrous hair, may thus have become more closely linked to
her appeal
Erikson suggested that in our society, which values compatibility in relationships, an absent or fluctuating ego identity is connected with the
high divorce rate in teenage marriages -Once passion fades a bit, conflicting ways of looking at the world may be too abrasive to bear.
Attraction-similarity hypothesis
holds that people tend to develop romantic relationships with people who are similar to themselves in attractiveness and other traits
When older people can no longer manage living on their own, they may consider utilizing the services of
home health aides and visiting nurses to help them remain in the home -More affluent older people can afford to hire live-in help -Others may move in with adult children
The concept of "like marrying like" is termed _______
homogamy
The dominant culture also prefers the ______ figure
hourglass
Many middle-aged workers feel threatened by changes in the workplace brought about by
increased automation and outsourcing
The Van Hiel group also found, with a group of 457 middle-aged adults, that generativity and stagnation are
independent dimensions rather than opposites -In other words, middle-aged people can be low in generativity and also be low in stagnation
It has become more acceptable and widespread for women to lead
independent, single lives, for as long as they wish
People who live alone may do their retirement planning as
individuals
People in late adulthood focus more on their ____ lives, preparing for the inevitable.
inner
Social psychologists Ellen Berscheid and Elaine Hatfield define romantic love in terms of a state of
intense physiological arousal and the cognitive appraisal of that arousal as love
Job satisfaction is also associated with such factors as
interesting work, some autonomy, and the availability of child-care facilities
Research for many decades has shown—and keeps on showing—that physical attractiveness is a major determinant of
interpersonal and sexual attraction
Sometimes a love relationship has both passion and commitment but lacks ______
intimacy -this is called fatuous (foolish love)
Erikson saw the establishment of _______ relationships as the key "crisis" of early adulthood
intimate
Although they are less likely than younger cohabiters to marry their partners, older cohabiters report being in more
intimate and stable relationships
Another is that women, more so than men, make use of the web of
kinship relations and close friendships available to them
Of these reasons, having children to care for one in one's old age ("social security") looms
large
The couples were assessed during pregnancy and from infancy through toddlerhood—at 3, 12, and 30 months after birth. When the parents generally agreed on their beliefs about parenting, and who should do what, their postnatal adjustment was
largely solid and remained stable
One common change in middle adulthood takes place when the
last child leaves home
Sibling relationships continue into ____ adulthood for most adults in the United States
late
We saw that the existence of the midlife crisis is in dispute; however, no one can argue that people in late adulthood have more to
look back on than forward to
People who experience physical suffering in this world are advised to
look forward to relief in the next
Older adults may be reluctant to relocate to nursing homes because nursing homes signify the
loss of independence
Attraction can lead to feelings of ______
love
According to the model, various combinations of the building blocks of love characterize different types of
love relationships -Ex: infatuation (passionate love) is typified by sexual desire but not by intimacy and commitment.
The women aged 50-62 were most likely to accept jobs ____ ____ ____, as long as they liked the work
low in pay
Cohabitation has become largely accepted as a
mainstream style of life
Dual-earner women with flexible work schedules encountered less stress than women with fixed schedules, apparently because they were more capable of
managing their role overload
The very concept of retirement, or of a period of retirement, is rather new to the human condition. -Historically speaking, people worked until they became physically or mentally incapable of doing so. -But the industrial revolution, company and government pensions, and extended life expectancies have worked together to create a situation in which
many or most people expect that they will spend their "golden years" tucked safely away from the demands of the workplace, perhaps in some sort of idyllic setting involving sunshine and pleasant leisure activities
Shared leisure activities also contribute to the satisfaction of
marital and other intimate partners and to family well-being -they reduce stress and help retirees avert boredom
Another study found that intimacy, which is fueled by trust, honesty, and the sharing of innermost feelings, is strongly connected with
marital satisfaction -So is the psychological support of one's spouse
Satisfaction with one's career is positively correlated with
marital satisfaction, and both of them are related to general life satisfaction
The great majority of career women in sizeable American cities simply would not care what anyone thinks about their
marital status or living arrangements
It is actually unlikely that having a child will save a
marriage -Numerous studies show that with the added stress of caring for a new baby, the quality of a couple's adjustment often declines significantly throughout the year following delivery
Young adults who have evolved a firm sense of identity during adolescence may now be ready to "fuse" their identities with those of other people through
marriage and abiding friendships
Willingness to cohabit is related to less traditional views of
marriage and gender roles
In some traditional societies, young adults do not usually leave the home of origin until they are
married or some other key event takes place
The researchers interpret the results to suggest that our personalities tend to
mature rather than be shaped by environmental conditions, although the expression of personality traits is certainly affected by culture -For example, a person who is "basically" open to new experience is likely to behave less openly in a traditional, fundamentalist society than in an open society
The basic challenge in the crisis of ego integrity versus despair is to maintain the belief that life is
meaningful and worthwhile despite physical decline and the inevitability of death
Butler believes that older people engage in life reviews to attempt to make life
meaningful, to move on with new relationships as contemporaries pass on, and to help them find ego integrity and accept the end of life
Some stressed people resort to a host of
medicines, both prescribed and over-the-counter
By middle adulthood, the partners' concerns appear to shift toward
meeting shared and individual responsibilities -The partnership needs to handle tasks such as finances, household chores, and parenting
Divorced women outnumber divorced men, in part because
men are more likely to get remarry
When middle-aged people switch jobs voluntarily and obtain better working conditions or benefits, there tend to be corresponding positive changes in their
mental health
People tend to have greater responsibilities in ________ adulthood and to have become more "entrenched" in their pursuits
middle -they may also question whether they still have the time and ability to start over
As sources of stress, negative life events, including physical illness and depression, have been shown to be harmful to people's health in
middle adulthood
As suggested by Erikson and Levinson, many workers are at their peak in
middle adulthood -They have had years to "learn the ropes," and many have advanced into the highest ranks of their trades or professions. -One's work can continue to provide social benefits, a sense of identity, and self-esteem.
A study of more than 2,000 university employees found that job satisfaction increased steadily throughout
middle adulthood -the gains were greater for men, and especially for men who were white-collar workers, for example, professors
Yet now and then siblings who were antagonistic or competitive in childhood or adolescence grow closer in
middle adulthood if the siblings cooperate in caring for a disabled parent
Openness to experience declines strongly from young adulthood but then, like other traits, remains reasonably stable though
middle adulthood until it falls of precipitously during the later years
Neuroticism - emotional instability - increases slightly and gradually during
middle adulthood, but then levels off and declines somewhat in later adulthood
The years from 40 to 45 comprise a _______ transition
midlife
Similarity in personality is less of a contributor to conflict than it is in
midlife (when older) -consistent with the finding that similarity in conscientiousness and extraversion is no longer strongly associated with marital dissatisfaction
Retirement planning may include regularly putting
money aside in plans such as IRAs, Keoghs, and various pension plans in the workplace; investing in stocks, bonds, or a second home; and, perhaps, investigating the kinds of health care and cultural activities that are available in other geographic areas of interest. -People who are thinking of another area will also be interested in learning about the weather (including effects on allergies) and crime statistics.
Among male and female couples, we have two types of marriage:
monogamy and polygamy
As people undergo physical decline, religion asks them to focus, instead, on
moral conduct and spiritual "substance" such as the soul.
Generally speaking, taller men are considered to be
more attractive by women
In developed nations the decision not to have children or to have only one child is becoming
more common
It is better for the relationship if one partner is detail-oriented while the other is
more easygoing
A life-span developmental study of twin relationships found that, compared with other sibling relationships, the twin relationships were
more intense in terms of frequency of contacts, intimacy, conflict, and emotional support
Middle-aged adults, especially professionals, are also often earning
more money than young adults
The greater fund of child-rearing experience of grandparents often allows them to relate to their grandchildren in a
more relaxed way than parents can
Despite increasing concern with aging, personal distress was lower among older women, suggesting, perhaps, that older women are
more settled
Daniel Levinson theorized that one aspect of the "midlife crisis" was that people realized they had
more to look back on than forward to
Physical activity is associated with a lower ______ rate in late adulthood
mortality
Older people have often narrowed their friendships to friends who are
most like them and enjoy the same kinds of activities
Grandchildren are also more relatively more involved with their
mother's parents than their father's -the gender of the grandchild has little effect on these overall findings
Generativity was higher in the 40s than in the 20s, but the generativity of the cohort in their 60s was
much the same as for those in their 40s
Religion involves beliefs and practices centered on claims about the
nature of reality and moral behavior, usually codified as rituals, religious laws, and prayers
Parents in some traditional societies assume that their adult children will live
nearby; moving to another part of the country is not only painful but also something of an embarrassment for them among their extended family and community
In fact, many individuals and couples in contemporary developed nations no longer think of parenthood as a
necessary part of marriage or a relationship
Children of divorce also benefit when their parents avoid saying
negative things about each other in the children's presence
Although there are physical standards for beauty in our culture, ______ traits also affect our perceptions
nonphysical -Ex: the attractiveness of a partner is likely to be enhanced by traits such as familiarity, liking, respect, and sharing of values and goals
The financial realities of contemporary life, and the women's movement, have made the move of women into the workplace the
norm in American society
Reminiscence was once considered a symptom of dementia, but contemporary researchers consider it to be a
normal aspect of aging
The average woman needs to have 2.11 children for a couple to be at "replacement level," because some children will
not survive to reproduce
On the other hand, the physical aspects of aging and the death of companions can force changes in the choice of
of activities and diminish the level of satisfaction gotten from them
Older people no longer have children in the schools or—most crucially—sufficient income to pay the increased taxes, and so they
often sell their homes
Activity theory places many of the barriers to such activity in social attitudes such as beliefs that
older people should "take it easy," and in structural matters such as forced retirement, without regard to the desires of the individual
One reason is simply that women tend to outlive men, so there are more
older women who are available
Unless one has signed a prenuptial agreement to the contrary, marriage permits the orderly transmission of wealth from
one family to another and one generation to another
The majority of people in middle adulthood have at least
one living brother or sister
Monogamy
one person is married to one other person
The most dramatic changes appear to be in ______ to ______, which would appear to be in the province of the young
openness to experience
Partners can become jealous, for example, when
others show sexual interest in their partners or when their partners show interest in others
Friendship and passionate love do not necessarily ____
overlap
Evolutionary psychologists note that it would make sense for males and females to be more attracted to one another when the woman is
ovulating: that is, capable of conceiving a child
Cross-cultural studies also find gender differences in grandchildren's relationships with their grandparents that tend to
parallel their relationships with their parents
Because of increasing life expectancy, more than half of the middle-aged people in developed nations have at least one living
parent, and they frequently go on to experience late adulthood together
College students may cohabit secretly to maintain _______ support that they might lose if they were to reveal their living arrangements
parental
Just as people are getting married in their later 20s in the United States today, so are they delaying
parenthood
Children's adjustment is enhanced when both parents maintain
parenting responsibilities and set aside their differences long enough to agree on child-rearing practices
Infants are completely dependent on their
parents -children are also dependent
We discuss religion as part of the social context in which older adults (and others) dwell, because religion often involves
participating in the social, educational, and charitable activities of a congregation, as well as worshiping
In companionate love, intimacy and commitment are strong, but _______ is lacking.
passion
Romantic love has both
passion and intimacy but lacks commitment
In Sternberg's model, couples are well matched if they possess corresponding levels of
passion, intimacy, and commitment
Women who viewed videos of prospective dates found men who acted out-going and self-expressive more appealing than men who were ______
passive
So the first question we might ask is whether some people stagnate "because of" less generative behavior or whether their lower generativity is related to
personality traits such as neuroticism
It would be likely that women might act somewhat differently or that men would pick up on certain cues—perhaps unconsciously—that would communicate a woman's
phase of the menstrual cycle
Another study followed 172 newlywed couples over four years and found that _______ _______ preceded sharp declines in marital satisfaction
physical aggression
Divorced and separated people have the highest rates of
physical and mental illness -They also have high rates of suicide
In turn, the quality of the marital relationship appeared to positively affect individuals'
physical and psychological health
Research shows that people who are involuntarily unemployed have lower
physical and psychological well-being than employed subjects, and unemployed middle-aged subjects have lower well-being than unemployed young adults
The power of Tinder—in which people express interest in others on the basis of their photo alone—also testifies to the importance of
physical appearance in consideration of partners for dates, sex, and long-term relationships
We might like to think of ourselves as so sophisticated that physical attractiveness does not move us. We might like to claim that sensitivity, warmth, and intelligence are more important to us. However, we may never learn about other people's personalities if they do not meet our minimal standards for
physical attractiveness
Young adults tend to marry people who are similar in
physical attractiveness, attitudes, background, and interests
People can develop certain illnesses at almost any time of life, most people in middle adulthood suffer little loss of
physical prowess
One of the keys to a successful retirement is ______
planning
Although fathers in such cases may give lip service to helping with the baby and do a few things to help out here and there, the mother is almost always the
primary caregiver and thus encounters role overload
The notion of grandparents enjoying the best of the grandchild while escaping responsibility also ignores the fact that in thousands of cases grandparents bear the
primary responsibility of rearing grandchildren
Erikson (Erikson & Erikson, 1981) saw psycho-social generativity as based in an instinctual drive toward
procreativity- that is bearing and rearing children
But many in middle adulthood are at the height of their
productivity and resilience, despite the challenges
Intellectually, moreover, there is little if any loss in fluid intelligence in middle adulthood, and crystallized intelligence is growing— especially among
professional who are still developing skills in their fields
A man's reproductive value, however, may depend more on how well he can
provide for his family than on his age or physical appeal
Children are often the biggest losers when parents get a divorce, yet chronic marital conflict is also connected with
psychological distress in children
Midlife transition
psychological shift into middle adulthood that is often accompanied by a crisis during which people fear they have more to look back upon than forward to
Sternberg's model recognizes that the intimacy we find in true friendships and the passion we find in love are blended in two forms of love:
romantic love and consummate love -These love types differ along the dimension of commitment, however
Western culture has a long tradition of idealizing the concept of
romantic love, as represented, for instance, by romantic fairy tales that have been passed down through the generations
Studied a sample of people over the age of 80, without dementia, and found that leisure activities were associated with
superior perceptual speed -The researchers also used a form of brain imaging and found that leisure activities delayed declines in white matter microstructure (myelin)
Marriage provides an institution in which children can be
supported and socialized
Indeed, divorce may permit personal growth and renewal and the opportunity to
take stock of oneself and establish a new, more rewarding life
An interesting pattern has emerged in which gay men or lesbians sometimes form long-term intimate relationships with
straight people of the other gender -These relationships do not involve sexual activity, but the couples consider themselves to be "family" and are confidants
In more traditional societies people report having children to
strengthen marital bonds, provide security, assist with labor (as in having more farmhands), provide social status, maintain the family name and lineage, secure property rights and inheritance, and in some places, improve the odds of—yes—reincarnation
Widowhood is also associated with increased levels of
stress hormones, leading to a decline in physical and mental health, including increased mortality and deterioration in memory functioning
European and American studies find that the mothers in dual-earner families encounter more
stress than the fathers do
Married people appear to be better able to cope with the
stresses and strains of life, perhaps because they can lend each other emotional support
Yet a longitudinal study of 45 couples expecting their first child showed that family life does not have to be this
stressful
Regardless of the rea-sons that grandparents—usually grandmothers—assume the responsibility for parenting grandchildren, becoming a parent, again, in middle adult-hood, can be
stressful as well as rewarding
Middle-aged people's situations—such as having understanding and helpful family members or friends—and attitudes can have moderating effects on
stressors
Yet when older partners do remarry, as when they decide to cohabit, they usually make a
strong commitment to one another and form a stable relationship
Some studies report that middle-aged workers are more likely than younger workers to have a
strong work ethic and to see work as central in their lives -other studies find no generational difference in work ethic
Erikson did recognize that some people could not have children of their own or that social or interpersonal conditions made it difficult for some people to bear children. -Under such circumstances,
substitutes might work for the individual
though reciprocity can contribute to feelings of attraction, some research also suggests that women are sometimes more attracted to men whose feelings toward them are ______
uncertain
A meta-analysis of gender differences in marital satisfaction found that wives were more likely than husbands to report that their marriages were
unhappy and that they had considered divorce, but the difference was not large
Part of the reason that women are bearing children at a later age is the drop off in
unwanted pregnancies and births among teenagers, due to sex education and to the use of long-acting methods of contraception, such as hormonal implants and IUDs.
Research has consistently shown that older adults who are best adjusted to retirement are highly involved in a
variety of activities, such as community activities and organizations
Sternberg's model is triangular in that
various kinds of love can be conceptualized in terms of a triangle in which each vertex represents one of the building blocks
For college women, it does appear that 30 is the new 20, as they strive to establish themselves in careers and create some financial stability before they
venture into parenthood
Social support helps older people cope with their concerns about ______
victimization -For example, if they are victimized, social support helps them avoid some of the problems that characterize post-traumatic stress disorder, such as intrusive thoughts and nightmares
Ironically, people aged 80 and older are significantly less likely to be
victimized than people in other age groups
Perhaps general tendencies toward happiness (or depression) manifest themselves in various walks of life, including one's
vocational life and one's romantic relationships
Fatuous love is associated with
whirlwind court-ships that burn brightly but briefly as the partners realize that they are not well matched
We spend most of our lives accumulating things and relationships, and Erikson also argues that adjustment in the later years requires the
wisdom to let go
Nearly 90% of older people who cohabit have been married, and they are less likely than younger people to
wish to remarry
Many studies show that grandparents have less influence when they live
with couples and their grandchildren; under these circumstances, they are less likely to contribute to the adjustment of the family -Rather than "filling a hole," they frequently become a source of discord between their son or daughter and their son- or daughter-in-law
During middle adulthood stage, similarity in personality may work against the couple,
with each partner competing to handle or avoid the same task -Ex: in a study of the "big five" personality factors in middle-aged and older adults and marital satisfaction, difference rather than similarity in conscientiousness and extraversion predicts marital satisfaction in the decade of the 40s, whereas similarity does just as well in the decade of the 60s
Yet men who viewed videos in the Riggio and Woll study were put off by outgoing, self-expressive behavior in
women
Age and health may be relatively more important to a ________'s appeal, because
women's, these characteristics tend to be associated with her reproductive capacity (the "biological clock" limits her reproductive potential)
Because of problems balancing work and family life, it is usually the mother and not the father who cuts back on
work or drops out of the workforce altogether when dual-earner families can no longer afford to have a parent out of the home
Some complained that supervisors treated them with disrespect and failed to ask them how to improve
working conditions and productivity -These feelings are particularly painful for middle-aged workers when their supervisors are younger than they are
Women are often balancing the demands of the
workplace and a family, and they may still experience a "glass ceiling" on the job -They may be sought out in the hiring process but find it difficult to advance. Still, most women and blue-collar workers also reported more satisfaction on the job throughout middle age—just not as much as white-collar men
Most retirees report that their well-being has increased a _____ after they have retired, and that much of the stress they felt before retiring has diminished
year
Most people who change their careers do so in ______ adulthood
young
The majority of the third group retire at a
young age and tended to be male
Parents spend a higher proportion of their time
taking care of their children, whereas grandparents spend relatively more time in recreational and educational activities -We are speaking, of course, of situations in which the grandparents do not live in the same household with the grandchildren
Disengagement theory
the view that older adults and society withdraw from one another as older adults approach death
Socioemotional selectivity theory
the view that we place increasing emphasis on emotional experience as we age but limit our social contacts to regulate our emotions As a result, we are more focused on emotionally fulfilling experiences
Levinson (1996) found that women undergo somewhat similar developments, but experience more social constraints, both from
their families of origin and society in general -Thus, it may take women longer to leave home, and there may be more pressure on them to go from one home (their parents') to another (their husbands')
Americans today also want more from marriage than did
their grandparents -They expect marriage to be personally fulfilling as well as an institution for family life and rearing children.
Still other older people may move into assisted living residences, in which they have
their own apartments, community dining rooms, 24-hour nursing aid, and on-call physician care
Conscientious people want to get things done, but by middle adulthood they have
their own way of doing things
Older Americans consistently report that they prefer to remain in their homes as long as
their physical and mental conditions allow them to do so
Only a small minority of men (7%) and women (10%) said that it was very important to them that their partner or spouse share
their racial or ethnic backgroound
In midlife, people become less willing to spend their time with "just anybody"; therefore,
their remaining friends are more likely to be "close matches" in terms of interests, activities, and, often, years of mutual experience -For this reason, the loss of a friend is felt more deeply
Successful agers also tend to be optimistic. Such an out-look may be derived from
transcendence of the ego, from spirituality, or sometimes from one's genetic heritage (yes, there is a genetic component to happiness)
Levinson labeled the ages of 28 to 33 the age-30 _______
transition
Personality
-Costa & McCrae: Big 5 personality trait -Relatively stable in adulthood: -More agreeable and conscientious -Slight decline in openness to new experience -Less neurotic
Robert Peck's 3 Developmental Tasks that people face in late adulthood (Stage of ego integrity):
-Ego differentiation versus work-role preoccupation -Body transcendence versus body preoccupation -Ego transcendence versus ego preoccupation
Leisure activities for retiree's around the age of 72 fell into 3 factors:
-Factor I included athletic, competitive, and outdoor activities. -Factor II involved artistic, cultural, and self-expressive activities. -Partying was the sole activity that defined Factor III. Partying isn't just for youngsters.
When the children of middle-aged adults take partners or get married, new challenges can emerge:
-First of all, it may seem that nobody can be "good enough" for their child, but, sometimes, their child does apparently make a poor choice—or at least a poor match -The parents must then deal with the issues of whether, and how, they express their feelings about it -Regardless of the partner or spouse chosen by their child, there are also in-laws and the extended family of the in-laws -Sometimes there is a good match between the families of both partners, but more often the families would not have chosen each other as friends. -Still, for the sake of the children, the parents may try to act friendly when they get together. -But the new relationships can be another source of stress. -And then the children may have children
Marriage:
-Happiest at the beginning (and then ups & downs) -Men are happier than women (in heterosexual marriages) -Spending too much time together after retirement -Divorce: -prevalent in the US (~50% married couples break up) -4 major reasons: criticism, defensiveness, contempt, & stonewalling
Self & identity in adulthood
-Now adding autobiographical information & experience, but remains stable -Subjective evaluation of age: -Women have more youthful self-concept & identity -Androgyny
Parenthood:
-Parenthood nowadays is delayed (recall: emerging adulthood) -People mostly choose to be parents -but it does not make childrearing less stressful -what matters? Shared understanding and support -Middle adulthood & raising teens: issue of individuation & autonomy -Empty nest
Generativity vs. stagnation
-Sandwich generation -Parenting: A burden? -Career development
Why the increase in divorce?
-Until the mid-1960s, adultery was the only legal grounds for divorce in most states. -But no-fault divorce laws have been enacted in nearly every state, allowing a divorce to be granted without a finding of marital misconduct
Abigail Stewart, Joan Ostrove, and Ravenna Helson developed scales to assess a number of personality themes among women:
-identity certainty (knowing who one is and what one stands for) -confident power (self-confidence) -concern with aging -generativity -personal distress.
3 Phases of Retirement Decision Making:
1. Imagining the possibility of retirement 2. Deciding when to let go of one's job 3. Deciding how and when to put concrete retirement plans into action
Sternberg's Triangular Theory of Love: Includes 3 building blocks of loving experiences
1. Intimacy: the experience of warmth toward another person that arises from feelings of closeness and connectedness, and the desire to share one's innermost thoughts 2. Passion: Intense romantic or sexual desire, accompanied by physiological arousal 3. Commitment: Commitment to maintain the relationship through good times and bad
The perception that one has fallen in love is thus derived from:
1. a state of intense arousal that is connected with an appropriate love object (i.e., a person, not an event like a rock concert) 2. a cultural setting that idealizes romantic love 3. the attribution of the arousal to feelings of love for the person
Some ___% were unemployed, but others were unhappy with their pay, recognition, or health or retirement benefits
10%
Older African Americans who attend services more than once a week live _____ years longer, on average, than their counterparts who never attend church
13.7
The average American woman is having about
2 children to day, down from between 3 and 4 50 years ago
The age at which women bear their first children has been generally rising in the United States, from
21 in 1972 to 26.3 today
In a study of married women in four age groups, women up to age 21 spent more time trying to find employment than did women aged
22 to 35, 36 to 49, or 50 to 62
The average age at first birth for unmarried women was _____, for married women _____, and for women with a college degree or higher (married or single), _____.
23.1, 28.8, 30.3
The median age for a woman's first birth is
26.3
There is a 58% probability that a cohabiting American woman will marry her partner if the couple cohabit for
3 years
However, marriage remains the most common lifestyle among adults aged ___ to ___
30 to 44 -These are young adults and adults on the entry point to middle adulthood -They are mature enough to have completed graduate school or to have established careers. -They are also young enough not to have suffered becoming a widow or widower, generally
With people now more likely to live into their late 70s and 80s, 40 has become a much more realistic half-way point, or turning point, than
35
Undergraduate men, on the average, prefer women who are about ____ to ____ inches shorter
4 to 5
It turns out, for example, that the sperm count and "swimming ability" of sperm begin to decline markedly at age
40
Some ____% to ____% of the marriages in the United States end in divorce
40% to 50%
The 50s are often more relaxed and productive than the
40s -Yet many people in their 50s need to adjust to the children leaving home (the "empty nest"), the effects of aging, and competition from younger workers. -On the other hand, the last child's leaving home is often seen as a positive event.
Scores on three of the scales (identity certainty, confident power, and concern about aging) were higher for women in their
40s than women in their 20s, and then higher again for women in their 60s
Conference Board (2010) survey of some 5,000 households found that only ___% of American workers are satisfied with their jobs.
45%
Only ____% of adults now say that people and society at large will be better off if marriage and children are a priority in people's lives
46%
A somewhat higher percentage (____%) say that society will be just as well off if people have other priorities
50%
Undergraduate women prefer their dates to be about ____ inches taller than they are
6
Moreover, with medical advances, that person is more and more likely to be robust. Therefore, many people, especially professionals, are working well beyond the age of
65
The majority of people aged ____ and older consider themselves to be in good or excellent health compared to other people of their age.
65
The average person has nearly two decades of life in front of him or her at the age of
65 -That number has been increasing and is likely to continue to increase
The quest for economic security showed the greatest gender difference, with ____% of women respondents saying that it was very important to them that a spouse or partner be holding a steady job, as compared to ____% of men who held the same view.
78%, 46%
How will I afford it retirement?
Adequate finances are strongly related to satisfaction with retirement. -Most people plan—or attempt—to save for retirement, by putting money away, building equity in a home, and so on. They expect, or hope, that with pensions and government support (e.g., Social Security) kicking in, they will be all right. -In recent years, pensions have been shrinking, layoffs have been looming, and property values have been falling, so many older employees have had to postpone their plans for retirement.
Ego differentiation versus work-role preoccupation
After retirement, people need to find new ways of defining their self-worth outside of their achievements in the workplace, perhaps in terms of roles in the community, activities with friends and family, or spiritual undertakings
Body transcendence versus body preoccupation
At some point in late adulthood, people face inevitable physical decline, and it is in their best interests to come to terms with it by placing more value on cognitive activities and social relationships. Some people, of course, run into chronic illnesses or disabilities years earlier and must face the need to transcend body preoccupation prior to late adulthood
ego integrity versus despair
Erikson's eighth life crisis, defined by maintenance of the belief that life is meaningful and worthwhile despite physical decline and the inevitability of death versus depression and hopelessness.
Erikson focused on one central conflict for each stage of life, and the core conflict he identified for early adulthood was
Intimacy versus Isolation
Nearly half the people in the world identify with one of the "Abrahamic" religions:
Judaism, Christianity, and Islam -These religions, and many others, teach that there is a life after death, and that moral living will enable one to experience the benefits of the afterlife
Why is the color red associated with feelings of attraction?
Many nonhuman female primates, including baboons, chimpanzees, gorillas, and rhesus monkeys, show reddened genital regions and sometimes reddened chests and faces when they are nearing ovulation - the time of the month when they are fertile
POSSLQ stands for
People of Opposite Sex Sharing Living Quarters and applies to unmarried heterosexual couples who live together (i.e. cohabit) and have sexual relationships -Yet, cohabiting couples may also be of the same sex
_____ has been the most popular lipstick color since the hot days that saw the construction of the pyramids in ancient Egypt
Red -Red is similarly the most popular color for women's lingerie
Integrity vs. despair
Reminiscence
Yet, some studies suggest that the likelihood of divorce within ten years of marriage is nearly twice as great among married couples who cohabited before marriage. Why?
Selection factors—the factors that led some couples to cohabit and others not to cohabit—may explain the results -Ex: cohabitors tend to be less traditional and less religious than noncohabitors, and thus tend to be less committed to the values and interests traditionally associated with the institution of marriage. -Therefore, the attitudes of cohabitors and not necessarily cohabitation itself are likely to be responsible for their higher rates of divorce
Where will I live after I retire?
The great majority of retirees stay put. They don't sell their homes or hop to the Sunbelt. However, as time goes on and they become less physically independent, many live in assisted facilities or with children.
Some young adults—including college students—play jealousy games:
They let their partners know that they are attracted to other people. They flirt openly or manufacture tales to make their partners pay more attention to them, to test the relationship, to inflict pain, or to take revenge for a partner's disloyalty
Far Eastern nations such as China, Japan, and Korea, older parents tend to live with their children and their grandchildren, but not so in the
United States
Consummate love is an ideal toward which many
Westerners strive
194 adolescents from dual-earner families generally expected that they (if they were female) or their partners (if they were male) would be the ones to cut back or quit work in the future, at least temporarily, if the couple had
a child
Most middle-aged women are in the workforce and find life satisfaction in
activities other than child rearing and homemaking
Life dream
according to Daniel Levinson and his colleagues, the drive to become someone, to leave one's mark on history, which serves as a tentative blueprint for the young adult
It is in late adulthood when one's grandchildren also typically reach _______
adulthood
Extraversion shows a mild gradual decline across the years of
adulthood -Agreeableness tends to increase during the later years
Reciprocity is based on
affection
Jealousy can lead to loss of feelings of
affection, feelings of insecurity and rejection, anxiety, loss of self-esteem, and feelings of mistrust
As compared with couples in midlife, older couples show more
affectionate behavior when they discuss conflicts, and they disagree with one another less in general
Engaging in leisure activities is especially helpful with the cognitive aspects of
aging
Some workers—particularly blue-collar workers—reported feelings of
alienation and dissatisfaction
Conversely, a sibling relationship that had been close can grow distant if one sibling allows another to do
all the work in caring for a parent
Men appear to be more responsive to visual stimuli than women, although women are
also clearly attuned to appealing eyefuls
Whereas younger cohabiters often see their lifestyle as a prelude to marriage, older cohabiters are more likely to see their relationship as
an alternative lifestyle -They cite reasons for avoiding remarriage such as concern about ramifications for pensions and disapproval of adult children, who may be concerned about their inheritance
Marriage (theoretically) restricts sexual relations so that a man can be assured—or assume—that his wife's children
are his
Young adults tend to marry others from the same
area and social class
Do not despair if you are less than exquisite in appearance, along with most of us mere mortals. You may be saved from permanently blending in with the wallpaper by the effects of the _________ hypothesis
attraction-similarity hypothesis
Both females and males find slenderness (though not anorexic thinness) _______
attractive
Gender-role expectations may affect perceptions of _______
attractiveness -Ex: women are more likely to be attracted to socially dominant men than men are to be attracted to socially dominant women
The generation of removal that grandparents had from their grandchildren in middle adulthood continues to provide a perspective on the
behavior and achievements of their grandchildren that they might not have had with their own children
Women, however, did not rate photos of other women as
being more attractive when they were bordered in red
Both men (62%) and women (70%) found it very important that the couple share similar
beliefs about having and rearing children
Today, of course, we could say that 40 or 45 is the new 30 or 35, and that most women at 35 can still safely use
birth control pills
Physical features such as cleanliness, good complexion, clear eyes, good teeth, good hair, firm muscle tone, and a steady gait are universally appealing to
both females and males -perhaps they are markers of reproductive potential
That is, the mother suffers from playing roles as both primary caregiver and, in our demanding economy, one of two primary
breadwinners
Parents are usually satisfied with their children living apart if they
call or email regularly and drop by (or allow the parents to drop by) with some sort of reasonable frequency
For many people today, the so-called midlife crisis is imposed from the outside in the form of a
career crash resulting from corporate and government downsizing—the thinning of the ranks of employees.
Although the selection of a mate is (officially) free in our society, factors such as race, social class, and religion often determine the
categories of people within which we seek mates
Although physical appeal is important in sexual attraction, other factors matter and may even
challenge the equation that good looks = sexual attractiveness -Ex: there is the issue of whether or not it seems that an individual would be able to provide a high-quality relationship. And because men are somewhat more attuned to the visual than women, we would expect women to be somewhat more flexible in mate choice in that they may be more willing to trade (some) good looks for a good relationship
The life-events approach to middle age focuses on the particular
challenges and changes that people are likely to face at this time rather than on phases or stages of life
The notions of crises or turning points in emotional development also suggest that people undergo rather sudden
changes or shifts in personality
Divorced mothers often face the combined stress of the sole responsibility for
child rearing and the need to increase their incomes.
You might think that most aging American parents move to Sunbelt locations such as Florida and Arizona, but it isn't so. Nearly two-thirds of them have a residence near a
child, and there are frequent visits and phone calls
The value of men as reproducers, there-fore, is more intertwined with factors that contribute to a stable environment for
childrearing—such as economic status and reliability
At least one out of three households with never-married cohabiting couples also has ______
children
Nearly half of divorced people who are cohabiting with new partners have
children in the household
Young adulthood is the time of life when most of those who will bear ______ do so, and middle adulthood is the time of life when most of us who will become _______ begin that role
children, grandparents
I mention the age of 35 because it is the age at which women who become pregnant are often advised to check for
chromosomal abnormalities in their fetuses
Single older adults also tend to maintain
close relationships with siblings and longtime friends
Older people are increasingly likely to ______ today, making up about 4% of the unmarried population
cohabit
Divorced people are more likely than people who have never been married to ______
cohabit -Perhaps the experience of divorce leaves some people more willing to share their lives than their bank accounts
POSSLQ is the unromantic abbreviation used by the U.S. Bureau of the Census to refer to
cohabitation
24% of never-married adults aged 25 to 29 are currently ________
cohabiting
More than half a million additional households consist of
cohabiting same-sex couples
However, couples—including married and cohabiting heterosexuals and gay and lesbian couples—usually make their retirement plans
collaboratively
Erikson's clinical experience led him to believe that young adults who had not achieved ego identity—a firm sense of who they are and what they stand for—may not be ready to
commit themselves to others -They may not be able to gauge the extent to which their developing values may conflict with those of a potential intimate partner
Adults go through certain periods of life, which Levinson dubbed seasons, in which their progress and psychological well-being are shaped by
common social and physical demands and crises- the development of relationships, rearing children, establishing and developing a career, and coming to terms with successes and failures.
The most common reasons given for a divorce today are problems in
communication and a lack of understanding -Key complaints include a husband's criticism, defensiveness, contempt, and stonewalling—not lack of financial support -A British study notes that violence, infidelity, and lack of commitment to a specific partner also play prominent roles in divorce
In the case of community activities, the experience and devotion of retirees renders their participation an important asset for the
community, and the activities promote the adjustment of older adults into retirement.
More than half of today's high-school seniors believe that it is a good idea for couples to live together before getting married to test their _______
compatibility -Even so, about 40% of these couples get divorced later on, so "trial marriages" may not provide couples with accurate information
Women who have not pursued a career may have to struggle to
compete with younger, more experienced workers.
(In midlife) But as in earlier years, there are gender differences. Male friends are more likely to be
competitive and less likely to be intimate than female friends
In working with healthy older volunteers as individuals and in groups, Robert Butler (2002) found that life reviews can be
complex and nuanced, incoherent and self-contradictory, or even replete with irony, tragedy, and comedy
Ego transcendence is characterized by a
concern for the well-being of humankind in general, not only for the self and close loved ones
A majority of people retiring these days plan some sort of "bridge employment," in which they
continue to work for the same employer with a reduced workload or obtain new employment, possibly part-time. -About half plan to do volunteer work. -Most expect to devote more time to hobbies or special interests. -Most people in one way or another maintain—or strive to maintain—their identities and self-concepts. -They see retirement as an opportunity to continue the desired aspects of their lifestyle and essential social relationships.
A sense of _____ has been shown to mitigate the effects of stress and foster feelings of well-being among midlife adults
control
Study found that in married couples, husbands more often than wives tended to be in
control of the retirement plans, although control was related to the partner's workload and income level
In many suburban communities, for example, property taxes have been skyrocketing to keep pace with the
costs of public education
More than half of today's marriages are preceded by the
couple living together
Some social scientists see cohabitation as a new stage of ______
courtship
Levinson believed that marker events such as menopause, the death of a parent or a friend, or a child's leaving "the nest" could trigger the
crisis
The view that young adults who choose to remain celibate or single are not developing normally has been roundly
criticized in recent years
The experience of romantic love, as opposed to attachment or sexual arousal, occurs within a
cultural context in which the concept is idealized
At times, it may seem that some older people live in the past, possibly in denial of
current decline and the approach of death
If the aging parents require assistance, in the United States and Canada the task usually falls to a middle-aged
daughter, who then becomes what is dubbed part of the sandwich generation -She is "sandwiched" between several generations, caring for or contributing to the support of her own children at the same time she is caring for one or two parents -She may also be helping out with grandchildren. If she is fortunate, there is a sibling living in the vicinity to share the task. Given that she is also likely to be in the workforce, her role overload is multiplied
In contrast, middle-aged widowers are relatively more capable of
dealing with their loss
The most stressful life events of middle adulthood include the
death of a spouse or a child; the death of a parent or a sibling; marital divorce or separation, or separation from a cohabitant; hospitalization or change in the health status of oneself, one's child, one's parent, or sibling; the need to care for one's parents; a change in the relationship with one's children; financial difficulties; concern about one's appearance, weight, or aging; moving; change or loss of employment; a change in a relationship with an important friend; or a change in responsibilities at work
While approximately half the marriages in the United States end in divorce, it is important to note that 20% to 25% of them last half a century or more, ending only with the
death of one of the spouses
If this fertility rate were to remain the same and there were no immigration, the population of the United States would _______
decline
When one marital partner is a heavy drinker and the other is not, marital satisfaction
declines over time -It doesn't matter which one is the heavy drinker, the man or the woman; in either case, satisfaction declines
The percentage of Americans who are married has been _______ sharply
decreasing
Companionate love typifies long-term relationships and marriages in which passion has ebbed but a
deep and abiding friendship remains
Just as people are getting married in their later 20s in the United States today, so are they
delaying parenthood
Married older men without children appear to be especially
dependent on their spouses
In a survey of 1,421 Detroit men ranging in age from 20 to 93, they found that men without close social ties were significantly more
depressed then men with relationships
Some research has focused on the effects of newborns entering the lives of working-class families, especially when the mother must return to work shortly after the birth. In such cases, the parents are frequently
depressed, and conflict often emerges
Loss of a spouse also heightens the risks of
depression and suicide among older adults, and more so among men than women
In extreme cases jealousy can cause
depression or give rise to spouse abuse, suicide, or, as with Othello, murder
Society is changing, and although traditional families and views remain on the scene and are often strong and healthful, the trend appears to be in the direction of tolerance of
diverse points of view and life styles
Conflicts may easily arise over a
division of labor unless the couple can divide the tasks readily
Because of fear of loss of assets, family disruption, and relocation, older adults do not undertake
divorce lightly -When they do, it is often because one of the partners has taken up a relationship with an outsider
The increased economic independence of women has also contributed to the
divorce rate
Men in same-gender couples are more likely than women in same-gender couples to do retirement planning, but women who do such planning are more likely to
do it collaboratively
By the time older adults reach their 80s, they are likely to have whittled their social networks
down to a few family members and friends -This does not mean that older adults are antisocial, it means they see themselves as having less time to waste and that they are more risk averse, that is, they don't want to involve themselves in painful social interactions
Successful agers form _______ goals that bring them satisfaction
emotional -They may no longer compete in certain athletic or business activities. Instead, they focus on matters that allow them to maintain a sense of control over their own lives. -Retaining social contacts and building new ones also contributes to a positive outlook, as does continuing with one's athletic activities, when possible, and one's artistic and cultural activities
Neuroticism, as measured by the NEO Personality Inventory, is defined as
emotional instability -an enduring tendency to experience negative feelings such as anxiety, anger, guilt, and depression
Older sibling pairs tend to shore each other up with
emotional support -This is especially true among sisters (as women are more likely than men to talk about feelings) who are close in age and geographically near one another
The third group had a spotty _______ record
employment
The older women in the study were more likely to experience declines in their well-being following the loss of
employment -On the other hand, the older women were least likely to suffer financial strain
It was once assumed that women without children in the home would experience a painful
empty nest syndrome -but this transition is often a positive event
Religion also has a special allure as people approach the
end of life
However, a growing body of information about older gay men and lesbians has shown that, as with heterosexuals, gay men and lesbians in long-term partnerships tend to
enjoy higher self-esteem, less depression, fewer suicidal urges, and less alcohol and drug abuse
A different view of successful aging is being advanced by researchers who focus on the processes by which individuals attempt to provide better person-
environment fits to the changing physical, cognitive, and social circumstances of late adulthood
Research has shown that engaging in leisure activities is
essential for retirees' physical and psychological health
Reddening of the skin is caused by elevated
estrogen levels (relative to progesterone), which increases the flow of blood under the surface of the skin
Despite the difficulties in adjustment, most divorced people
eventually bounce back -most remarry
Researchers have also found that love is a complex concept, involving many areas of ______
experience
Older people who live in urban areas (especially inner cities) are often highly concerned about
exposure to crime, particularly crimes of violence.
Jealousy, therefore, can be one reason that relationships _____
fail
Divorce can also prompt feelings of
failure as a spouse and parent, loneliness and uncertainty about the future, and depression
Moreover, some children fail to leave home by 18 or 21, or—in a syndrome that has been referred to as
failure to launch -even by age 30
In fact, our exposure to the concept of romantic love may begin with hearing those
fairy tales, and later, perhaps, continue to blossom through exposure to romantic novels, television and film scripts, and the heady tales of friends and relatives
Daniel Levinson and his colleagues considered the transition to midlife at about the age of 40 to be a "crisis," a "midlife crisis," characterized by recognition that one has
fallen short of one's dream or dreams -ex: The once promising ballerina has never danced The Nutcracker at Lincoln Center, etc. -Thus, Becker argues, many people who did not need psychotherapy earlier in life seek it now
Erikson argued that people who do not engage in generative behavior risk stagnating and
falling into routines that can strip their lives of meaning and purpose -this particular point remains murky
One of the "hyped" advantages of being a grandparent is that one is able to play with one's grandchildren but then
go home, leaving the "work" to the children's parents -In many cases, however, this mind-set assumes plentiful sources of money and leisure time -It hardly addresses all the complications of family separations or divorce, or loss of identity as a family unit, which are so common today
If each member of the couple believed they should share caregiving equally and they lived up to it, their adjustment was _____
good -Consistency between their expressed beliefs and their behavior predicted adjustment
There is nothing that prevents people in love from becoming
good friends, however - perhaps even the best of friends
Researchers who study successful aging focus on factors such as overall
good physical health, including the absence or control of chronic diseases such as arthritis and diabetes, engaging in physical activity, social networking, and the absence of serious cognitive impairment and depression -Sexual activity remains desirable, even if some aspects of performance are not what they were
In a survey of 22,815 U.S. adults, it was found that men and women both said that it is desirable or essential for potential partners to be
good-looking (92% of men and 84% of women) and slender (80% of men and 58% of women)
Among Native Hawaiians, it is customary for grandparents to rear the ______
grandchildren
In some cases grandparents are the sole caregivers of their
grandchildren -These arrangements typically begin when the grandchild has a single parent -Now and then that single parent dies
Despite the greater involvement with grandmothers, grandchildren say they value their
grandfather just as highly
Studies in the United States, Poland, Greece, Germany, and China all find that grandchildren through adolescence spend more time in activities with their
grandmothers than their grandfathers
Even male grandchildren, who would toss the football back and forth with the grandfather and not the grandmother, tend to generally gravitate more toward contacts with
grandmothers then with grandfathers
In most cases, one or two biological parents determine the course of childrearing of grandchildren, but sometimes
grandparents play a major role - or the major role -Ex: Israeli study of immigrants from Ethiopia and Eastern European countries found that grandparents who lived with single parents and their grandchildren had a strong influence on their grandchildren and contributed to the overall adjustment of the family
As a way of regulating their emotions, older people tend to avoid "friends" with whom they have
had conflict over the years
Yet the power of reciprocity has apparently enabled many couples to become
happy with one another and reasonably well adjusted
Occasionally, cases of elder abuse occur, with staff acting
harshly toward residents, sometimes in response to cognitively impaired residents acting aggressively toward the staff
In midlife, men are more likely than women not to
have friends or other close social relationships, and that social isolation is connected with poorer physical and psychological health and with mortality
With men as with women, red coloration can also be an indicator of
health, because highly oxygenated blood levels can be maintained only by organisms in good health
Young adults are more often than not similar to their mates in
height, weight, personality traits, intelligence, educational level, religion, and even in use of alcohol and tobacco
Leisure takes on special importance after retirement and may become central to the retiree's
identity and self-acceptance
Life structure
in Levinson's theory, the underlying pattern of a person's life at a given stage, as defined by relationships, career, race, religion, economic status, and the like
Activity theory
in contrast to disengagement theory, older adults are better adjusted when they are more active and involved in physical and social activities
Surveys indicate that older adults are relatively more willing to enter nursing homes when they perceive themselves to be
in poor health and when one or more close family members live near the nursing home
Cohabiting couples may believe that cohabitation will strengthen eventual marriage by helping them
iron out the kinks in their relationship
Erikson argued that young adults who do not reach out to develop intimate relationships risk retreating into
isolation and loneliness
The majority of the second group retired at a
later age and tended to be female
Some couples prefer cohabitation because it provides an abiding relationship without the
legal entanglement of marriage -The couple may also be testing the compatibility and endurance of the relationship prior to tying the knot
Once people retire, they have the opportunity to fill most of their days with
leisure activities
Retirees could be broken down into three groups, according to their satisfaction with retirement and various other factors. The first group: was most satisfied with retirement maintained
leisure and other nonwork-related activities as sources of life satisfaction, or replaced work with more satisfying activities. -They retired at a typical retirement age and had a wealth of resources to compensate for the loss of work: They were married, in good health, and of high socioeconomic status.
The following factors impeded adjustment to retirement:
lengthy attachment to work, lack of control over the transition to retirement (e.g., forced retirement at age 65), worrying prior to retirement about what retirement would bring, and lack of self-confidence
Family members expect ____ from older people
less
Therefore, it is not surprising that studies find that religious involvement in late adulthood is usually associated with
less depression and more life satisfaction
Today, because more people believe that premarital sex is acceptable between two people who feel affectionate toward each other, the desire for sex is
less likely to motivate marriage
The term middle adulthood is a convenient way of describing people whose ages
lie between young adulthood and late adulthood -In terms of their family relationships, their generation is in the middle in another way—often, as we will see, "sandwiched" in between their own children (and grandchildren) and their parents.
However, professionals who rely on peak performance, such as athletes and dancers, will find the loss compelling enough to shuttle them in new
life directions
Successful aging focuses on maximizing one's
life experiences at any age
At any given moment, the underlying pattern of a person's life is his or her _____ _____
life structure
One's religion, race, and socioeconomic status also influence his or her
life structure and life satisfaction
Older people's perceived limitation on future time increases their appreciation for
life, which brings about positive emotions
Ego integrity derives from wisdom, as well as from the acceptance of one's
lifespan being limited and occurring at a certain point in the sweep of history
Given the mobility young adults have in the United States today, many choose not to
live in places where people would frown upon their styles of life
Once their children become emerging adults or young adults, most parents in the United States are content to "launch" their children to
live on their own or with roommates -In many cases, the children remain at least partly financially dependent, sometimes for several years -If they have been close to their parents, they may also remain somewhat emotionally dependent once they are out on their own as well—or at the very least, it may hurt when their parents disapprove of their personal choices
Cohabitation, like marriage, is an alternative to
living alone
People do not age within a vacuum, but within social and communal contexts, including their
living arrangements, facilities and services within their communities, religious affiliations, and family and social relationships
Cohabitation
living together with a romantic partner without being married
Divorced fathers may find it difficult to
pay alimony and child support while establishing a new lifestyle
When someone confesses his or her feelings of attraction, the recipient of the feelings is certainly likely to
pay more attention to the other person
Because of retirement, government or industry now supports them through ______ or _______ rather than vice versa
pensions or charity
The "big five" personality traits is to try to measure whether
people change in personality or whether they remain the same
Marriage meets many
personal and cultural needs
Some middle-aged people change careers following a ______ _______such as a divorce, conflict with coworkers, or being fired
personal crisis -In such cases, middle-aged people may pick up whatever work they can to sustain themselves—and pay a price in psychological well-being
In developed nations, most couples report that they choose to have children for
personal happiness or well-being
Becoming a parent is a major life event that requires changes in nearly every sphere of life:
personal, social, and financial
A study of adults with an average age of 72 reported that nearly three in four (73%) engaged in leisure activities; of these, 23% engaged in "active leisure" (sailing, walking); 18%, "passive leisure" (listening to music, watching television); 24%, social activities; 20%, hobbies; and 15%, other activities. -The key motives for leisure activity were
pleasure and relaxation
Divorce hits women in the _______ harder than men
pocketbook
Or perhaps doing very well in one arena can cast a
positive glow on other parts of life
Advanced-age (mean age = 93) mothers and women who have not had children report equally
positive levels of well-being
Although there is great variation in grandparent-adult grandchild relationships, research suggests that both cohorts view each other in a
positive light and see their ties as deep and meaningful
Consistent with stereotypical gender roles, tall women are not viewed so
positively as tall men are
Intense physiological arousal may be experienced as a
pounding heart, sweaty palms, and butterflies in the stomach when one is in the presence of, or thinking about, one's love interest
A two-year longitudinal study found that the adjustment of older retirees was affected by their
pre-retirement work identities
Other adult children, because of financial problems or just for convenience, are in and out of their parents' home in what has been dubbed the
revolving-door syndrome
Older people may also avoid conflict to avoid
pushing people away and as another way to avert painful emotions
An Italian study of married couples found that the partners' confidence in their abilities to influence their relationship for the better contributed to the
quality of the marriage
Past assistance from one's spouse in a time of need also affected the
quality of the marriage and life satisfaction for both partners in the relationship
Our partners tend to be like us in
race and ethnicity, age, level of education, and religion
Nearly 95% of marriages and 80% to 90% of cohabiting unions were between partners of the same
race at the time of the 2010 U.S. Census
It has also been widely assumed that adult life events such as getting married, working one's way up in a vocation, and having and rearing children would deeply affect people's personality. -However, at least by middle adulthood, and during middle adulthood, research finds that the "big five" personality traits remain
reasonably stable
For men and women, he found that the late 20s and early 30s are commonly characterized by
reassessment: "Where is my life going?" "Why am I doing this?"
As you can see, one of the most challenging jobs of the newly minted grandparent is to navigate carefully between the treacherous rocks of
reckless interference and painful neglect
Most children whose parents have divorced also bounce back, although
recovery may take a year or two
The study also found that grandparents, like parents, participated in the care of grandchildren and in their
recreational and educational activities -but the balance differs for parents
Andrew Elliot and Daniela Niesta ran a series of experiments in which men did, indeed, rate the same woman as more attractive when her photograph was shown against a
red background compared with a variety of other background colors, including white
But women rate photos of men as being more attractive when the photos are bordered in
red of the men are wearing red clothing
Research has found that male primates are in fact especially attracted to females when they display
red, as shown by attempts at sexual relations
Most career changes in midlife involve shifts into
related fields
Tradition aside, many cohabitants are simply less committed to their
relationships than married people are
Cohabitants are also less likely than noncohabitants to say that
religion is very important to them
Women who begin parenting in their 30s (or later) are less likely to be
religious and conservative but more likely to have liberal attitudes, sharing breadwinning and childcare responsibilities more equally with their partners. -But not all have partners
Older people with plentiful financial resources, large amounts of equity in their homes, and strong ties to their communities are more likely to
remain in their homes
One of the complaints younger people sometimes level at older relatives is that they too often engage in
reminiscence, that is, relating stories from the distant past
But some evolutionary psychologists believe that evolutionary forces favor the continuation of gender differences in preferences for mates because they may provide
reproductive advantages
Evolutionary theory proposes that women on some level recognize that they are more likely than men to be
reproductively successful if they can rear their children in high-quality relationships
Selective optimization with compensation
reshaping of one's life to concentrate on what one finds to be important and meaningful in the face of physical decline and possible cognitive impairment -older people manage to maximize their gains while minimizing their losses
Successful agers tend to seek emotional fulfillment by
reshaping their lives to concentrate on what they find to be important and meaningful
Conversely, older people with declining health conditions, changes in their family composition, and significant increases in property taxes and costs of utilities are likely to need to consider
residing elsewhere
Men in their 70s seem to have the most difficulty coping when their wives die, especially when they have
retired and have been expecting to spend more time with their wives during the coming years
If the retiree's health remains robust, leisure activities tend to carry over from working days and may ease the transition to
retirement
By and large, the closer the relationship, the more likely partners are to make
retirements jointly
Or, as part of the boomerang generation, they
return home for prolonged periods
When we feel admired and complimented, we tend to
return these feelings and behaviors. This is called reciprocity
Yet many people view the years from age 45 onward as a
second adulthood, filled with opportunities for new directions and fulfillment.
But marriage provides a sense of
security and opportunities to share feelings, experiences, and ideas with someone with whom one forms a special attachment
Having worked out most of the problems in their relationships and having learned to live with those that remain, older adults are less likely than younger adults to
seek divorce
Core issues in early adulthood are the
selection of a partner, the development of a shared life, and emotional intimacy -Given these needs, similarity in personality may foster feelings of attachment and intimacy and provide a sense of equity in contributing to the relationship
Men may also be less adept than women at various aspects of
self and household care, and therefore seek that help from a new partner
It is stressful for parents when adolescents do not exert
self-control, and when parents must direct them in many areas of life—getting them up for school, urging them to maintain personal hygiene, fighting with them over their choice of clothing, and coaxing them to complete their homework
Contributing to civic activities or volunteering at hospitals and the like also enhances retirees'
self-esteem and fosters feelings of self-efficacy
When older adults relocate to residences for the elderly, whether or not they have facilities for assisted living, existing ____ ____ tend to be disrupted and they are challenged to find new friends and create new networks
social networks -It is valuable for such residences to have communal dining facilities and organized activities, including transportation to nearby shopping and entertainment -Residents typically take time in engaging other people socially and are selective in forming new relationships
Friends serve many functions in the lives of older adults, including providing
social networks, acting as confidants, and offering emotional closeness and support, especially when a family member or another friend dies
Middle-aged adults by now may have built systems of
social support, be involved in enduring romantic and social relationships, and have children -The flip side of all this may be overwhelming responsibility, such as caring for children, a spouse, aging parents, and remaining in the work-place all at once—quite a juggling act!
Single older adults without children are just as likely as people who have had children—married or not—to be
socially active and involved in volunteer work
Having grandchildren was viewed as an overwhelmingly positive event in each culture and that it was beneficial to grandparents both
socially and psychologically
Cognitive appraisal of the arousal means attributing the arousal to
some cause, such as fear or love
But many people retire "on schedule," and most people retire at
some time
In other societies, such as that of Hong Kong in China, however, where aging parents usually live with a son's family, it is more often than not the
son who assumes the major responsibility for caring for his parents, emotionally and financially
When couples reach their 60s, many midlife responsibilities such as childrearing and work have declined, allowing the partners to
spend more time together, and intimacy becomes a central issue once more
Most young adults agree that marriage is important for people who plan to
spend the rest of their lives together
A widowed person's sibling, especially a sister, often takes the place of the
spouse as a confidant
Research shows that marriages between people from similar backgrounds tend to be more ______
stable -perhaps because partners are more likely to share values and attitudes
Regardless of whether or not middle adulthood is the "prime of life," it may well be the most
stable period of life
Married people face very different life tasks as young adults, middle-aged adults, and older adults, and the qualities in relationships that help them fulfill these tasks may also vary from
stage to stage
To Erikson, the negative counterpart of generativity meant rejection or suppression of this natural drive and would lead to
stagnation
Once widowed, men and women both need to engage in the activities of daily living by
taking care of their personal hygiene, assuming the responsibilities that had been handled by their spouse, and remaining connected to the larger social community, whether that community mostly involves kin, friends, or people at a place of worship
For example, a person or couple without children (or even with children) might contribute to the
teaching or welfare of other people's children, or might make things of lasting values such as objects or art, or might contribute to charity or to civic works
Reciprocity
tendency to respond in kind when we feel admired and complimented
The numbers of households consisting of cohabiting male-female couples in the United States has increased more than
tenfold since 1960, from fewer than half a million couples to around 8 million couples today
What happens in the workplace doesn't necessarily stay in the workplace. A study of 113 dual-earner couples found that problems in the workplace contributed to
tension in the couples, health problems, and dissatisfaction with the relationship
The relationships between middle-aged and older parents can grow quite close, especially as
tensions and expectations from earlier years tend to slip into history
Elder abuse
the abuse or neglect of senior citizens, particularly in nursing homes
Frequent churchgoing has also been shown to be associated with fewer problems in
the activities of daily living among older people
The proportion of emotional material recalled increased with the age group, showing a greater emotional response by
the older people
Homogamy
the practice of people getting married to people who are similar to them
Sandwich generation
the term given to middle-aged people who need to meet the demands of their own children and of aging parents
Also, in days when it was assumed that work was by definition mind-numbing, it was assumed that people retired as soon as
they could afford to do so, usually at age 65
On the other hand, so-called helicopter parents may be controlling and intrusive, interfering with students' adjustment to
to college and decreasing the overall quality of family life
Most people also tend to follow age homogamy -
to select a partner who falls in their own age range, with husbands two to five years older than wives
Women are also sometimes advised to discontinue using birth control pills after age 35,
to switch pills, or to use "the pill" under greater supervision
Older couples may complain that they spend
too much time together, especially women whose husbands have just retired -If similarity in personality is a problem in this stage of life, perhaps it is because highly similar spouses are getting bored with one another
Issues of caregiving continue, and sometimes they move in two directions—
toward children and grandchildren, and also toward aging parents
Religions also usually encompass
traditions and myths, faith, spiritual experience, and communal as well as private worship