Exam 3

Three approaches to problem solving?

-Descriptive approach -Functional approach -Prescriptive approach

Different types of breakpoints?

-Disruptions -Delays

Three elements of a problem?

1. An undesirable existing situation. 2. A goal a group wishes to achieve. 3. Obstacles that keep a group from achieving its goal. Undersirable present, group goal, and the obstacles to achieving it. Almost every problem can be phrased in terms of something you want more or less of.

Three basic styles of leadership:

1. Authoritarian (or autocratic) 2. Democratic 3. Laissez-faire

Traditional Approach to Group Problem Solving

1. Identify and Define the Problem 2. Analyze the problem 3. Generate Several Possible Solutions 4. Evaluate the Options and Select the Best Solution(s) 5. Test and Implement the Solution

How else can leadership be seen as?

A counteractive influence when groups get off-track. Leadership constitutes the behavior required when groups experience difficulty establishing the conditions necessary for making the best possible choices.

What was the Lost at Sea exercise?

A group decision making method exercise. We were assigned Decision by Consensus. However others include: Decision by Expert, Average Individual Rankings or Rating, Random Choice, Majority rule, and Decision by Minority.

What is Task Leadership?

A group leader has a responsibility to keep a group moving. However, anyone can do this. As a member of a disorganized group, a member can provide the leadership even if they don't hold leadership status. Task leadership is any behavior that can contribute to a group's effort.. Pg 222. Initiating, coordinating, summarizing, and elaborating are types of communicative behaviors.

Leadership style

A relatively consistent pattern of behavior reflective a leader's beliefs and attitudes.

Define reflective thinking

A series of logical, rational steps based on the scientific method of defining, analyzing, and problem solving.

Define Prototype

A smaller version of the solution that your team has developed, so you can test it before implementing the solution on a wide scale. It's a classic way of making sure the solution works. A pilot program is something similar that allows you to test your process before implementing the solution. Tests on a small sample of people before making the final decision.

Situational perspective (Adapting the Style to Context)

Accommodates leadership behaviors, task needs, and process needs, but also takes into account leadership style and situation.

What is the key to improving a group's process?

Adapt. Adapt to the needs of the group rather than assuming that a predetermined strategy or technique will somehow help the group achieve a breakthrough.

Tools for Evaluating the Solutions

Analyze the Pros and Cons: T-Charts which allows the group to weigh the positive and negative outcomes of solutions. If the group is charge then one can have members first write their own lists of pros and cons and then share their responses with the group. Evidence suggest that groups often find more positive benefits than negative. Average Rankings and Rating: Ask group members to rank solutions and then average the rankings to see which solutions emerge as the most or least popular. Should be done after the group has discussed the pros and cons of the solution. By ranking each option, each group member is forced to critically evaluate each alternative.

Prescriptive Approach?

Assumes group members are consistently rational and that prescriped agenda will result in a better solution. Groups need more than general understanding or what functions of group communication. Recommends specific agendas and techniques to improve group performance. Assumes members are rational. More rigid in techniques. Guidelines, a road map, to assist the group in achieving consensus.

Functional Approach: Communication Functions and its characteristics

Assumes that a group will make higher-quality decision if the group analyzes the information, generates a number of ideas, evaluates information and solutions, and remains senstive to others. Analysis Function- Sees the problem from a variety of viewpoints. Gathers data and researches the issues. Uses evidence effectively. Asks appropriate questions. Idea-generation Function - Searches for many solutions to a problem. Makes high quality statement. Takes a vacation frm the problem to revitalized the group. Evaluation Function- Evalutates the pros and cons. Evaluates the opinions and assumptions of others. Tests proposed solutions to see if they meet preestablished criteria. Personal sensitivey Function- Shows concern for both group task and the feelings of others. Listen to minority arguments.

What is the Voting/Majority method? Advantages/Disadvantages?

Decision is made by the majority of the group member. Advantages: Often perceived as a fair way of making decision. Can be an effecient way of making a decision. Quick decision making. Disadvantages: Those who do not supprot the majority opinion may feel left out of the proces. Group may lose cohesiveness. Inadequate time for group decision.

How do the Descriptive, Functional, Prescriptive approaches differ?

Descriptive: helps the group understand how groups usually solve a problem. Functional: Identifies tasks that should be performed to enhance the group's effectiveness. Prescriptive: Offers specific recommendations for sequencing certain types of communication in a group.

Vigilant thinkers

Functional Aproach. Critical thinkers. They pay attention to the process of problem solving.

What is the Random Choice method? Advantages/Disadvantages?

Groups become so frustrated and desperate that they make no decisions. Group members flip a coin or use a similar technique so they can move forward. Advantages: Easy and fast. Disadvantages: More likely to result in an ineffective outcome becuase the group have not discussed the issue thoroughly. Suggest the group does not care about makng a high quality decision. Not recommended for groups that take their decision seriously.

You can suggest solutions even if your group has not analyzed the problem.

False.

True or False: Interaction is not necessary so long as the group has structure.

False. A group that has too much structure and not enough interaction is a group out of balance; participating in such a group will be like listening to someone give a speech rather than engaging in an interactive discussion.

True or False: It doesn't matter what leadership style you use, all styles are effective in any situations.

False. No leadership style is effective in all situations. What works at General Motors may not work at a family business. An effective student body president may be a poor camp counselor. Expectations differ from each group.

True or False: Humanistic, participatory, democratic leadership leads to greater satisfaction and higher productivity.

False. Research is inconclusive.

Tools for Analyzing a Problem

Force-Field Analysis: The group analyzes the goal by noting what driving forces make it likely to be achieved and waht restraining forces make it unlikely to be achieved. PG 279 Steps: 1) Identify the goal the group is trying to achieve. 2) On the right side of the chart, list all the restraining forces, those that are currently keeping the group from achieving its goal. 3) On the left side of the chart, list all the driving forces, those that are currently helping the group achieve its goals. 4) The group will decide to either increase the driving forces, decrease the restraining forces, or increase selected driving forces and decrease the restraining forces the group has control over. Cause-and Effect (Fishbone Diagram): Cause-and-effect diagrams only depict poential causes. Almost all problems boil donw to "four Ms," Manpower (people), Machines, Materials, and Mthods. Each line is a possible cause. PROMOD Technique: First the group membres individually read a summary of the problem. Then they summarize the problem. Facilitate discussion around 1) Individual Problem analysis 2) Group Information exchange 3) Individual Problem Resolution 4) Group integration to reach consensus/Collaborative Group Integration.

What is Process Leadership often called?

Group building and maintenance.

What is the Voting/Minority method? Advantages/Disadvantages?

Group decides to support a position advocated by a vocal minority of group members. Advantages: Decision is made by those who feel most passsionate about the outcome. Helps to avoid groupthink by acknowledging opposing points of view. Eliminates the less desirable alternatives first. Useful when there are many ideas and few voters. Disadvantages: The majority may feel disenfranchised from the decision. Groups may feel resentful. Group decision may be difficult to implement becuase the majority of group members do not support the outcome. Slower decision making.

What is the decision by expert method? Advantages/Disadvantages?

Group defers to the member who has the most expertise or experience or to someone outside the group with authority to make decision. Advantages: Decision is made quickly. Uses the expertise of a knowledeable source of information. Disadvantages: Group members may not be satisfied with the decision. Expert could be wrong. Members may be unnwilling to contribute to subsequent decisions. Lower cohesiveness. High status member gets what they want.

What is the decision by Average Individual Rankings or Rating method? Advantages/Disadvantages?

Group members rank or rate possible outcomes, and the alternative with the highest ranking or best rating is selected. Most effective wehn group has adequate time to develop and discuss the alternatives. Advantages: Uses a democratic process that taps all group members's thinking. Useful when the group needs to assses where it stands on an issue. Disadvantages: The average rating or rating may be an alternative that no other group member supports. Groups lose the opportunity for give-and-take discussion.

Descriptive Approach: Multi-sequence

Groups are doing several things (task, relationships and topics) at once rather than cycling through phases Groups engage in three types of activity tracks: Task-process activities Relational activities Topical focus activities PG 256 Groups switch activity tracks at various breakpoints. .

Weakness of functional approach?

While it reveals the importance of fulfilling various leadership roles, it does not explain which roles are most appropriate for which situation. The setting needs to considered.

Descriptive Appraoch: Spiraling Model:

Groups may cycle through phases again and again becuase they may get bogged down in conflict, abandon the issue, move on to another issue. J.E. McGrath theorizes that teams cycle through their work. TIP Theory. Time, Interaction and Performance. Hypothesizes that groups do what they need to do at a given moment based on their needs at that moment and what funciton the group needs to perform. A group will become oriented or focused on a task when there is uncertainty not just when it is first formed.

Descriptive Approach: Punctuated Equilibrium Model

Groups through a period of uncertainty and indecision punctuated by a breakpoint; Followed by uncertainty before moving on and accomplishing the task. Breakpoint: punctuates the seeeming equlibrium and nothing happens changes to something happens.

Question-Oriented Approach: Single-Question Format

Guides the group toward the best solution. Unlike the ideal-solution format, it requires a group to formulate a question to help obstain the information needed to solve a problem. Helps a group identify and resolve issues that must be confronted before reaching a solution. Depends on group's agreeing on the subissues before trying to agree on the major issues. 1. What questions does the group need to answer in order to accomplish its purpose? 2. What subquestiosn must be answered before the group can answer the single questio it has formulated. 3. Does the group have sufficient information to anser the subquestions confidently? 4. What are the most reasonable answers to the subquestion? 5. Assuming that the answers to the subquestions are correct, what is the best solution to the problem?

Descriptive Approach: Dialetical Theory

Helps explain the messiness of group interaction. Competing tensions pulling the convo into multiple directions

HALT?

Hungry, angry, lonely, or tired. Various reasons that explain poor problem solving.

Question-Oriented Approach: Ideal-Solution Format

Ideal-solution format: Group answers questions designed to help them identify ideal solutions. Recognize the barriers that the problems have created. Encourages groups to analyze a problem's cause and to evaluate proposed solutions. Advantage-Simple. Best to used among with people with varied interest and when aceptance of a solution is important. 1. Do all members agree on the nature of the problem? 2. What would be the ideal solution from the point of all parties involved in the problem? 3. What conditions within the problem could be changed so that the ideal solution might be achieved. 4. Of the solutions available, which one best approximates the ideal solution?

Functional Approach?

Identifies key task requirements and stresses the importance of effective communication as major factors that contribute to effective problem solving. Functional approach emphasizes that member of effective groups perform certain task requirements (functions) when they communicate with one another. "Identifies key task/functions that should be performed to contribute to effective problem solving". Includes elements of descriptive and prescriptive.

Descriptive Approach?

Identifies the typical patterns of communication occur when people interact to solve problems. Two assumptions: 1)There is a natural or normal process of group problem solving. 2) Group will follow a normal problem-solving approach unless some external authority interferes with its freedom or solves its problem.

When would the single question format be better approach to problem solving?

If you are sure that your group is campable of agreeing on the issues and how they can be solved.

Tools for Defining the Problem?

Is/Is Not Analysis: A way to ensure that a group is investigating a problem and no the symptoms of the problem. What, Symptoms, When, Where, Who Journalist's Six Questions: Who? What? When? Where? Why? How? Questions help a group quickly structure how a problem is defined. Pareto Charts: A bar graph that shows data that describe the cause, source, and the frequency of a problem. Tallest bar on the left and shortest bar on the right. The chart get its name from the Pareto Principle which is that the source of 80% of the problem comes from 20% of the incidents. Swot Analysis: Strengths, Weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. Brainstorm a list of each strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, or threats of the organization. Strengths and weaknesses are internal factors of the group. Opportunities and threats are external forces Information is ranked in each box (What is our greatest strength? What is our greating weakness? etc.). After identifying and ranking, next is analysis (How can we overcome or reduce our weaknesses? How can we adress the threats? How can we take advantage of opportunities? How can we maximize our strengths?)

Why would the ideal-solution format be better approach to problem solving?

It helps the group come to an agreement on the nature of the problem.

Why is group structure important?

Without structure a group is likely to wobble, waste time, and be less productive.

Minnesota Studies Results

Leaders emerge through a method of residues in which the group eliminates contenders one by one. Groups are most likely to accept the contender who provided the optimum blend of task efficiency and personal consideration. They are the one of most value to the entire of the group and who they trust.

What is Hersey's situational leadership model?

Leadership is about tasks and relationships. It's based on the readiness of the group. There are four leadership styles that are more or less appropariate depending on the group's readiness. A telling and selling style is most appropriate with a group just starting out and as the group matures, leadership allows fo more autonomy (participating and delegating styles become more effective)

Leadership

Leadership is behavior or communication that influences, guides, directs, or controls a group. The most effective leadership behavior is one that best meets the needs of the group.

What does the functional approach reveal?

Leadership skill is associated with the ability to analyze a group's process and to choose appropriate behaviors to further that project.

Process Leadership

Maintains interpersonal relations in a group and facilitates as climate satisfying to members and conductive to accomplishing the group's tasks.

Minority Opinion

Minority Opinion group member who yell the loudest come to a quick, powerful agreement and employ tactics that can create problems unless they get their own way. Members may ask, "Does anyone have any objections?" and if no one answers immediately, they consider their silence as an agreement.

Descriptive Approach: Phase Models

Natural Phases: 1) Orientation Phase: Social dimension is emphasized and people tend to be oriented toward getting to know one another, share bacgrounds, and tentatively approach the group's task. There is primary tension. Which occurs when group members are uncertain how to behave and feel someowhat awkward. 2) Conflict: Group begin asserting opinions that they made in the orientation phase. They have tested the water and are now ready to jump in. There is secondary tension which occurs when there is jockeying for leadership, power, position in the group. Communication is characterized by persuasive attempts at changing others opinjions and reinforcing one's own position. Conflic phase is necessary to both the task and the process dimension of group communication. 3) Emergence: Group members deal with the confilct differently. Beginning commitment to a solution and conflict reduces. Leadership patterns and roles have been established, issues and problems have been identified, more compromising. 4) Reinforcement: Achieves consensus, return to positively toned interaction. A spirit of unity. Positive feelings toward the group and its decisoins. Uniformly favorable comments and reinforcement. Most cohesive, individual satisfaction, and sense of achievement is high.

What are task-oriented leadership behaviors?

Pg 222. Initiating, coordinating, summarizing, and elaborating are types of communicative behaviors. Making suggestions, offering new ideas, giving information, or opinions, asking for more info, and making procedural observations or recommendations are task-oriented leadership behaviors that help contribute.

What are process-leadership behaviors?

Pg 223 Process-leadership behaviors are meant to enhance the climate by doing things like: Release tension- suggest a coffee break, make a joke, adjourn, which renews a group's energy and improves satisfaction. Gatekeeping: Coordinates discussion so that members can air their views. Ensures that more input along the task dimension and higher member satisfaction. Encourage- Improves self-esteem, increase cohesiveness, member satifaction, and productivity. Mediate- Resole conflict when conflict becomes person-oriented rather than issue-oriented. Aims are resolving conflict between group members and releasing any tension associated with the conflict.

Tools for Implementing a Solution

Pg 286 Action Chart: A grid that lists the task that need to be done and identifies who will be responsible for each task. Chart shows the relationships among tasks, times, people, and sequence of eveents that are needed to accomplish the project. Flowchart: A step-by-step diagram of a multistep process. Helps see whether various procedures are practical and fit together. Gives structure to group thought and helps identify practical problems of moving form an idea's conception to its implementation. Rectangle: Process Oval: Stop or Start Diamond: Decision point Arrow: Links steps of process

Transformational Leadership

Strives to change, elevate, and unify the goals of followers as well as inspire them to pursue challenging and shared objectives. Philosophy of belief, leadership, and change. Belief system shift empowers followers to reach a higher level of commitment and achievement and becomes more powerful than limitation and doubt. Four defining characteristics (Four Is): 1. Idealized leadership 2. Inspirational Motivation 3. Intellectual Stimulation 4. Individual Consideration.

Summary of the balance between structure and interaction:

Structure: Agendas, problem-solving steps, procedures, and rules. Interaction: Give-and-take discussion, reaction to members' contributions, talk and feedback.

Functional Approach: Major leadership behaviors fall into two categories:

Task leadership and process leadership (grou building or maintenance)

What's the difference between task-oriented behavior and process oriented behavior?

Task-oriented behavior aim to accomplish group goal. Process-oriented behavior helps maintain a satisfactory interpersonal climate within a group.

What is the standard agenda for structuring group problem solving?

The 5 key steps: 1. Identify and define the problem 2. Analyze the problem 3. Identify possible solutions 4. Select the best solution 5. Implement the solution. Considers these key questions: 1. Where is the felt difficulty or concern? 2. Where is it located and how is it defined? 3. What are possible solutions to the felt difficulty? 4. What are the logical reasons that support the solution? 5. What additional testing and observation need ot be done to confirm the vadility of the solution.

What does group structure consist of?

The agenda and other techniques and procedures to help a group stay focused on the task at hand.

Functional Perspective

The functional perspective views leadership as behaviors that may be performed by any group member to maximize group effectiveness.

A group needs the energy from interaction. What is interaction?

The give-and-take conversation that occurs when people collaborate.

What is problem solving?

The process of overcoming obstacles to achieve a goal.

Trait Perspective

The trait perspective views leadership as a set of personal attributes-traits- that leaders possess. Traits like: intelligence, enthusiasm, dominance, self-confidence, social participation, creativity, larger, active, good looking, cheerful, discipline. Its weakness is that traits useful in one situation may not be helpful in another type of circumstance. For example: Leading troops into battle are not necessarily the traits required for other leadership positions such as conducting a business meeting. Another example: The trait of high dominance often found in leaders can be counterproductive in some situations. Where there is instability in an organization and leaders may use their powers to advance their self-interest rather than the groups's goals. It also does not identify which traits are important to becoming a leader and which are important to maintaining the position. Fail to distinguish between leaders and followers who share the same traits. Not useful to group participants wishing to improve their skills.

Douglas McGregor: Theory X and Theory Y?

Theory X: Workers are lazy and must be compelled to work by a strong controlling leader. Theory Y: Workers want to do well; self-motivated.

How do laissez-faire leaders behave?

They assume the group will direct itself and avoid dominating groups.

How do democratic leaders behave?

They have more faith in the group and try to involve members in making decisions.

How do authoritarian leaders behave?

They make decisions, give the orders, and controll all activities.

What is the Consensus method? Advantages/Disadvantages?

Through discussion, group members reach a decision that all members can support. Advantages: Group members are more likely to be satisfied with the outcome. Group members are more likely to participate in implementing a decision that all members support. High degree of interaction. More knowledable about the problem. Output is usually superior. Disadvantages: Takes skill. Takes time. Sometimes there is false consensus; members yield to high status members. Not usually effective with controversial or emotional issues.

Perspectives on Leadership: Trait Approach, Functional Approach and Situational Approach

Trait Approach: Attempts to identify characterstics common to successful leaders Functional Approach: Views leadership as a set of behaviors that may be enacted by any group member Situational Approach: Relates effective leadership to interaction between leadership style and the group situation.

True or False: Your beliefs and attitudes about leadership will affect your behavior in small groups

True

True or false: Most task-oriented groups spend a little over 60% of their time talking about the task and almost 40% of the their time talking about social, relational, or maintenance matters.

True

True or False: According to the functional perspective, effective group members take breaks when they are having trouble solving a problem.

True.

True or False: Any method of structuring group problem solving is better than no method at all.

True.

True or False: When stress and goal structure increase, the tendency to accept authoritarian leadership increases.

True.

True or False: To analyze a problem is to break a problem into causes, effects, symptoms, and subproblems.

True. Group members need to research and investigate the problem.

True or False: Under conditions or relative certainty, groups show a pro-democratic attitude.

True. When the group feels less uncertain, has less stress, and has less structured goals, the need for an authoritarian leader is less needed.

Define Supermajority decision.

Two-thirds of the group or team draws consensus.

Structured or Unstructured Problems?

Unstructured: one which we have little information and thus high uncertainty. The more unstructured the problem the greater the need for a prescriptive technique of gathering and analyzing informationt o solve the problem.