Exam 3 Psych 324

. How do emotions relate to physical health? (p. 403)

- stress is generally detrimental to physical health, especially when the person doesn't have effective strategies to cope with stress. Emotions undoubtedly play an important part in this process, increasing or reducing the negative effects of stress. - Certainly, stressful life events that are fun and exciting (stimulating positive emotions) do not have the negative effects of life events that are threatening and injurious (stimulating negative emotions). - Every experienced parent knows that physical symptoms are sometimes a sign of stress in children, too.

Define self-esteem and describe how it is structured in middle childhood. (p. 461 and Figure 11.5)

- the judgement we make about our own worht and teh feelings associatedwith those judgements. physical appearence corroleates with self esteem more

If we want out children to behave what do we have to use?

- we need to use positive forms of discipline

What are additional examples of basic emotional self-regulation skills in middle childhood and beyond? (p. 412)

???

What does positive discipline refer to? (p. 495 Applying What We Know) Berk uses the term positive parenting in this section describing positive discipline techniques.

???

In the Moral Reasoning and Behavior section, note the behaviors that are typical of adolescents who have achieved higher levels of moral reasoning. How does moral identity increase the chances that people will act in a manner consistent with their moral judgments? (p. 506)

Behaviors: behaving in line with ones thinking is vital for creating and maintaining a just social world. Act prosocialy by helping, sharing, and defending victims of injustice and by coulenteering in the community. When moral goals are persoannly important people are more likely to feel obligated to act on their moral judgements.

Note that recursive thought enhances the ability to make social comparisons. (p. 458)

Being able to compare oneself to others is a key ingredient in the development of self-concept in middle childhood.

Are boys and girls who are high in aggression during childhood also likely to be high in antisocial behaviors including aggression and delinquency during adolescence? What about children who are moderate to low in aggressiveness? (p. 519)

Boy in childhood were likely to move to high level adolescent aggression children who were moderately phusically aggressive usually declined in physical aggression over time rarely phsucakky aggressive in earlu childhood typially remained nonaggressive.

Describe the four identity statuses. (p. 470 and Table 11.1)

Identity Achievement: commited to self-chosen values and goals Identity Moratorium: have not yet made a defonitie commin,ents. In process of exploring Identity Foreclosure: have commited themselves to values and goals without exploring Indentity Diffusion: lack clear direction.

Define emotional self-efficacy. (p. 412) What are the effects of lack of emotional self-efficacy?

Lack of emotional self-efficacy, the feeling of not being able to control one's emotions, is frightening and undermines self-esteem. Ex: • When children who lack emotional self-efficacy are attacked, they are doubly threatened. They are threatened by the attacker and by the fear of experiencing overwhelming emotions.

During what period of development are there rapid gains in emotional self-regulation? Berk states that children should have strategies for managing their emotions by age 10. (p. 412)

Middle Childhood and Adolescnce

Children learn and internalize the basic prosocial values and behaviors, including sharing, helping and empathy, during infancy and early childhood. What characteristics of parents make them effective models for their children's internalization of prosocial values? (p. 491)

Warmth and responsiveness Comepetence and Power Consistency between assertions and behavior

Positive form of discipline (induction)

When a child does something kind, caring, or helpful toward another person, we want to be sure to point it out and emphasize how good it made that other person feel. We need to do the same thing when a child does something mean or hurtful toward another person, but we want to make sure we don't do it in a way that is hurtful (embarrassing or humiliating) lest we be guilty of the very thing we don't want our child to do.

How do parenting styles affect empathetic responses? (p. 418) The textbook does a nice job with the role of parents in the development of emotions in the section on Individual Differences.

When parents are warm, encourage emotional expressiveess, and show sensitive, epathic concern for their kids... thei kids will likely react in a concerned way to the disress of others relationships that persist int adolecence and early adulthood. When parents are angry, pumotove parents disrupts empath at early age.

Define emotional display rules. (p. 412)

Wmotional Display Rules: specify when, where and how it is appropriate to express emotions

Define internalization. (p. 488)

adopting societal standards for right action as ones own

Note what personality style is associated with maturity of moral reasoning. (p. 504)

an open minded approach to new information and experiences

Define attributions. (p. 464) Note that we divide psychological causes of behavior into two types: ability and effort

are our common, everyday explanations for the causes of behavior, our own ansers to the question "why did I ro another person do that?"

Many studies have shown that "on hypothetical dilemmas, everyday moral problems, and the SMR-SF (p. 499), adolescent and adult females display reasoning at the same or higher stages as do their male counterparts." What does this indicate about Gilligan's claims that (1) Kohlberg's theory is biased against women and that (2) justice and caring are gender-specific types of moral reasoning? (p. 503)

idk

Emotion Centered Strategies

internal, private, and aimed at controlling distress when little can be done about the outcome

. Recursive thought

is a form of perspective taking in which the individual can consider other people's perspectives as well as their own. (p. 453) It develops during middle childhood - the early elementary school years. Recursive thought allows you to consider both your view and another person's view of a situation. Among other things, it enables you to • see how you appear to others • consider others' feeling and ideas • think in terms of reciprocity (e.g., taking turns) and cooperation.

As a result, recursive thought

leads to major gains in social skills (p. 454), including understanding that • conflicts often arise because of legitimately different interpretations of the same situation • knowing when it is appropriate to disguise one's emotions

What are the effects of punishment? (pp. 491-492)

look

Describe the longitudinal trends in moral reasoning in terms of Kohlberg's three levels.

moral reasoning is slow and gradual

Can infants be securely attached to fathers? (p. 437)

no, onteractional synchrony???

Another form of positive discipline is rewarding good behavior (p. 490). Too often, adults expect good behavior, so they ignore it when it happens. Ignoring a behavior is a good way to stop it. Everyone who wants to stop good behavior, raise your hand.

okay

In addition, punishment interferes with moral development. Punished children become sneaky and dishonest as they discover ways to behave as they wish without getting caught. To make matters worse, children typically engage more frequently in behaviors for which they are punished. If all this weren't bad enough, punishment makes children more aggressive and antisocial. Even the mere threat of punishment makes children more aggressive and unruly (as we saw in Figure 12.6 showing the effects of coercive discipline).

okay

Of all the many reasons to avoid punishment, perhaps the most important one is that punishment hurts. It isn't good for children to be hurt, especially by their parents.

okay

If a parent feels that some punishment is necessary, what can be done to reduce the negative effects? (p. 494) In the context of a warm parent-child relationship, the only forms of punishment that should be needed are very mild (brief time-outs, reasonable withdrawal of privileges, and parental disapproval).

okd

Berk defines two broad types of strategies for regulating emotion

problem-centered strategies and emotion centered strategies.

. Define perspective taking. (p. 452)

the capacity to iagine what others may be thinking and feeling and to distinguish those viewpoints from my own

.Define self-concept. (p. 456)

the set of attributes, abilities, attitudes, and values that an individual beleives define who he or she is

How did junior high school students' self-esteem change from the 1970s through the 1990s, and how is that change reflected in achievement and adjustment? (p. 464)

their self esteem rose sharply due to the fact that most parent lit supproted raising kids self esteem

How do children who get along well with peers differ in terms of social problem-solving skills from children with peer difficulties? (pp. 480-481)

these children are able to pick up o social cues better and politely ask ask why and argy rather than those who might misinterpret behaviors and act hostile. They still build relationships

Problem-Centered Strategies

they appraise the situatuin as changeablem identify the difficult, and decide what to do about it.

Why is it important for parents to label their children's emotions and discuss them? (p. 416)

they will be able to judge the feeling of others better late in life

What does emotional self-regulation refer to? (p. 409)

to the strategies we use to adjust our emotional state to a comfortable lebel of intensity so we can accomplish our goals.

The goal of identiy exploration is to finally reach achievement during adolecence. When does the majority of peopel reach achievement

when adolecenses is over

Social Refrencing

when your reading a sad book and you read part of it sadly. your teaching your kids how to act

Are children who were securely attached as infants more likely to show good psychological and social adjustment? (p. 439) What factor determines whether attachment security leads to positive development later? (p. 440)

yes, according to the book preschoolers who where securely attached as babies were rated by their teachers as igh in self esteem, social skills, and empathy.

What are the consequences of failing to learn basic emotional self-regulation skills in middle childhood?

you can probably recall from your own childhood what happens to kids who can't tolerate teasing or losing, for example. These children are easy victims for bullies and are vulnerable to peer rejection and victimization (see Bullies and Their Victims, p. 621).

How does peer interaction promote more mature moral reasoning? (p. 505)

your peers often have different viewpoints than you which promotes moral understanding. Individuals are pushed to copperate and compromise with eachother and focus on equals

The American Academy of Pediatrics policy on discipline was published in 1998 and reaffirmed by the AAP in 2004. The recommendation section of the document states:

• Because of the negative consequences of spanking and because it has been demonstrated to be no more effective than other approaches for managing undesired behavior in children, the American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that parents be encouraged and assisted in developing methods other than spanking in response to undesired behavior. (The link to the AAP website is in the External Resources area of Blackboard.)

Define interactional synchrony and specify how it is related to secure attachment. (p. 434)

• Emotional synchrony is an important part of this overall interactional synchrony.

. Define attachment. (p. 428)

• Like temperament, attachment is a phenomenon most properly applied to infants. (Bowlby's ethological theory, p. 428) After infancy, affectional relationships have additional and qualitatively different dimensions than the basic characteristics of attachment. • In the narrowest sense, attachment is the emotional dependency of an infant on its caregiver. It is an emotional connection between a relatively helpless infant and a relatively powerful adult. • Later emotional relationships between peers have some of the characteristics of attachment (desiring and being comforted by togetherness). However, these relationships are fundamentally different in that they involve two people of relatively equal power and competence. • Consequently, when the term attachment is used to refer to relationships after infancy, its meaning is somewhat different. But, because attachment is the very earliest form of social relationships, it lays the foundation for emotional and social development from early childhood on.

Describe the goodness-of-fit model of temperament and how it helps explain why children with difficult temperament are at high risk for developing behavior problems. . (p. 426)

• Note that difficult infants and children often elicit coercive parenting practices, which tend to increase their negative, unruly behavior over time. (Coercive parenting is described in Figure 12., p. 522) • Difficult temperament decreases during infancy when parents are able to use sensitive rather than coercive parenting practices. (p. 426)

.What are three key features of inductive discipline. (p. 489)

• Note that using induction as a discipline technique is very effective in promoting moral development: children may form a script (p. 298) that deters them from committing the same transgression in the future because they view the discipline as fair. (Berk explains this on page 489.)

How is continuity of caregiving related to maintaining the benefits of secure infant attachment throughout the childhood years? (pp. 440-441)

• Note the list of long-term consequences: more self-confidence, more advanced emotional understanding, better relationships with teachers and peers, more effective social skills, a stronger sense of moral responsibility, and higher achievement motivation. You don't need to memorize the list, but notice the breadth of the effects.

.What factors influence how stable or unstable the quality of attachment is over time? (p. 432)

- How favorable the life conditions are - Insecurity vs Security

discipline

- No good definition - cover the whole range of things parents do, from punishing misbehavior to rewarding good behavior - we can understand the relationship between discipline and punishment by thinking of two forms of discipline: positive discipline and negative discipline or punishment.

What are the key characteristics of coercive parenting? How does coercive parenting promote conflict and aggression within the family? (pp. 520-521 and Figure 12.6)

Coercive Parenting example: "Clean your room or else" - parents threatens, criticizes and punishes - child whines, screams, refuses - parents escalate coercion

Which of the 3 components of moral development (emotional, cognitive, behavioral components described on p. 485) is covered by Kohlberg's theory? (p. 499)

Cognitive

The classic path to chronic delinquency is the early-onset type as explained in Two Routes to Adolescent Delinquency. What early childhood and middle childhood factors are likely to result in this type of adolescent delinquency? (pp. 520-521 and Figure 12.5)

Early Childhood: emotionally negative, restless, willful, and phsycially aggressive by age 2. Other facors are ADHD, cognitive disfunctions Middle Childhood: defiance and rersistant aggression. fail academically and rejected by peerslimited social and cognitive skills. unemplyemnet

Describe 3 components or facets of morality as studied in psychology. (p. 485)

Emotional Compontnet: Powerful feelings cause us to distress or feel guilty when we cuase distress. Cognitive Component: children are able to differentiate between right and wrong based on beliefs Behavioral Compnent: expeariencing morally relevatn thoughts and feelings increase likelihood bu does not guarantee bpeople will act by them

Define empathy. What are the three components of empathy? (pp. 416-417)

Empathy: involes a complex interaction of cogniton and affectL the ability t detect different emotionsm to tak eanothers emotional perspective, and to feel with that person or respond emotionally in a similar wa. Notice that sympathy differs from empathy in that sympathy refers to feeling concern for another person's plight or distress. • Empathy certainly can facilitate sympathetic reactions, but, as noted in the Home as a Secure Base for Development comments at the end of the chapter 10 study guide, some people's response to a person in distress is anger rather than sympathy.

Treatment of antisocial youths is most successful when interventions focus on parents as well as adolescents. • What are some of the key aspects of parent training that are helpful? (pp. 520-523) • In the Social-Cognitive Interventions section, find four important aspects of intervention with an aggressive child. (p. 525) • As Berk says, "Even multidimensional treatments can fall short if young people remain embedded in hostile home lives, poor-quality schools, antisocial peer groups, and violent neighborhoods." (p. 525)

Helpful Parent Training: focus on promoting childrens academic, emotional and social skills. Using positive parentin gsuch as psoitive attention, encouragmentm and praise for prosocial behaviors. Four Aspects: attend to relavent nonhostile social cues, seek additional information before acting, generate effective social problem-solving stategies, and evaluate the liely effectivness of potential responses.

How do parents affect emotional self-regulation during early childhood? (pp. 410-411)

If parents rerely express psitive emotions, dismess thier childrens feelings, and have difficulty controlling their own angerm children have problems in managing their own emotion. If parents are open and discuss ways to handle anxity actually offer children helpful tactic of self-euglation.

How is social referencing involved in emotional development during childhood?

Modeling of appropriate emotions by parents during early and middle childhood is important for children to learn that others can feel differently than they do in any given situation and to learn about others' emotional reactions as clues to their ideas and feelings. • Because infants and children are highly attentive to parents' emotional reactions, parents can use this process as a powerful technique in guiding their children's emotional development. • Sadly, inappropriate emotional displays by parents are equally effective in teaching children inappropriate emotional reactions and in interfering with learning about others' emotions.

What are the implications of the various identity statuses for healthy psychosocial development? (p. 471)

Note that development from diffusion or foreclosure to moratorium to achievement is normal and healthy. In the long run, foreclosure and diffusion are maladaptive and lead to adjustment difficulties.

According to functionalists, emotions prepare us for action on matters of personal importance...they "energize behavior aimed at attaining personal goals." (p. 400)

Note that the functionalist view of emotions that is widely accepted among researchers, specifies the functions emotions play in our lives. Functionalists don't worry about defining precisely what emotions are. They are satisfied knowing what emotions do.

Describe the developmental trend in in-group favoritism and out-group prejudice during middle childhood, after age 7 or 8. (pp. 477-478)

Note that validation of prejudiced attitudes by society in general and by specific authority figures (teachers, for example) play a crucial role in promoting the development of in-group favoritism and out-group prejudice. (pp. 477 and 478)

In the section Identity Development among Ethnic Minority Adolescents on p. 475, note that minority adolescents face a very complex and challenging process of finding a way to blend mainstream and minority-group values into a bicultural identity that not only works for them as individuals but is accepted by both their majority culture and their minority group.

Okay

Define identity. (pp. 468-469)

One of Erikson's important contributions to developmental psychology is his characterization of identity development during adolescence. • Erikson's conception of identity is a mature self-concept with many parts, all of which are integrated into a meaningful whole (something like the organization shown in the self-esteem hierarchy in Figure 11.5). • Major areas of life addressed in identity development include: career, religion, politics, gender roles, and sexual orientation. (p. 470) • One aspect of Erikson's ideas not emphasized in the textbook is the temporal aspect: past, present, and future. Erikson included in identity development the process of finding a way to meaningfully integrate past, present, and future selves: who you were as a child, who you are as an adolescent, and who you hope to be as an adult.

List examples of distorted thoughts about self and others that are typical of aggressive children. (pp. 522-523)

Others: See harm when it is not there when intentons ar eunclear, where harm is accidental, and when peers are trying to help. Themself: overly high self-esteem, blaming their victims,

Describe moral reasoning at each of the three levels in Kohlberg's theory: preconventional, conventional and postconventional. (pp. 500-502)

Preconcentional: moraltiy is externally controlled. Children accept the rules of authority figures and judge actions by theri consequences. Behavior that result in punishment are bad, those that result in reward are good. Conventional level: individial contuine to regard conformity to social rules as important, but not for reasions of self interst. they believe that acitvely maintaing the current socail system ensures positives human raltionships and order Postconventioinal: move beyond unquestioning suppor for the laws and rules of their own socoiety. They define morality in terms of abstract principles and values that apply to all situations and societies.

Note examples of primitive forms of emotion regulation in infants and how important it is for parents to provide sensitive caregiving. (p. 410)

Prmitive forms of Emotion Regulation: they depend on the soothing interventioins of caregivers, beng lifted to the shoulder, rocked, gently stroked, and talked to softly. It is importnat to provide sensitive caregiving because in the early month infacnts have only a limited capacity to regulate their emotional states.

Note ways of fostering mastery-oriented attributions in the Applying What We Know section. (p. 468)

Provisions of task: Select task that are meaningful, responsive to a diversity and appropriately mathced to current competence so the child is cahllenegd Parent and Teacher Encouragement: Communication is open between the two. moniter your kids schoool life Performace Evluations: private evaluations that puvliciw success or failure thru stars to smart children or best children School Enviorment: offer small classes, cooperative learning, clear atmosphere

Define reactive (hostile) aggression (p. 517) and relational aggression. (p. 518)

Reactive (hostile) Aggression: is an angry, defemsive respose to a provocation or a blocked goal and is meat to hurt anohter person. Relational (instramental) Aggression: children act to fulfill a need pr desire, obtain an object, privilege, space, pr social reward such as asult attention or (n older childrenO peer admiration- and inemotinally attach a person to achieve their goal.

Note the general trends in social-cognitive development. (p. 447)

SOcial cognition becomes better organized with age as children intergrate seperate behaviors into an appreciation of thier own and others personalities and identities Children revise their ideas baout thecause of behavor from simple one sided explaniations to complex interactiog ones.

Define self-conscious emotions. (p. 408) Notice the potential consequences of a self-conscious emotion such as shame being tied to children's self-evaluation. (pp. 408-409

Self Conscious Emotions: higer set of feelings, including guilt, shame, embarrsment, envy and pride. Emotions that involve injury to or enhancement of our sense of self.

Define self-control in the context of moral standards and behavior (p. 514) and relate it to moral self-regulation. (p. 515) (marshmellow)

Self-Control: children in the second year must be abe to have some ability to think for themselves as seprate, autonomous beings who can dorect their own actions. Moral Self-Regulation builds off from self-control and allows children to monitor theor own conduct, constatnly adjusting it as circumstances and opprortunities come up to violate their standards (marshmellow)

Define sensitive caregiving and specify how it is related to secure attachment. (p. 434)

Sensitive Caregiving: responding promptly, consistently, ad appropriately toinfants and hding them tenderly and caregully. insecurly attached infants tend to have mothers who engeage less with senative caring.

What are examples of basic emotional self-regulation skills in middle childhood and beyond? (p. 412)

Specific examples of basic emotional self-regulation skills are the ability to tolerate teasing and physical aggression without crying and being able to "lose" without being uncontrollably upset or angry.

How does the concept of the family as a secure base relate to the process of identity development? (p.473)

Teenagers is enhanced when their family serve as a secure base. Conflicts that involve and open conversation with the family allow the teenagers to have higher self esteem and be ready for the wider world.

Relate self-esteem to child-rearing styles. (p. 464)

child-rearing styles either help strengthen a childs self-esteem or tear it down. Familys with war, positive parentig styleslets young people know they are accepted and welcomes. This allows them to compare themselves with reasonable standards and have reasoable expectations. Familys with controlling prarents that helpt oo ften or make disciions for their kids are often dissaproving and have children with low self esteem.

How does modeling fit into the process of moral development? (p. 490)

children better learn by watiching adults who are modeling good behavior and copy it.

What kinds of child-rearing practices are associated with large gains in moral maturity among children and adolescents? (p. 504)

combine warmth, exchange of ideas, and appropriate demands fr maturity. Children who gain most are those whos parents engage in moral discussions, encourage prosocial behavior and insist that others be treathed respectfully and fairly.

Berk points out that social problem solving improves greatly "over the preschool and early childhood years, largely as a result of gains in perspective-taking capacity - in particular, recursive thought. This makes sense when you recall that recursive thought enables children to see other's points of view, understand social strategies such as taking-turns and cooperating. (see item 3 above)

• Note the variety of concepts and strategies that need to be dealt with when trying to help children who have not developed adequate social problem solving skills. (p. 481) In addition to working on each of the 6 components of social problem solving, it is also necessary to help them develop more advanced perspective taking skills, specifically, recursive thought.

. Berk defines prosocial behavior as "altruistic behavior, actions that benefit another person without any expected reward for the self." (p. 417) That definition is too limited.

• Prosocial behavior is any behavior toward another person that is positive. • Prosocial behaviors exhibit empathy (caring about another) in the form of acts of kindness, such as comforting, sharing and helping. As Berk points out, empathy is an important part of the process. • However, not all prosocial behavior is altruistic. Many times, people expect to gain something for themselves by being kind and helpful. That isn't altruistic, but it is prosocial.

. Define temperament and describe the easy, difficult, and slow-to-warm-up temperaments. (pp. 418-420)

• Temperament is a term most properly applied to infants. After infancy, other behavioral characteristics develop and temperament is too limited and basic to adequately describe children's personal styles. • However, infant temperament is important in terms of its implications for childhood. As an example, Difficult infants are at high risk for developing adjustment problems in early and middle childhood. • As Berk points out in the section Stability of Temperament, many children change dramatically in their behavioral style after infancy. The stability of temperament from infancy to middle childhood for most children is quite low, although children rarely change from one extreme to the opposite extreme. (p. 423)

What are two examples of emotional understanding that develop during middle childhood? (p. 415)

• These examples are presented as resulting from cognitive development in middle childhood, but the textbook doesn't explain fully. The underlying cognitive skills are the concrete operational skills that develop beginning in middle childhood. • Recall that concrete operational thinking permits attention to two or more aspects of a situation, enabling children to consider more than one factor in explaining an emotional reaction. The example of this in the book is interpreting a picture showing a happy-faced child with a broken bicycle. • Also, concrete operational thinking permits one higher-order concept to be comprised of two or more sub-concepts, which enables children to understand that an emotional reaction may have more than one part. The book mentions mixed emotions as an example of this. • These cognitive skills applied to emotions generally develop around ages 8-10 (3rd-4th grade).

Note the prevalence of U. S. parents' use of spanking, slapping, pinching, shaking, and hitting children with a hard object. (Figure 12.3)

•Psychologists who study the effects of various forms of discipline caution against the use of spanking (and other forms of corporal punishment) for two reasons: (1) there are nonaversive alternatives for accomplishing the same disciplinary goals, and (2) no one knows where the line is between mild spanking that may be safe to use and more severe corporal punishment that is known to be dangerous.

. Describe secure attachment. (p. 430)

•Secure Attachment: infants use parents as a secure base. when sperated they may cry or not crym but if they do, it is becuase the parent is absent and they prefer them over the stranger. When the parent retuns they actively seek contact and their crying is reduced immediatly. Note the Strange Situation method of assessing attachment. (p. 430 and Table 10.2) Of the various types of attachment identified using the Strange Situation, secure attachment is ideal for infants

What does social referencing refer to in terms of emotional reactions? (p. 414)

•Social referencing begins early in infancy and is a powerful force in emotional development. Parents typically take advantage of infants' social referencing tendencies to show them what emotional reactions are appropriate in various situations, such as when reading stories to them. • Fewer parents realize the importance of continuing to model appropriate emotional reactions for children during childhood and adolescence