Exam 4: Chapter 13 (Cognitive Neuroscience)
*what has been observed in mice, rats, cats and dogs in terms of lateralization?
paw preference
*The Anterior Cingulate Cortex (ACC) plays an important role in...
cost-benefit decisions
*those with transcortical motor aphasia can't...
produce verbs related to particular nouns (such as "drive" in response to "car")
*left-handedness is advantageous in...
forward-facing sports (fencing, tennis, baseball)
*children who were breast fed have ______ IQs than those who were not
higher
*language switch
in a mixed language condition, reaction time is slower -managed by dorsolateral prefrontal cortex -may be due to switched attention
*in musicians with perfect pitch or ability to name a music note that they hear have a larger PLANUM TEMPORAL
in the LEFT hemisphere than the right
Agraphia
inability to write
How do bees communicate?
-waggle dance at presence of pollen -NOT language, but communciation
*arcuate fasciculus
A pathway connecting Broca's area and Wernicke's area
*the right-lateralized network shows greater connectivity...
BETWEEN hubs in BOTH hemispheres
What is the most common form of learning disability?
Dyslexia
language model evidence
Williams syndrome = intellectually disabled but fluent language speakers
*transcortical aphasia
a language disorder resulting from damage to the connections and cortical areas associated with the major language centers
*American Sign Language (ASL)
a language of sight and movement instead of sound
*all intelligent behavior arises from...
a single trait
What area of Tan's brain was damaged (broca's area)?
left inferior frontal region
*intelligence and educational attainment are...
*highly correlated
*Which sentence could someone with Broca's aphasia identify problems in: -"The woman is outside, isn't it?" -"John was finally kissed Louise"
-"John was finally kissed Louise" -Why? Adjacent items ("john" and "was") in complex sentences are supported by the ventral pathway
____% of people are right-handed ____% of people are left-handed
-90% right -10% left
*Wernicke-Geschwind model
-Broca's area is responsible for speech -Wernicke's area is responsible for comprehension
*split-brain study: HE/ART word
-HE (left), ART (right) -VERBALLY processed by left hemisphere (said she saw "ART") -VISUALLY processed by the right hemisphere (pointed with left hand to the word "HE")
*Increased and decreased activation of which areas of the brain are present in Dyslexia?
-Increased anterior language areas: Broca's Area -Decreased posterior language areas: Wernicke's area and angular gyrus
What are the characteristics of Alexia?
-NORMAL: speech, processing, understanding -DIFFICULTY: tagging letters and works to meanings/symbolism
Paul Broca's patient "Tan"
-aphasia caused by syphilis -"tan" was one of the only syllables he could produce -understood what was said to him, couldn't produce speech
*-left-hemisphere activity is associated with _______ -right-hemisphere activity is associated with ______
-approach (left) -avoidance (right)
how do animals communicate?
-calls that signal danger (prairie dogs) -signals/dances that communicate magnitude of something (bee dance about food) -sequences of behavior (birdsong)
*what hemispheres does Joseph Bogen's split-brain procedure sever?
-corpus callosum -anterior commisure -massa intermedia -hippocampal commissure
Broca's aphasia patients can still...
-curse (it's a knee-jerk response) -sing songs (if known by heart bc it doesn't require ability to comprehend sentences)
individuals with adrenal hyperplasia (unusually high levels of prenatal levels of testosterone)...
-did NOT show differences in handedness -showed stronger left-hemisphere lateralization of language
*-those who learn multiple languages at EARLY ages _____ show much spacial separation between areas that process each language in frontal regions (including broca's area) -those who learn languages LATER show _____ separation
-don't -greater separation
*dual stream model of language
-dorsal pathway: supports the conversion of sound to movements necessary for speech -ventral pathway: supports the conversion of sound to meaning
*measurements of g are predictive of important outcomes...
-educational attainment -occupational success -social mobility -health -illness -survival
*vocal learning is only found in a small subset of nonhuman animals...
-elephants -bats -whales -some birds
*for most people, the right hemisphere plays a larger role in the perception of...
-emotion in others' faces -expression of emotion
Right hemisphere is in charge of...
-emotional processing (negative emotions) -intuition (spatial relations)
*what are the advantages of lateralization?
-enhanced skill performance -faster reaction time (you prefer one hand, you don't have to think of which to use) -improves divided (multitasking) attention abilities -improved ability to split attention between different aspects of the environment -social communication (more likely to survive if you have similar ways of working as your species) -gesturing (pointing, wave hand, facial expressions like smiling) -language (communicate efficiently with other people)
*the origin of spoken language
-evolved from gestures -mirror neurons provide ability to understand one's behavior
*lateralization in healthy individuals can be observed using...
-fMRI -diffusion tensor imaging (DTI)
*positive outcomes associated with bilingualism
-flexible learning -improved executive function -better "cognitive reserve" (protection against cognitive decline) -delay in the onset of dementia
*global aphasia is associated with...
-impairments in speech, comprehension, reading, and writing -ability to count, swear, say days of the week, and sing familiar songs
*stuttering is improved by __________ and worsened by _________
-improved: dopamine antagonists (fhaloperidol) -worsened: dopamine agonists (l-dopa)
Werniche's aphasia is associated with...
-inability to comprehend speech -inability to recognize their aphasia
*Behavioral Activation System (BAS)
-increased left-frontal brain hemispheric activity-- approach
*Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS)
-increased right-frontal activity-- avoidance
*what is an example of lateralization in terms of social cohesion?
-individuals in many species attack other's left side -approaching a member of the group on the right side sends a peaceful message
*where are the damaged areas in transcortical motor aphasia?
-initiation of speech (Supplementary Motor Area) -ongoing executive control of speech (dorsolateral prefrontal cortex)
*left-lateralized networks include...
-language -parts of the Default Mode Network
*later Wernicke-Geschwind model proposed three interacting language components...
-language implementation system: decodes incoming verbal info and produces appropriate verbal responses -mediational system: manages communicated between implementation system and conceptual system -conceptual system: manages semantic knowledge
*individuals who stutter have abnormal...
-lateralization -both hemispheres try to control the vocal apparatus simultaneously (creates conflict and stuttering)
*Einstein's Brain
-left hippocampal cell bodies = larger than those on the right -Parietal lobe was 15% larger than normal humans
Left hemisphere is in charge of...
-logical, analytical thought -sequential thought/processing -language
What types of animals also communicate through vocal learning?
-mammals -Ex: bats, cetaceans (whale songs, etc)
*autism spectrum disorder is associated with...
-reduced left lateralization or mirrored lateralization for language -abnormal lateralization (communication and social deficits)
*patients with conduction aphasia find it difficult to...
-repeat a sentence -confrontation naming (verbally producing the names of pictures and objects -assemble speech sounds into words (say "treen" instead of "train")
*what are the advantages to vocalization over gestures?
-requires less energy -provides opportunity to communicate at night or when hidden from sight -frees the hands for tool use
what is the cause of asymmetrical auditory input?
-right ear facing outward in the final trimester -amniotic fluid = great conductor of sound
*what disorders are more common in people with left- and mixed-handedness?
-schizophrenia -depression -bipolar disorder -anxiety disorders -alcoholism -autism spectrum disorder
How do Prairie dogs communicate?
-select calls/sounds for different types of predators -NOT language, but communication
*patients with schizophrenia...
-show NO hemispheric asymmetry or a mirror asymmetry (in which language lateralized to the right hemisphere) -more likely to have mixed or ambiguous handedness
*researchers have been able to teach primates...
-sign language (gesturing) -to associate symbols with words
broca's aphasia is associated with...
-simple speech -anomia -gaps in speech comprehension ("the boy that the girl is chasing is tall"; thinks that the GIRL is tall)
hearing is contralateral at first...
-sound is heard in right ear -processed by left hemisphere -left hemisphere communicates with right hemisphere about the sounds
*why can't nonhuman primates learn speech sounds?
-speech sounds require reciprocal activation of circuits connecting Broca's and Wernicke's areas -connections between analogous areas in nonhuman primates are relatively weak
*how is a hemispherectomy performed?
-the cortex of the frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes is removed -leaves underlying white matter, basal ganglia, thalamus, and ventricles
*much larger areas of the cortex appear to be involved in...
-the processing of language -chunks of frontal, temporal, parietal lobes, cingulate cortex, insula, and basal ganglia
*DTI allows researchers to observe...
-the underlying microstructure of single pathways (like corpus callosum) -provides even greater insight into individual variations in hemisphere connectivity
*What are the side effects of a hemispherectomy?
-walking with a slight limp -NO difference in speech or any other movement -possible 10-pt increase on intelligence tests
*Decision making has a two-step process
1. the brain assesses the values available within the context of a situation 2. Making the decision based on the valuations (final decision = transmitted to motor system for implementation)
*What is the average IQ score?
100
*Males are ____-____ times as likely as females to stutter
2-5
*handedness is already apparent in the human embryo at gestational week...
8 (handedness is under spinal, not cortical control)
*conduction aphasia
A condition characterized by FLUENT SPEECH and GOOD COMPREHENSION but poor repetition and naming; believed to result from damage to the arcuate fasciculus and underlying structures
*general intelligence (g) factor
Also known as "Spearman's g." A hypothesized single trait that predicts intelligent behavior
*Intelligence
An individual's ability to understand complex ideas, to adapt effectively to the environment, to learn from experience, to engage in various forms of reasoning, and to overcome obstacles
Who is the famous girl who underwent a hemispherectomy to stop epileptic seizures?
Cameron Mott (right hemisphere removed)
*what is one gene associated with speech and language disorders?
FOXP2 gene located on chromosome 7
*Lateralization is _____ exclusive to humans
NOT (all mammals exhibit this as well)
*the left-lateralized network shows greater connectivity...
WITHIN the hemisphere
*transcortical sensory aphasia
a condition in which COMPREHENSION IS POOR, but the ability to repeat is retained
*transcortical motor aphasia
a condition in which LANGUAGE IS NOT FLUENT, but the ability to repeat is retained
*global aphasia
a condition in which all language functions are lost, including both language production and comprehension
*hippocampal commissure
a pathway linking the right and left hippocampal structures
Rasmussen syndrome
a rare brain disorder affecting children that produces seizures in only one hemisphere of the brain
*angular gyrus
a region of the parietal lobe believed to participate in language and cognition
*language
a system of communicating thoughts and feelings using arbitrary signals, such as sounds, gestures, or written signals
Stutters
abnormal repetitions of vocal sounds during speech
planum temporale
an area located posterior to the primary auditory cortex in the temporal lobes
asymmetry of ______ _____ due to fetal position may influence the lateralization of the developing brain
auditory input
*abnormally high activity in which areas of the brain is associated with stuttering?
basal ganglia and midbrain
*how does lateralization allow the formation of stable hierarchies?
being lateralized similarly to the population makes behavior more predictable
Broca's area
center for speech production
following the hemispherectomy, the remaining cavity eventually fills with...
cerebral spinal fluid
*what is the earliest form of human language?
click languages (African groups)
*intelligence is the end product of...
complex interactions between our genes, our experiences, and our environments
*the orbitofrontal cortex provides value information in general about...
consumable rewards (bigger delayed rewards vs. smaller immediate rewards)
What causes Agraphia?
damage to the supplementary motor area
*dichotic listening tasks showed a LEFT-ear advantage for...
determining the emotional tone of a verbal stimulus
Dyslexia
difficulty in reading fulency
What causes Alexia?
disruption in left occipital and temporal lobe junction and the insula
*Broca's aphasia affects the ______ pathway more
dorsal
*grey matter volume and cortical thickness in prefrontal and temporal association areas of the brain are...
especially correlated with cognitive ability
*population lateralization example
flock of sheep turn in coordinated fashion when a predator is detected
*stuttering is primarily _________ in origin
genetic
what is the most effective treatment for rasmussen syndrome?
hemispherectomy
*left-handedness is strongly correlated with _________ rates in non-industrialized cultures
homicide (could be a survival advantage in violent situations)
*dichotic listening tasks showed a RIGHT-ear advantage for...
identifying spoken words
Alexia
inability to read
*Cognition refers to...
information processing (attention, perception, learning, and memory)
*language learning does not always correlate with...
intelligence (evidence for a "language model" in the brain)
*the left hemisphere processes...
language
*females show an advantage in _________ skills
language -stronger LEFTward lateralization in the inferior frontal lobe (associated with language processing)
FOXP2 gene
language gene unique to humans required for language communication/speech
ASL is processed in the _______ hemisphere
left (still a language)
Where is Wernicke's area located?
left temporal lobe, posterior to primary auditory cortex
*according to G&G, higher levels of androgens promote...
left-handedness
*why are left-handers often excluded from brain imaging studies?
left-handedness introduces substantial variance into the typical small sample study
*we often value choices in terms of...
loss (rather avoid bad consequences than approach good things)
anomia
loss of ability to retrieve the correct words for the ideas one wishes to express
there are more left handed ________ than ________
males than females
*the male brain is _____ lateralized than the female brain
more
Individuals with Dyslexia have _________ intelligence
normal
*the right hemisphere processes...
numbers, letters, and short words (as long as no verbal response is required) Music
*what cortex of BOTH hemispheres contributes to the explicit, or conscious, evaluation of prosody?
orbitofrontal cortex
*to find an animal precursor to human language capability, we should look to...
our nearest relatives (great apes)
*standard measures of intelligence correlate positively with...
overall brain volume
*what type of lateralization is common among social species?
population lateralization (could coordinate response to a predator)
*Geschwind and Galaburda suggested that _________ ____________ play key roles in the lateralization of language and visuospatial skills
prenatal androgens
Dyslexia is also associated with difficulties with...
rapid naming
*mania (increased talkativeness, goal-oriented behavior, potentially self-destructive pleasure-seeking) is correlated with...
reduced arousal of the right hemisphere frontal lobe
what does the split-brain operation help?
reduces the severity and frequency of life-threatening seizures
*right-lateralized networks include...
regions associated with attention to -external stimuli -executive function
*damage to the amygdala makes individuals...
remarkably insensitive to the potential of loss
people with poor phonological awareness have difficulties with...
rhymes
*the left half of the visual field is processed by the ________ side of the brain
right
prosody is produced and perceived in the _______ hemisphere
right
*males performing a visuospatial task showed activity in the ________ hemisphere
right -(females = both hemispheres)
*which hemisphere of the brain participates in the evaluation of emotional tone in language (prosody)?
right hemisphere
*How is musical ability lateralized in the brain?
right: - judge pitch, recognize music he heard -expectations regarding harmonics (notes supporting main theme) left: -playing ability, recognizing and composing written music -expectations regarding melodies (main theme of the piece)
Dischotic listening tasks
simultaneously presenting different sounds at each ear
*abnormal lateralization conflict is resolved when...
singing (right-hemisphere area activation that aren't involved in speech)
*the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex provides assessments of...
social cooperation and impulse control
Wernicke's Aphasia
speech is rapid and fluent, and "sounds" like regular speech, except the words often make no sense
phonological awareness
the ability to discriminate verbal info at the level of phonemes (speech sounds like "ch")
Werniche's area
the center for decoding and interpreting (processing) the sounds of speech
hemispherectomy
the complete removal of the cerebral cortex from one entire hemisphere
*massa intermedia
the connection between the right and left thalamic nuclei
sounds are processed more rapidly by...
the contralateral auditory cortex
prosody
the emotional tone of language
*neuroeconomics
the interdisciplinary approach to understanding decision making that incorporates theories and methods from economics, psychology, and neuroscience
*in transcortical sensory aphasia, connections between...
the language centers and the parts of the brain responsible for word meaning are DISRUPTED
Lateralization
the localization of a function in one hemisphere or the other
aphasia
the loss of the ability to speak and/or understand language
*global aphasia is caused by damage to...
the middle cerebral artery (serves the language centers of the left hemisphere)
Vocal Learning
the mimicking and modification of vocalized sounds by imitation
when conflicting information is provided to the two ears, the person who has language lateralized in the left hemisphere (right-handed) will show a preference for the word heard by...
the right ear
split-brain operation
the white matter connections (i.e., commissures) between the left and right cerebral hemispheres are severed
broca's aphasia
though one person can usually understand received speech, they have difficulty producing speech
*musical training can provide advantages in...
using language (including detection of prosody and rhythm)
*the striatum and medial prefrontal cortex serve as a final common path for...
valuation in the brain (makes comparison and choice)
*males show an advantage in _____________ skills
visuospatial -stronger RIGHTward lateralization in the superior temporal lobe (spatial processing)
when are you more likely to stutter?
when nervous
*what is not important to apes that is essential in human language?
word order
*info travels in ______ direction(s) between Broca's and Wernicke's Areas
two
