Exam #4 Chapter 9:Stereotyping & Prejudice (2)
Is stereotyping inevitable? In other words, can stereotyping be prevented? Understand the two-step process of stereotyping and when stereotyping is least/most likely to be prevented
2-step process of stereotyping: -1. Perceiving a member of a group automatically activates stereotypes about that group >Unconscious process, out of our control -2. People can then engage in deliberative processes and choose to disregard or ignore the automatically-activated stereotype >Conscious, effortful process, within our control Factors increasing deliberative processing -1. Personal information: The more personal information we have about someone the more likely we are to reject the activated stereotype -2. Ability: The greater our ability to think about the stereotype, the more likely we are to reject it >Stereotyping increases when: -Under time pressure, tired, drunk, distracted -3. Motivation: The more motivated we are to form an accurate impression about someone, the less likely we are to stereotype
What is the difference between stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination? Explain in terms of the ABC components.
Affect ---> Prejudice Behavior ---> Discrimination Cognitions ---> Stereotypes -A stereotype is any belief that all of the members of a certain group share one or more characteristics. -Prejudice refers to negative feelings toward others as a result of their membership in a particular group. -Discrimination refers to negative behaviors directed at others due to their membership in a certain group.
How are prejudices maintained?
Belief in a Just World (Just-World Hypothesis) -People have a naïve belief that the world is a fair place >Good things happen to good people, and vice versa -People don't want to think that their fate is dependent on chance factors -We are motivated to make personal attributions with regard to victims. >Thus, we often blame the victim *Victims are often rejected and blamed for their bad fortune -Rape victims --> she was asking for it >Survey showed that 1 out of 10 people believe that claims of rape are probably false >About 20% agree that the victim was partially responsible for the rape - by having a drink with the defendant or wearing provocative clothes -Homeless people are lazy -People with AIDS are promiscuous Why do we blame the victim? -People who suffer misfortune are viewed as the outgroup -By blaming the victim, people are able to distance themselves from misfortune >If I don't talk to strangers at a bar, then I won't be raped. >He must have done something and that's why the police are looking into him. -If bad things happen to good people, then world is random and unpredictable.
What are some of the common ways people are categorized? When are we most likely to categorize people? Is categorization in and of itself considered stereotyping?
Categorization is most likely to occur when people are: -Pressed for time, Busy/preoccupied, Tired, Too young to appreciate diversity (Categorization provides the foundation for stereotyping and prejudice)
Know/understand real world examples of discrimination
Discrimination: Negative behavior towards groups or its members -Not hiring someone because of race, gender, or sexual orientation -Grading students differently based on their gender -Racial segregation Racial profiling • Airports post 9/11 • Arizona immigration law • Stop and frisk in NYC
Can you have a stereotype about a group without being prejudicial towards the group?
Ex. if you have a negative attitude towards Muslims (prejudice), you may support that attitude by believing that Muslims are dangerous (stereotype) which may lead to discrimination (choosing not to hire a Muslim). -Having a stereotype about a group does not imply that people are prejudicial towards that group. *
Understand how a prejudice can be grounded in a stereotype. Examples?
Examples: "All cops love doughnuts." -This is a stereotype. -Stereotypes may or may not carry a moral judgment. "I don't like cops because they're lazy." -This is a prejudice that is grounded in a stereotype ** "I refuse to hire anyone who was once a cop." -This is an example of discrimination
What is "ingroup bias"? Explain in terms of the BIRG-ing technique.
Ingroups vs. outgroups: We carve the world into groups to which we belong (ingroups) and groups to which we do not belong (outgroups) -ex. your country, religion, sports team >Social identity is part of our self-concept so ingroups help shape our self-concept Ingroup bias: The tendency to favor our own groups -Making students feel American makes them display more anger and disrespect for Muslims
What is prejudice?
Prejudice: Negative attitude about a group and its members -Negative evaluations are often supported by negative stereotypes -Negative evaluations may increase the chances of discriminatory behavior >ex. Having negative attitudes towards obese people and believing that obese people are lazy, may decrease the chances of an obese person getting hired.
What are the two most common forms of prejudice?
Racism: negative attitudes towards people of a given race -Blacks and whites cannot ride on the same bus because blacks are inferior Sexism: negative attitudes towards people of a given gender -Women not allowed to vote because they are not as smart as men *Prejudicial attitudes may lead to discrimination
What causes prejudice? Know the two theories we discussed and any studies that demonstrate the theories.
Realistic Conflict Theory: -Groups often directly compete for limited resources (land, money, jobs, power) -This competition leads to hostility against the other group(s). -This competition may be imagined >ex. "immigrants are taking our jobs" *Robber's cave example - restoring the peace. -Superordinate goal: A goal that could only be achieved through cooperation between the groups. Social Identity Theory: -People favor ingroups over outgroups in order to enhance their self-esteem >BIRGing >Derogating outgroups makes us feel better about ourselves >Minimal group paradigms
How are stereotypes formed?
Social categorization: We like to sort people into groups -Makes the world easier to think about (remember, we don't like to think!) -Provides us with information about people with minimal effort
What is stereotype threat? What have researchers done to examine this concept? What have they found? What caused the differences in performance in these studies? Did stereotype threat affect the participants' performance only in that one task, or were there sometimes more long-lasting consequences?
Stereotype threat: A self-confirming apprehension that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype -ex. Verbal test between White students and African-American students (look at graph) -ex. Math test between men and women (look at graph) Differences in performance due solely to expectation and not actual ability -Women less likely to pursue career in math related fields (Task discounting - Math is not important to me) Why? -People from a stereotyped group are aware of thestereotype >ex. SAT scores differ by race - White students outperform Black and Hispanic students -A member of a stereotyped group experiences apprehension that they will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype *This apprehension decreases performance
Are stereotypes positive or negative?
Stereotype: A belief about the personal attributes of members of a particular group -ex. Athletes, Politicians, College students, Professors Stereotypes are not necessarily negative and can be accurate -Can be positive or negative >ex. Overweight people are lazy >ex. Asians are smart
How do stereotypes survive? We discussed 4 ways in class. Know each and understand how the examples/studies demonstrate the concepts.
Stereotypes assume there is a relationship between group membership and individual characteristics. 1. Illusory correlations: Perceptions of a relationship between 2 variables when no relationship actually exists -Stereotypes assume that members of a group share the same characteristic >People from small towns are more friendly than people from big cities -We are sensitive to distinctive events - Minorities and bad behavior are distinctive -We only tend to remember distinctive events from stereotyped groups and ignore or forget usual/normal events >Ex. homosexuality and child abuse (look at graph) 2. Attributions -Stereotype-consistent behavior is attributed to personality. >People from stereotyped group all have similar personalities. >She never plans ahead - that's why she was late! -Stereotype-inconsistent behavior is attributed to the situation. >Outside forces are guiding behavior. >She was on time because she was going to get fired! -People make positive and negative attributions about their ingroup and outgroups >When ingroup behaves in a positive way, we attribute behavior to personality >When ingroup behaves in a negative way, we attribute behavior to situation >When outgroup behaves in negative way, we attribute to personality >When outgroup behaves in positive way, we attribute to situation 3. Subtyping -Stereotype-inconsistent information is often dismissed as an exception (a fluke or a rare/unique situation) 4. Confirmation biases & self-fulfilling prophecies -We tend to seek out information that is consistent with our stereotypes >We only remember stereotype-consistent information and ignore/dismiss/forget stereotype inconsistent information -Our false stereotypes can be self-fulfilling >Our expectations about others can lead us to act in ways toward them that cause them to behave in ways consistent with our stereotypes -Ex. Interviewing White vs. Black job applicants (look at slide)
How do we measure implicit racism?
The Implicit Association Test (IAT) measures how quickly people associate traits and/or faces with labels -85% of Whites 'prefer' Whites; i.e., they react faster when Euro-American is paired with 'good' -50% of Black participants also show a 'preference' for Whites
How has racial prejudice changed over time?
The good news is that overt racism has declined dramatically over the past several decades. -Less overt prejudice; more interracial relationships; etc. But, racism still exists in subtler forms -Implicit racism can impact us unknowingly/ unintentionally
What is the problem with stereotypes?
The problem with stereotypes is when they overgeneralize.
What is the outgroup homogeneity effect? Why does it exist? How does this effect increase our ingroup bias?
The tendency to assume that there is greater similarity among members of outgroups than among members of ingroups -"Asians/Blacks/Jews/Hispanics/Whites/______ are all alike." Why does it exist? -Greater contact with our ingroups -More intimate contact with our ingroups Basking in reflected glory: self-esteem increases when the group does well >Small groups (being the minority) increases ingroup bias
How do stereotypes distort our perceptions? -Understand this in terms of what we remember and in terms of how we interpret behavior?
We tend to remember stereotype-consistent information better than stereotype-inconsistent information -ex. Marie may remember all the times her Cuban friend was late but forget all the times s/he was actually on time! >Stereotype consistent information is easier to remember We interpret behavior in terms of stereotypes -Ambiguously aggressive behaviors are interpreted differently depending on stereotype -Neutral black faces perceived as more aggressive than neutral white faces ex. A boy scout grabs the arm of an elderly woman ex. A skinhead grabs the arm of an elderly woman ex. A mother yelled at a 14-year-old girl ex. A construction worker yelled at a 14-year-old girl
Can positive stereotypes enhance performance?
Yes, because if the stereotype is a positive one it can enhance a performance or benefit individuals.
Are there consequences of stereotyping?
yes, there are consequences to stereotyping things like stereotype threat occur. Hence, causing individuals based on these stereotypes to decrease their performance on exams,or performance based tasks.
