Exam 4 EXP3604
The crucial question in comparing garden path and constrain-based approaches to parsing is ____________________ is involved? whether syntax when semantics when syntax whether semantics
when semantics
Language consists of smaller components, like words, that can be combined to form larger ones, like phrases, to create sentences, which themselves can be components of a larger story. This demonstrates the ____________________ property of language. relational hierarchical parallel propositional
hierarchical
The word frequency effect refers to the fact that we respond more? slowly to letters appearing in nonwords than letters appearing in words. quickly to letters that appear multiple times in a word than just once in a word. quickly to phonemes that appear multiple times in a word than just once in a word. slowly to low-frequency words than high-frequency words
slowly to low-frequency words than high-frequency words.
People tend to overestimate: A. Correct! what negative feelings will occur following a decision more so than positive feelings. B. subjective utility values following a decision. C. what positive and negative feelings will occur following a decision to the same degree. D. what positive feelings will occur following a decision more so than negative feelings.
what negative feelings will occur following a decision more so than positive feelings.
One hundred students are enrolled in State University's course on introductory physics for math and science majors. In the group, 60 students are math majors and 40 are science majors. Sarah is in the class. She got all As in her high school science courses, and she would like to be a chemist someday. She lives on campus. Her boyfriend is also in the class. There is a _________________ chance that Sarah is a science major. 100 percent 50 percent 60 percent 40 percent
40 percent
Which of the following statements does NOT apply to the results of research on differences between how experts and novices solve problems? Experts often spend more time analyzing problems than novices. Being an expert in one field can transfer to better problem solving in another field. Experts often organize problems differently than novices, based on principles. Experts possess more knowledge about their fields than novices.
Being an expert in one field can transfer to better problem solving in another field.
Which of the following is not part of a complete definition of a problem? The solution is not obvious Involves obstacles between one's current state and a desired goal Is difficult Has one correct answer
Has one correct answer
If human speech is represented as a string of taffy on a candy-making assembly line, then what function does speech segmentation serve at the candy factory? It mixes the taffy ingredients. It adds flavors to the taffy. It cuts the taffy into pieces. It puts the taffy in packages.
It cuts the taffy into pieces.
Most of the coherence in text is created by syntax. parsing. inference. phoneme restoration.
Meaning dominance
Which of the following is the core concept underlying the Gestalt perspective on problems? Analogy Representation Search Insight
Representation
Which problem provides an example of how functional fixedness can hinder solution of a problem? The radiation problem Tower of Hanoi problem Mutilated checkerboard problem Two-string problem
Two-string problem
From the perspective of the listener, as a person speaks, each sentence often is characterized by ________ until the sentence is completed. heuristics ambiguity entrainment tonics
ambiguity
Mia has lived in New York City all her life. She has noticed that people from upper Manhattan walk really fast, but people from lower Manhattan tend to walk slowly. Mia's observations are likely influenced from a judgment error based on her using? the law of large numbers. an atmosphere effect. the falsification principle. an illusory correlation.
an illusory correlation.
The finding that people tend to incorrectly conclude that more people die from tornados than from asthma has been explained in terms of the falsification principle. availability heuristic. belief bias. representativeness heuristic.
availability heuristic.
The tendency to think that a syllogism is valid if its conclusion is believable is called the _________________. availability heuristic mental set belief bias confirmatory bias
belief bias
Of the following real-world phenomena, the confirmation bias best explains the observation that people A. misjudge homicide as more prevalent in the U.S. than suicide. B. do not always make decisions that maximize their monetary outcome. C. Correct! can cite several reasons for their position on a controversial issue but none for the opposing side. D. are more likely to purchase meat advertised as 80 percent fat free than 20 percent fat.
can cite several reasons for their position on a controversial issue but none for the opposing side
Imagine you are interpreting a pair of sentences such as "The sidewalk was covered with ice" and "Ramona fell down." The kind of inference we use to link these sentences together would most likely be a(n) ____________________ inference. coherent anaphoric instrument causal
causal
Intermediate states can be created by restructuring goal states. restructuring initial states. creating operators. creating subgoals.
creating subgoals.
In the lexical decision task, participants are asked to? decide whether a string of letters is a word or a nonword. decide which meaning of an ambiguous sentence is correct in a specific situation. separate a sentence into individual words. identify words that are contained in sentences.
decide whether a string of letters is a word or a nonword.
If you are given the information that in order to vote in a presidential election, you must be at least 18 years of age, and that Will voted in the last presidential election, you can logically conclude that Will is at least 18 years old. This is an example of using _________________ reasoning. A. inductive B. conjunctive C. descriptive D. deductive
deductive
Tanenhaus and coworkers' eye movement study presented participants with different pictures for interpreting the sentence, "Put the apple on the towel in the box." Their results showed the importance of ____________________ in how we understand sentences in real-life situations. instrumental inferences the cooperative principle environmental context local connections
environmental context
Josiah is trying to decide whether to take a new job in a new city. He is worried that if he takes the job and fails, he will suffer from intense anxiety and depression. This is an example of: immediate emotion. integral immediate emotion. incidental immediate emotion expected emotion.
expected emotion.
Experts categorize problems based on how similar the objects in the problem are. general principles that problems share. event-specific knowledge. surface and deep structures.
general principles that problems share.
Sandeep is a generally anxious person. His anxiety sometimes gets in the way when he tries to make decisions. The anxiety Sandeep feels is an example of an __________ emotion. A. incidental B. integral C. immediate D. expected
incidental
Making probable conclusions based on evidence involves _________________ reasoning. syllogistic deductive connective inductive
inductive
In the Tower of Hanoi problem, the _________________ state involves having three discs stacked on the left peg, with the middle and right pegs empty. initial goal intermediate transitory
initial
In the two-string problem, tying the pliers to one of the strings best represents a(n) _________________ state. goal intermediate functional fixedness initial
intermediate
Evidence that language is a social process that must be learned comes from the fact that when deaf children find themselves in an environment where there are no people who speak or use sign language, they? Lose the ability to communicate in any way. Start speaking out loud even though they cannot hear themselves. Invent a sign language themselves. Demonstrate compensatory regeneration of lost auditory neural pathways.
invent a sign language themselves.
The validity of a syllogism depends on the truth of its premises. B. its form. C. both the truth of its premises and the truth of its conclusion. D. the truth of its conclusion
its form
Gick and Holyoak proposed that analogical problem solving involves the following three steps: well-defining, insighting, and means-end analysis. surfacing, structuring, and generalizing. noticing, mapping, and applying. restructuring, searching, and simulating.
noticing, mapping, and applying.
Functional fixedness would be LOWEST for a(n): novel object. frequently used object. familiar object. object with a specific function.
novel object.
Utility refers to? the validity of a syllogism. how useful a reasoning process is. degree of risk aversion one has. outcomes that achieve a person's goals.
outcomes that achieve a person's goals.
In the information-processing approach to problem solving, an operator is most closely associated with ________. analysis transfer progress insight
progress
Gestalt psychologists consider problem solving as a process involving? multiple goal states. continuity and form. reorganization or restructuring. sensory operators.
reorganization or restructuring.
Syntax is the? way people pronounce words in conversational speech. rules for combining words into sentences. meanings of words. mental grouping of words in a sentence into phrases.
rules for combining words into sentences.
Imagine that your friend James has just taken up the habit of smoking cigars because he thinks it makes him look cool. You are concerned about the detrimental effects of smoking on his health, and you raise that concern to him. James gets a bit annoyed with your criticism and says, "My grandfather smoked cigars, and he lived to be 100!" You might point out that a major problem with his argument involves A. framing. B. none of these C. the conjunction rule. D. sample size.
sample size.
Newell and Simon were early pioneers in designing computer programs that could solve problems. Their research program was based on the idea that problem solving is a process that involves parity. search. insight. algorithms.
search
According to the concept of ________, when we read a sentence like, "Jorge grabbed his coat from his bedroom and his backpack from the living room, walked downstairs, and called his friend Gerry," we create a simulation of Jorge's apartment and keep track of his location as he moves throughout the apartment. global connections speech continuity situation models causal inference
situation models
The concept of language can best be thought of as a ________. cognition dialogue system process
system
Cecile has dreamed of owning her own home for years, and she can finally afford a small cottage in an older neighborhood. She notices that she feels more positive about her home when she takes a route on her drive home that goes past the abandoned shacks, but she feels more negative when she takes a route that goes past the mansions with large lawns. Cecile's emotions are influenced by: the framing effect the principle of diversity the law of large numbers confirmation bias
the framing effect.
Failing to consider the law of large numbers most likely results in errors concerning confirmation bias. the representativeness heuristic. the falsification principle. utility.
the representativeness heuristic.
Insight refers to: prior learning facilitating problem solving. the tendency to respond in a certain manner, based on past experience. prior learning hindering problem solving. the sudden realization of a problem's solution.
the sudden realization of a problem's solution.
Insight refers to? prior learning hindering problem solving. the tendency to respond in a certain manner, based on past experience. prior learning facilitating problem solving. the sudden realization of a problem's solution
the sudden realization of a problem's solution.
When the process of analogical problem solving was applied to the fortress and radiation problems, which of the following represented the mapping step of this process? Generalizing from groups of soldiers to using many rays to solve the problem Connecting the fortress with the tumor Likening the dangerous mines to the dangerous tumor Developing schemas for each individual problem
Connecting the fortress with the tumor
Which term best reflects the process of reading and understanding sentences in a story? Conscious Rigid Sequential Dynamic
Dynamic
Which of the following statements would most likely invoke the operation of a permission schema? A. All A are B. All B are C. Therefore, all A are C. B. If I get an A on my cognitive psychology exam, I can go out with my friends on Saturday night. C. No artists can be beekeepers, but some of the beekeepers must be chemists. D. I forgot to charge my cell phone last night; therefore, I missed an important call today.
If I get an A on my cognitive psychology exam, I can go out with my friends on Saturday night.
Dictionaries commonly list the multiple definitions of a particular word in a numbered list, with the first definition as #1, the next definition as #2, and so on. Which concept does this reflect? Object-relative construction Meaning dominance Lexical priming Positional inference
Meaning dominance
Tuan bought a new leather jacket after saving for many months for the luxury purchase. On the first day he went out wearing the new garment, he found a $50 bill on the sidewalk outside of his office. He now refers to the jacket as his "lucky jacket" and believes that it has some magical power to give him good fortune. Tuan's belief in the jacket's cosmic ability is an example of an illusory correlation. the falsification principle the availability heuristic selective attention
an illusory correlation.
The ability to shift experience from one problem-solving situation to a similar problem is known as? insight. analogical encoding. in vivo problem solving. analogical transfer.
analogical transfer.
The typical purpose of subgoals is to: avoid the need to perform means-end analysis. solve insight problems. bring the problem solver closer and closer to the goal state. move the solver directly from the initial state to the goal state.
bring the problem solver closer and closer to the goal state.
Given its definition, expected utility theory is most applicable to deciding whether to? go out for junior varsity hockey or junior varsity basketball. take astronomy or geology as a physical science elective course. buy first-class or coach tickets for a spring break trip. break up or stay involved with a current girlfriend.
buy first-class or coach tickets for a spring break trip.
If a motorcycle cop believes that young female drivers speed more than other drivers, he will likely notice young female drivers speeding in the fast lane but fail to notice young male or older drivers doing the same. In this case, the police officer's judgments are skewed by the operation of the: confirmation bias permission schema typicality principle falsification principle
confirmation bias
Ling is sure that if her boyfriend proposes, she will feel elation. This is an example of an: integral immediate emotion incidental immediate emotion expected emotion immediate emotion
expected emotion.
Bonnie has ordered her monthly supply of medicines through the mail for the past five years. Except for one order, all orders have arrived within two business days. Bonnie placed an order yesterday, and she expects to receive her order tomorrow. Bonnie is using A. the similarity-coverage model. B. the conjunction rule. C. an omission bias. D. inductive reasoning.
inductive reasoning.
The analogical paradox refers to problem-solving differences between experts and novices. well- and ill-defined problems. experimental groups and control groups. laboratory and real-world settings.
laboratory and real-world settings.
Actions that take the problem from one state to another are known as: mental sets. subgoals. intermediate states .operators.
operators
The elements of the problem space include all of the following EXCEPT? intermediate states. initial state. goal state. operators.
operators
Actions that take the problem from one state to another are known as subgoals. intermediate states. operators. mental sets.
operators.
The circle problem, in which the task is to determine the length of a line inside a circle, was proposed to illustrate: how analogies can be used to solve problems. the problem space. representation and restructuring. means-end analysis.
representation and restructuring.
Coherence refers to the? Principle that we process information in isolation before we link it to its context. Representation of the text in a reader's mind so that information in one part of the text is related to information in another part of the text. Mental process by which readers create information during reading that is not explicitly stated in the text. Mental process whereby ambiguity is resolved online during sentence reading.
representation of the text in a reader's mind so that information in one part of the text is related to information in another part of the text.
The water-jug problem demonstrates that one consequence of having a procedure that does provide a solution to a problem is that, if well-learned, it may prevent us from understanding why the procedure works successfully. discriminating between well- and ill-defined problems. being able to solve other problems at all. seeing more efficient solutions to the problem
seeing more efficient solutions to the problem.
Considering the fortress and the radiation problems together, the fortress problem represents the _________________ problem. Sources prototype exemplar target
source
Many people receive unsolicited calls from telemarketers or unwanted "junk" mailers advertising offers for products such as cable or Internet services or cellular phone companies. Most people do not consider these offers and do not make a change to the plans or services that they receive because they do not want to make a decision that requires serious consideration or thought. This is an example of the _________________ bias. self-serving dual systems actor-observer status quo
status quo
When two people engage in a conversation, if one person produces a specific grammatical construction in his or her speech and then the other person does the same, this phenomenon is referred to as? syntactic priming. garden pathing. phonemic restoration. anaphoric inferencing.
syntactic priming.
Illustrative of functional fixedness, people are more likely to solve the candle problem if pliers are also presented. fewer tacks are provided. the candle is already lit. the box is empty.
the box is empty.
Lexical ambiguity studies show that people access ambiguous words based on? The word that comes immediately before and the word that comes immediately after the ambiguous word in the sentence. a bottom-up progression of meaning comprehension. The identification of a single meaning for that word. the meaning dominance of each definition of the word
the meaning dominance of each definition of the word.
The conjunction rule states that: A. the probability of two events co-occurring is equal to or less than the probability of either event occurring alone. B. the probability of two events co-occurring is the sum of the probabilities of each event occurring. C. people make decisions based upon possible benefits when the choices are framed positively and based upon possible costs when the choices are framed negatively. D. people make decisions based upon both the costs and benefits of the choices.
the probability of two events co-occurring is equal to or less than the probability of either event occurring alone.
The best description of the purpose of think-aloud protocols is that they are used to determine how a person's expertise increases his or her likelihood of solving a problem, relative to a beginner. what information a person is attending to while solving a problem. how to develop computer programs that best mimic human problem solving. which people can be considered more creative in ability to solve problems.
what information a person is attending to while solving a problem.
The radiation problem was used in your text to illustrate the role of _________________ in problem solving. means-end analysis mental set analogy functional fixedness
analogy
One of Chomsky's most persuasive arguments for refuting Skinner's theory of language acquisition was his observation that children are rewarded for using correct language. learn to follow complex language rules, even though they are not aware of doing so. produce sentences they have never heard.\ show similar language development across cultures.
produce sentences they have never heard.
Experts _____ than novices? are more likely to be open to new ways of looking at problems take a more effective approach to organizing the solution to a problem are better at reasoning in general
take a more effective approach to organizing the solution to a problem
In analogical problem solving, the _________________ problem is the problem that an individual is trying to solve, and the _________________ problem, which has been solved in the past, is used as a guide for reaching that solution. prototype; target source; target target; source exemplar; source
target; source
The analogy that makes the solution to the mutilated checkerboard problem obvious is the _________________ problem? radiation Russian marriage light bulb Tower of Hanoi
Russian marriage
A syllogism is valid if: there is no more than one exception to the conclusion. there is evidence to support the two premises. the conclusion follows logically from the two premises. the two premises and the conclusion are true.
the conclusion follows logically from the two premises.