EXE385 - EXAM #3

psychosocial factors: self-efficacy

'situation- specific form of self-confidence' person can perform a desired behavior leading to anticipated outcomes (Bandura, 1997) bandura's Social Cognitive Theory - whether a person will attempt a task - how persistent person will be despite challenges - final outcome (success or failure to follow an exercise program) can reverse common barriers to exercise because it is a positive mediator for physical activity

nerv sys

100 billion neurons formed in 1st 4 weeks of pregnancy - neurons being firing and forming synapses @ birth, brain is 25% of adult weight; by 5 yrs it is 90% practicing motor patterns devs new synapses NS disorders due to lack of O2 during prenatal dev

self-regulation

"A complex process in which athletes, patients, or exercisers engage in voluntary goal-directed behaviors by initiating, monitoring, sustaining and achieving certain thoughts, feelings, and behaviors." self regulation is not limited to athletic adults, also important for inactive adult trying to adhere to exercise program optimistic people with high self esteem are more likely to continue self regulatory behavior than pessimistic people.

psychosocial factors: locus of control

'extent to which people believe they have control over their own fate' - people who believe they have some sort of control over health are more likely to follow an exercise program internal locus of control - believe that their actions affect the environment external locus of control - believe that their actions do not affect the environment - events happen by chance - if person does not believe exercise will change the way they look, why would they do it?

body comp: phys aging

- body weight inc until 60 and then dec - intra-abdominal fat accumulation begins in 20s and inc through 60s - abdominal obesity inc CVD risk - dec test/est levels - dec hunger

nerv sys: phys aging

- neural plasticity dec w/ aging - neurofibrillary tangles - more mutations w/ age --> neuronal death (Alzheimer's) - senile/amyloid plaques: proteins formed inappropriately 1. inc associated w/ alzheimers cognitive changes - takes more time to learn motor skills w/ aging - age-associated memory loss occurs in short and long term mem - can fight loss of cog func w/ phys activity and mental activities

amount of practice

-Early improvement in skill acquisition is large -Becomes smaller with more practice -Power Law of Practice: "all things being equal, more learning will occur with more practice" (Schmidt and Lee, 2011) -Practice is a huge contributor to expert performance -Plateaus in performance may occur -Improved performance may be apparent years after practice -Skill acquisition in enhanced when learners control the practice -Cigar EX -Deliberate practice: "activities designed to improve performance that require much effort and are not necessarily enjoyable" -This serves to refocus the learner's attention toward the importance of practice as opposed to genetics/natural talent -Motivation is a factor -Skiing EX

contextual interference effect

●Term introduced by Batting in 1979 ●Definition: "an unexpected research finding on the cognitive task of learning word lists" ●Practice ○The contextual interference effect explains how practice performing will negatively impacted when try to learn multiple skills ○Positive impact occurs when learning in practice because it helps with retention and transfer ●Types of Practice ○Blocked: rehearsal of one skill repeated over a fixed block of time before moving on ○Random: several skills are mixed in random order ○Serial: various skills are practiced during a fixed time ●First study done by Shea and Morgan in 1979

social learning theory (bandura)

●Theory of learning process and social behavior which proposes that learning is fully due to modeling, imitating, observing, emotional reactions, and external stimulus events. ○Mediating processes occur between stimuli and responses ○Behavior is learned from the environment through the process of observational learning Four mediational processes: 1.Attention: pay attention to behavior and its consequences and form mental representation of the behavior 2.Retention: how well the behavior is remembered 3.Reproduction: ability to perform the behavior that the model demonstrated 4.Motivation: the will to perform the behavior

mental prac and imagery

●Thinking about aspects of skill can have benefits ●Mental practice ○Cognitive rehearsal of a physical skill without movements ○Aids skill acquisition ○Rehearsing procedural or symbolic aspects of skill ○Also related to response selection (technique of swimming stroke, decision making strategy) ○Recommended in combination with physical practice ■Hird et al., 1991; Koln et al., 1992→ those with ½ the physical practice but also mental practice have similar effectiveness to fully physical practice group ●Imagery ○Form of mental practice involving visual or kinesthetic representation of performance ○Performance preparation role ○ex divers view themselves rotating, twisting, opening cognitive images: - specific: performing golf shot - general: strategy to overcome full-court press motivational images: - specific: winning a gold medal - general: confidence/focus ●Magill and Anderson (2013)→ 3 hypotheses as to why it's effective ○Neuromuscular ■Links between mental practice of action and EMG of those muscles ■Mental practice may activate neuromotor pathway involved in learning ○Brain activity ■Scans indicate similar motor pathways activated during imagining action and actually performing the action ○Cognitive ■High degree of cognitive activity during motor learning in first stage of motor learning ■Practice tied to planning rather than execution of mvmts

visual selective attention

●Visual cues ○Similar to environmental cues ○Direct visual attention to environment information ○Important visual cues available in central vision and peripheral vision ○Experienced athletes pick up on visual cues better than less experienced athletes ■Experienced athletes look for cues before the action occurs ○Older children pick up on visual cues better than younger children ○Visual cues are activity specific(Body position before kick in martial arts) ○Coaches/instructors should direct learners attention to cues and provide enough practice in using/looking for cues

envir cues

●Visually searching for cues necessary for performance(chapter 11) ●Attention may be broad or narrow, external or internal ○External focus provides greater ■Accuracy ■Consistency ■And efficiency in learning ○Research shows external focus produces better results during soccer throwing & Target throwing ○Research shows external focus is superior with children with ADHD

ecological perspectives

●When a community is viewed in terms of the interrelations among people, roles, organizations, local events, resources, and problems (APA, 2022). ○Accounts for complex reciprocal interactions of individuals and their environment ○Intervention should contribute to the development of the entire community ○Behavior is influenced by many factors at multiple levels of society -Levels: -Cultural -Family -Societal -Peer -Institutional -Political

CV sys: phys aging

HR and BP - HR 1. no appreciable changes in resting HR 2. submaximal exercise HR is lower in older v.s. younger adults 3. red max HR - BP/hypertension 1. inc dramatically w/ age 2. men typically have inc BP than women until 60 y/o 3. diet (salty foods inc BP)/stress VO2 max - dec w/ age, greater reduction in those who are active - lactate threshold 1. blood lactate levels inc 2. dec w/ age --> red. exercise performance - exercise economy 1. aging might not influence exercise economy much

providing effective feedback

Important factors: frequency, timing, and scheduling of feedback Corrective or Error-Based Feedback - Decision on whether to provide feedback on the correct aspects or instructional cues on the errors - Novices: error feedback more effective (guides to correct movement) - Learners who lack motivation: benefit more from hearing correct aspects (encourages them to continue) - Appropriate feedback depends on level of difficulty of skill - Optimal to provide feedback on both errors and correct components

effects of goal setting

Improved long-term performance & learning Do your best or Give it 100 percent in industrial settings applied by Boyce ●Rifle Shooting task ●3 groups: 1 told to give best effort, 1 told to set specific individual goals, 1 given individual goals ●Best effort group initially had best performance ●Goal setting groups had better long term performance and retention of skill

cognitive func

●Given the many age-related structural changes in the brain, cognition is only minimally affected ●Two cognitive functions that are most affected by aging: ○Attention ○Memory

long term mem

●Subdivided into: ○Declarative Memory: the memories that are consciously available through recollection or recall ■Episodic memory: memories that are associated with a time, such as high school graduation. ■Semantic memory: general knowledge and memories that are not associated with time, such as knowing school colors, or the function of scissors. ○Procedural Memory: the memories about how to perform tasks such as tying shoes, starting a car, or shooting a layup ●Recall and recognition are both long-term memory processes, but only one is affected by age ○Recall: retrieving long term memories with very few cues, which requires much conscious effort ○Recognition: both conscious and unconscious processes and it is considered easier than recall because it provides environmental support. ●Strategies to improve long-term memory ○Group it: key to memorizing large amounts of information is to group item ○Repeat, repeat, repeat: for information to be moved from short-term to long-term memory is must be rehearsed. ○Make a jingle: make a tune of the information or associate with familiar tune. Concentrate: if you are not focused, you are not going to remember

short term mem

●Subdivided into: ○Primary memory ■Ex: recalling a list of words ○Working memory ■Ex: organizing the list of words alphabetically ■Declines with age because there is an increased effort to remember and manipulate information

implicit/explicit learning

-Explicit Learning- Conscious awareness of such factors as goal attainment and developing the relationship between the learner and the task. The aim is to help learners become explicitly aware of some aspects of the skill (the goal of this skill is to...) -Implicit Learning: Not conscious, deals with issues such as force production. An example would be a child learning to ride a bike. Initially, they may not be able to contract and relax the appropriate muscle groups at the correct time and order, but slowly over time, they learn, not from one instance of teaching. -A detrimental effect of verbal information was shown in a study by Green and Flowers, in which subjects had to manipulate a joystick to catch a ball that moved across a monitor. The explicit group received information about expected pathways, while the implicit group received nothing. -Instructors should use verbal learning carefully when the task is more complex -Explicit is Coach-focused, implicit is athlete-focused

the gold standard vs variability

-Instructors of physical skills sometimes teach with a template in mind ○To tech the newest learner how the best does it However, motor learning theories challenge this gold standard thinking ●Instructors may demonstrate a skill but should anticipate patterns that emerge naturally ○Every person has their own twist on their "perfect form" that feels natural to them and may cause them to perform even better ●However, even though instructors should allow skills to emerge they should also know when to be direct with the athlete to ensure safety Ex: wrestling, weight lifting ●Variability in practice is also viewed positively by ecological and dynamic systems thinkers because it mirrors the actual situations in games and life ○ Since the a game and in real life nothing can be predicted having an inconsistent practice may be viewed as good idea ○Not only in sports this a good idea but also for P.T & O.T patients when learning how to walk. Once they leave the clinic the earth is not just soft carpet or solid ground. ●Davids, Button, and Bennett (2008) summarized these thoughts about variability when they wrote: "Practitioners' traditional emphasis on reducing errors during skill practice by encouraging consistency in motor patterns should be revised to acknowledge the valuable goal of variability in moment-to-moment control as well as long-term learning" ●According to Davids and colleagues, less time should be devoted to teacher-directed promotion of identical motor patterns, and more time should be devoted to problem solving, discovery learning, and self-regulation. ●These authors proposed the term nonlinear as the foundation of instruction based on dynamic systems ○—"nonlinear" because of findings that learning is often characterized by rather sudden changes in performance (e.g., to new and more mature motor patterns) rather than by linear increments, as traditionally proposed by most other learning theorists. ●nonlinear practitioners recognize that a learner's solution to a movement challenge is a unique coordination pattern resulting from the self-organization of numerous body systems ●Variability among people is natural, and therapists, teachers, and coaches should design practices with this in mind. ○A professional may recommend a change in movement but this is quite different from expecting everyone to perform skills in identical ways. ●Davids and colleagues (2008) also proposed that teachers and coaches be called hands-off practitioners to reflect a new role consistent with the dynamic systems approach ○They said Traditional ways provide too much instruction and feedback, and overly manage the practice environment. ○New approach will provide optimal results

summary: practice

-Physical practice is the most important factor in motor skill acquisition -Being able to perform a skill outside of a strict environment -Amount of practice depends on learner's goals -More practice is required for higher goals (EX. walking to the store v.s. Becoming a Paralympian) -Moderating factors of practices: -Age -Level of skill -Type of task/skill -Motivation/attention -Personality

erikson's psychosocial dev theory: adulthood stages

1. intimacy v.s. isolation 2. generativity v.s. stagnation 3. integrity v.s. despair ●Intimacy vs. Isolation ○20 to 40 years old ○Erikson believed that in young adulthood you form personal relationships ■Can be through recreational, sporting and other experiences ○Ex. ■A person who cannot cooperatie in a team would feel isolation ■A person who can develop those relationships will feel more intimacy ●Generativity vs. Stagnation ○40-65 years old ○This stage the perspective switches to career and family ■Less focus on own problems and more focused on how they can help future generations ○Ex. ■If the adults perspective switches to others during this stage they feel more fulfilled ■If adults perspective is still more self-absorbed or shallow they will experience difficulties in changing capabilities through the rest of their adulthood ●Integrity vs. Despair ○65+ years ○This stage is used for self-reflection on one's life ■A person may feel fulfillment or regret ○Ex. ■The adults who reflect with a sense of accomplishment and are satisfied feel more integrity ●Often more wise and have an independent lifestyle ■The adults who reflect and feel they are not satisfied often feel for despair

self-regulation strategies

1.Self monitoring; systematic observation of oneself → Purpose: is to become more aware of one's behavior → Can improve performance, decrease anxiety and boost confidence → Methods: recording behaviors or performances in a journal → Positive self monitoring is proven to be more effective than negative ●Example: putting a dollar in a jar every time you make a mistake vs. journaling and reflecting every time you have a setback 2.Goal setting: → Must be specific and measurable goals that can be met in predetermined time → Focus the learners attention → Example: I will weight at least lift twice a week for two months 3. Self talk: → Positive self talk can improve confidence, motivation, correct bad habits and focus attention. → Negative self talk can prevent improvement and productivity → Change negative thoughts to positive ●Example: Instead of saying "you are so out of shape you can't even run a mile." Say: "you are doing your best and are one step closer to being able to run a mile." 4. Imagery: → The visualization or cognitive rehearsal of a movement → Directs attention to the movement, promotes self monitoring and assists with positive reinforcement → Can be internal (through your eyes) or external (watching yourself)

do children require more or less feedback?

10 year olds; comparing their frequency of feedback with learning - Previously, kids that requested the feedback learned more effectively - When comparing two groups, one with higher KR and one lower KR, concluded that kids need more feedback - 1. Kids have lower movement experience, more difficult - 2. Kids have shorter attention spans, process less - Kids may benefit from learner regulated feedback but pace is slow - Method is recommended if instructor is able to encourage more feedback - Positive feedback is good is it targets their preformance

verbal instruction

A frequent and expected pre practice element that is often used in conjunction with demonstrations When Instructions are spoken, they are assumed to facilitate learning and establish a safe practice setting. However, it is recommended that only one or two instructions are conveyed because learners have to remember the instruction and then perform the skill, especially with children (Magill 2017). Why does Verbal Instruction provide a learner? ●Provides an initial orientation to a new skill ●An overall idea of image to a movement ●A means of checking one's own errors ●Information on where or how to move in a game ●Cues that are most important (i.e, the seams on a baseball) ●The results performers should try to achieve

learner regulated feedback

Allows student to take control - Decides when they want the extrinsic feedback - Results in more learning than participants who received feedback at the instructor's discretion - BENEFITS - More active role - Opportunity to process the movement and feedback - Increased motivation - FREQUENCY OF FEEDBACK - Skill level, age - Complexity and duration - Have to be somewhat proficient for feedback to be less

sandwich approach

By Dischma & Oxendine, 2001 - Provides feedback on both errors and correct opponents - Bread = praise, meat = constructive criticism - praise, suggested improvements, motivational information that discusses benefits of correcting the error

feedback schedules

Faded Feedback (Winstein and Schmidt - 1990) - Amount of feedback based on skill level of learner - Beginners receive high-frequency feedback - As learners improve, relative frequency of KR (knowledge of results) should be progressively reduced - Shouldn't be reduced until learner has reached a certain level of proficiency Summary Feedback - Feedback following a set number of performance attempts in which the instructor summarizes each attempt (whole routine completed, coach provides feedback on each skill in routine) - Watch video of themselves and receive feedback Average Feedback - Practitioner discusses only the average performance errors or the essence of the performances with the learner - Average feedback provides less, more focused feedback than summary - More time efficient for feedback givers - Learners become less overwhelmed

feedback frequency and precision

Feedback Frequency - Guidance hypothesis: asserts that novices benefit from high feedback frequencies initially (even as much as feedback on every attempt), then, as they improve, the frequency of feedback should be gradually reduced - Learners can become overly dependent on feedback, which can be detrimental - Want learners to reflect and evaluate their own movements as well as hear extrinsic feedback Feedback Precision - Less precise for beginners -> more general instructions while they are trying to understand the broad movement pattern - As focus shifts to refining the task, more precise feedback is more meaningful - Bandwidth feedback: feedback given only when performance is outside a particular range - Don't receive feedback if movement is satisfactory -> positive reinforcement - With practice, learners perform more and more in the satisfactory range, so they receive less feedback - Positive feedback when within the bandwidth - Have to choose appropriate bandwidth depending on the person and task

video feedback

Helps learners see their deficiencies in their performance of a task - Both novice and skilled performers may benefit - Allows instructors to better evaluate movement patterns - Many factors come into play on using video feedback - What is the time frame that the video is presented to the learner(s)? - What is the skill level of the learner? - Was there any commentary feedback from an instructor, colleague, etc? Attention-Directed Cues - Video feedback without orientating the learner's attention to a specific aspect is ineffective - Too much information for the learners to focus on the target aspects - Learners who are somewhat skilled in the performance of a task may need little to no cue(s) Attention-Focusing Cues - Similar to Attention-Directed cues - Directs learner's attention to more specific aspects of a movement pattern - Includes suggestions - Overall, provides the greatest benefit

func of extrinsic feedback

INFO: helps learners ID mvmt patterns and make adjustments to errors types of info feedback: - knowledge of results (KR) - intrinsic feedback - descriptive feedback - prescriptive feedback Ex: High jump athlete ○ Feel of the foot making contact with the ground, feel of the body moving up and around the bar, the outcome of the jump ○ Receive info from coach/teammate regarding form MOTIVATION: receive feedback to signal progress Little improvement or decrease in performance can lead to frustration ○ Frustrated learners are likely to decrease effort or quit ● Provide feedback on correct aspects rather on errors to reduce frustration and increase motivation POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT: Increase likelihood that successful attempts will occur ● Should be provided immediately after a successful attempt ● Verbal ○ Compliments/praise to motivate learner ○ Ex: "Great job on the back swing" or "You're getting there!" ● Nonverbal ○ Gestures: Thumbs up, smile, or pat on the back ● Should be used when deserved to form association ● Any kind of praise can motivate learners who experience little success For extrinsic feedback to be positively reinforcing, the learner must perceive it as a reward (Rose & Christina, 2006) ● Instructors/coaches should explain their thought process of feedback so athletes understand they are being rewarded ● Ex: Coach increasing intensity/duration of workout ○ Coach believes the athlete is close to making a breakthrough ○ Athlete may perceive added workout as punishment instead of positive reinforcement NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT: Unpleasant feelings that the learner wants to avoid ● Examples ○ Embarrassment over a poor performance (missed shot, poor throw) ● Can be used to eliminate unwanted behaviors ● Ex: Baseball player has a downward swing path ○ Put a second tee next to the first tee ○ Making contact with the second tee will signal a downward swing path ○ Conditions the batter to swing slightly upwards (correct movement) ○ Batter will want to avoid making contact with the second tee (negative reinforcer)

Exam Question:

Identify attributes of the early adolescence stage in Harter's model Answers: Self-competence expands, close/romantic relationships grow, they have multiple personalities between different domains, inconsistencies between personalities is not detected, very sensitive to outside opinions and standards of others. Q: What is the concept concerning the decline in physical activity for young individuals who lose enjoyment in fitness-related activities? A: Negative Spiral of Disengagement Q: What are common terms for self-evaluation? A: Self-Esteem and Self-Worth

practice specificity

●Specificity refers to the idea that experiences in practice should mimic movement and environmental factors of the specific skill ○Practice should resemble a game or competition ●Sensory and motor specificity: "performance is optimal when practice conditions match with transfer conditions" ○Consecutive practice allows people to practice the skill over and over and become more confident in movement patterns ○Target context: targets skills being practicing in a race, game, or competition like conditions ■Environmental, mental, game type situations

extrinsic feedback timing

Misconception that immediate feedback would be most beneficial - Links performance with outcome or quality - Prevents learners from reflecting on the movement - Eliminates active processing and promotes passive learning - Reliant on the feedback rather than building problem solving skills - The time between one attempt to the next is interresponse interval - Feedback delay interval: time between first and provision of feedback - Postfeedback delay interval: time between the provision of feedback and second attempt

types of extrinsic feedback pt 2

Nonverbal Feedback - Visual Feedback ● Can be very beneficial during the learning process ● Kinematic feedback - provides information on observable aspects of movement ○ Ex: pictures, illustrations, and videos ○ Allows people to understand their movement patterns and what they need to adjust ● Kinetic feedback - provides information on underlying processes of movement, such as force ○ Graphs showing force-time curves can help people understand and learn the appropriate timing and amount of force required for certain movements Nonverbal Feedback - Video Feedback ● Great tool to show learners what mistakes they are making ● Most useful when presented over an extended period of time to give more opportunity to monitor and fix movements (at least 5 weeks to show improved performance) ● Dangerous if not presented with specific feedback because there is so much information - focus on one aspect of movement at a time ● Need to know the aspects of the movement pattern to be looking for and how to interpret the information

self regulation: kirschenbaum's 5 stage model of self-reg

Stage 1: Problem identification → Must decide if the change is possible and worth the effort & take responsibility for solving the problem → Examples: "I need to gain muscular strength" Stage 2: Commitment; → Must be willing to make the sacrifice necessary to persevere through the process → Examples: Setting time aside to go to workout, purchasing at home weights/bands Stage 3: Execution; → Active stage of behavioral change; must develop self expectations for success through goal setting and continually self evaluating/ self monitoring their performance with respect to these goals. Should also plan ways to reinforce continued improvement. → Example: Rewarding yourself with a new workout outfit when you get a personal record -Positive > negative reinforcement Stage 4: Environmental management; → Prepare strategies to deal with potential environmental or social barriers to attain their goals. → Example: Indoor vs outdoor gym, group workout classes may keep you accountable more than a workout buddy Stage 5: Generalization: → People focus on sustaining their efforts for long periods of time → May change some goals → Example: creating a generalized workout program (push, pull, legs, cardio etc)

postfeedback delay interval

Time between the presentation of extrinsic feedback and subsequent performance - More focusing on evaluating the feedback than on their own intrinsic feedback - Time is an essential part to process the information provided through extrinsic feedback and plan next attempt - Length of time depends on the age of learner; younger = more time - Give more time to develop the error detection and correction mechanism - Older people are negatively affected by longer postfeedback delay intervals - Reduced attention and working memory capabilities - Instructors could ask how they are going to execute the next attempt - Allows learners to process the information and instructors can see how well they understand their performance errors and effectiveness of feed back

feedback delay interval

The time between the completion of an attempt and the presentation of feedback - Learner needs enough time to focus on proprioceptive, auditory, and visual feedback from the attempt - If the time is too long they will forget because of their short attention span - If the time is too short then they will not have the time to think about the errors and corrections - A couple seconds should be enough for learners but instructor could ask self reflection questions - As learners develop better self evaluations their performance will improve as well - will slowly become less reliant.

instructional factors

There are a number of instructional factors to consider when structuring the learning environment. This section addresses motivation; play, learning, and competitive environments; and decision making and tactical learning Motivation: It's important to instructional factors. The learning environment must be structured with motivation in mind. Motivation influences initiation and persistence. Self-motivation is also an important dimension in the forethought phase of self-regulation practitioners: Competence motivation theory: individuals' motivation to participate, persist, and work hard in any particular achievement context. Self-determination theory: People are able to become self-determined when their needs for competence, connection, and autonomy are fulfilled. Self-efficacy theory: Determine how well one can execute a plan of action in prospective situations (a person's belief in their ability to succeed in a particular situation.) Achievement goal theory: When performing achievement-related tasks, individuals can fluctuate in their state of involvement directed toward task or ego goals. teachers/coaches/therapists: Self-determination theory: People are able to become self-determined when their needs for competence, connection, and autonomy are fulfilled. When the learner is permitted to control aspects of practice, feelings of autonomy and competence are likely to increase Use rewards wisely: Rewards decrease intrinsic motivation if they are presented for participating or completing an activity or for reaching a certain level of performance. They undermine autonomy. If the rewards are unexpected and not related to achievement, they do not decrease intrinsic motivation. (Especially for children) Use competition wisely: Learners should view competition as one way to extend their skills recognizing that competitors who try their best against them will make them better players. (Too much competition in a program and excessive importance placed on winning may be viewed as controlling and therefore reduce intrinsic motivation in many participants.) Provide positive feedback: Positive feedback promotes learning, intrinsic motivation, and self-confidence with the given task, particularly with more accurate versus less accurate trials Provide choice: Choice facilitates intrinsic motivation(e.g., the size, color, or texture of a ball) Provide a rationale for activities: Providing reasons for some activities ( e.g., Good for my health) Promote achievement: Creating the positive affective environment discussed earlier, manipulating environmental and task constraints, and encouraging learners to be actively involved in the discovery learning process. (Promote achievement ≠ Avoid failure We learn through experience) Promote a mastery climate: Participants are encouraged to improve their skills, and success is judged by a positive change in performance, not in comparison to others. Promote goal setting: Goal setting is consistent with a mastery climate in which personal improvement is emphasized Promote social interactions: The desire to be with friends and make new friends is a motive many children mentioned for participating in sport

types of goals

outcome goals: Emphasize results of a performance through comparison, provides direction Ex) Win state championship in football performance goals: Focus on improvement in performance relative to self Ex) Get mile time down to 6 minutes process goals: Emphasize specific skill aspects like execution or strategies Ex) Maintain posture during weightlifting Problem with outcome goals: outcomes are often out of your control, like competitor having an really lucky performance. Has nothing to do with you

endocrine sys

pituitary and thyroid hormones are critical for skeletal growth testicles, ovaries, adrenals rel hormones responsible for growth spurts

memory for mvmts

assisted by... - visual imagery: images stim by mem - verbal labels: words used to describe a part of a skill to improve mem - rehearsal - intention to remember - subjective organization: the arrangement of info into memorable parts influenced by... - meaningfulness: the degree to which a new mvmt relates to prev mvmts or knowledge - meaningfulness can be assited by visual imagery (preferable) and verbal labels 1. EX a backswing in golf effective ways to remember/learn mvmts: - using verbal labels and images 1. they reduce the complexity of verbal instructions needed to describe the mvmt 2. make an abstract mvmt more concrete 3. focus on the intended outcome of the mvmts rather than the mvmts themselves 4. helps in mvmt planning by using memories of prev. learned mvmts - rehearsing/practicing - using intention to remember 1. EX Coach says "remember this play we will be running it in the game this week" 2. knowing that a test of memory will happen later often promotes the use of personal intentional memory strategies - subjective org 1. breaking down mvmts into smaller parts 2. EX practicing a gymnastics routine a few steps at a time, then throwing it all together into a full performance

phys func and aging

athletes lose most func w/ aging - but they start w/ much greater func - goes hand-in-hand w/ VO2 max (dec w/ age)

adipose sys

body fat can be up to 30% of body weight during the 1st year of life, then declines after adolescence girls/women have higher body fat % but about 70% of fat-free mass of boys/men

skeletal sys: phys aging

bone health determined by peak bone mass and age-related rate of bone loss improve bones: - resistance exercise - phys stress/load EX walking/running osteoporosis - low bone mass and structural bone quality - modifiable risk factors 1. lifestyle 2. medications 3. alcohol intake 4. Ca/vit D intake 5. anorexia 6. sex hormones 7. cig smoking - nonmodifiable risk factors 1. sex 2. age 3. ethnicity 4. family hist 5. body size/stature

skeletal sys

bone is a living and growing tissue - entire skeleton is replaced every ten years bone diseases can impact mvmt and performance - osgood-schlatter (inflamed tendon on knee) - legg-calve-perthes (blood flow --> femer cut off)

erikson's psychosocial development theory

childhood and adolescent stages: - erikson studied childhood psychoanalyst - believed children are active explorers of their world rather than simply passive reactors to biological urges - adopted life span perspective in his work - 8 life stages - psychosocial crisis or conflict had to be resolved to move to next stage - social and emotional development as well as self-esteem

endocrine sys: phys aging

dec in... - thyroid func - gonadal hormone levels - neural and hormonal control sys

types of knowledge

declarative knowledge: factual and conceptual, stored in memory - ex: the difference in size btwn a baseball and softball procedural knowledge: knowledge underlying action and decision making - ex: whether to pass or shoot the ball metacognitive knowledge: higher level of declarative knowledge that focuses on personal reflection and awareness of strengths/weaknesses - ex: a swimmer knows she has a strong kick, but can improve on flip turns to inc her race speed) metacognitive skills: higher level of procedural knowledge that focuses on problem-solving and self-regulation - ex: a runner sees competitors and knows they need to speed up in order to win the final stretch

attention

development of attention - develops w/ age, higher in adults... but why? - automation an d deployment of attentional skills explain changes over the ages 1. automation: motor skills can be executed with almost no attention. becomes automatic after a large amt of prac (not restricted to age or maturation) EX. skier that is 12 and 30 at the same level, the 30 year old will have more attentional strategies - 12 y/o begin going down immediately and make more last minute decisions to decide on the path to continue on - 30 y/o stop before going down, make a plan and continue on the safest path ●Attentional Capacity: Humans are limited in the amount of information they can process. We can concentrate on one thing at a time. ●Interference can be ○Structural interference: interference that occurs as a result of a physical structure ■Ex: Humans have two hands which limits the number of activities we can do at a given time with our hands. Visual limitations → can only focus on one thing at a time ○Cognitive interference: a decrease in performance as a result of exceeding one's attentional capacity due to a limitation in central capacity. ●Selective Attention: the ability to focus on selected sensory information while ignoring irrelevant information ●Perceptual Narrowing: a progressive reduction in attentional focus with an increased level of arousal (Inverted U-hypothesis)

harter's self-representation stages

development of self is a cognitive and social process - influenced by the interaction of our thinking, evaluation of ourselves, and analysis of feedback from role models there are distinctions btwn self-description and self-evaluation - "what I am" v.s. "how good i am" most research deals with self-eval - more common terms for this are self-esteem and self-worth six descriptive stages in harter's model 1. very early childhood: - phys aspects (hair color, familiar items, etc.) - unrealistically pos abt self-performance 2. early-mid childhood - cont to overestimate their abilities: remain pos because they don't compare themselves to others - don't distinguish btwn ability and effort - become aware of outside evaluation and capable of personal comparison over time 3. mid-late childhood - can differentiate btwn competence in dif domains (academic, athletic, social) - self-esteem is impacted by outside opinions - self-description is more balanced and accurate 4. early adolescence: - self-competence expands: close and/or romantic relationship competence grows - multiple "selves" (cheerful w/ friends, moody w/ parents); inconsistency is undetected - become very sensitive to outside opinion and standards 5. middle adolescence: - make finer self-discriminations and understand inconsistencies w/ dif groups - greatly concerned by outside opinion (esp peers); struggle w/ dif levels of self-worth in dif domains - struggle w/ potential conflicts and inconsistencies w/ real and ideal self-concepts 6. late adolescence: - clearer sense of direction (personal beliefs, values, standards) - better understanding of strengths, weaknesses, and potential - generally optimistic, desire independence

growth curves

distance curve: great inc, plateaus velocity curve: great deceleration, peak, deceleration

psychosocial factors: barriers to exercise

exercisers and non-exercisers report the same most common barriers to exercise - lack of time - laziness - work responsibilities older adults have more physical limitations as opposed to younger adults - 65+ non-exercisers 1. fear of falling- bad experience with exercising and lack of motivation - 65+ exercisers 1. time constraints, physical ailments, laziness socioeconomic status - higher status- time, facilities, transportation - llower status- neighborhood safety and health conditions perceived barriers - placing a higher priority on exercising breaks barriers, allows for adults to exercise more, instead of using barriers as excuse to avoid exercise a successful exercise program takes into account these barriers to exercise.

sports expertise

expert performance is "constant superior athletic performance over an extended period" experts have an excellence in the following 4 domains - physiological: anaerobic power, capacity, muscle fiber type, body size, etc. - technical: sensorimotor coordination, efficiency and effective patterns of mvmt, aesthetic. automatic mvmts - cognitive: extensive knowledge to recognize patterns in situations to adapt, recognition of ques, signal detection and fast decisions - emotional/psychological: ability to self regulate, staying motivated, confidence, mental training practice leads to expertise: - 10+ years and 10,000+ hours of practice - for sports it can be 3,000-4,000 hours - can be different for everyone based on knowledge, skill level, experience, etc. - keep in mind other factors like age. a child can be an expert compared to peers their age but not compared to an olympian

directing attention and providing guidelines

how do we direct attention? - verbal cues - envir. cues

piaget's 4 stages of intellectual development

intellectual development: the ability to understand, think, and conceptualize stage 1: sensorimotor (0-2 yrs): - natural reflexes and sensory experiences help child discover the difference btwn themselves and their environment stage 2: preoperational (2-7 yrs): - thinking becomes symbolic, but still one dimensional and egocentric (not understanding of other perspectives) stage 3: concrete operational (7-11 yrs): - thinking is logical and less egocentric, but based only on their own experiences stage 4: formal operational (11+ yrs): - logical thinking extends to the creation of ideas and hypotheses

psychosocial factors: intention to exercise

intention: main determinant of behavior, reflects motivation and willingness - attitude towards behavior a perceived social pressures about behavior - perceived behavioral control theory of planned behavior - belief that behavior will produce specific outcome - person's desire to attain the specified outcome negative relationship between age and exercise intention in older adults improving attitudes towards physical activity increases intention to exercise and improves exercise behavior

types of feedback

intrinsic feedback: - derived from sensory info 1. vision, proprioception, audition, etc - EX basketball player shooting a 3-pointer 1. force of the release (proprioception) 2. observing the trajectory of the ball (vision) 3. hearing the ball (audition) extrinsic feedback: - provided from an external source 1. Coach, instructor, friend, equipment - supplement to intrinsic feedback - not limited to athletic performance 1. clinical and educational setting - rehab setting 1. rely more on extrinsic feedback

memory and knowledge

memory and knowledge are categorized in similar ways - piaget believed that understanding, knowledge, and memory are inseparable semantic mem: - refers to gen knowledge built from life experiences and learning - includes everything from the concept of school to the name of a country north of the US procedural knowledge: - knowing how to do something - EX ride a bike memory described as 3 types of knowledge: - knowing, knowing how to know, and knowing abt knowing - knowing is our knowledge base 1. which others have called sem mem or declarative knowledge - knowing how to know refers to control processes and strategies used for deliberate learning 1. moving info or action from working mem to long term mem 2. strategies include: rehearsing info, naming, grouping info - knowing about knowing refers to metacognition 1. the knowledge of how mem funcs 2. develops after other type of knowledge

memory

memory def: - the process of taking in info from the world around us, processing it, storing it, and later recalling that info strategies: - goal-directed and mentally effortful processes that enhance mem - dev w/ age and are closely aligned to mem performance - older elementary school aged kids were better at recalling info than younger kids as they used strategies such as rehearsal, elaboration, and organization

body sys constraints

motor learning and behavior can be constrained by body sys most impactful systems on mvmt and performance 1. skeletal 2. muscular 3. CV 4. nervous 5. adipose 6. endocrine 7. sensory

muscular sys

muscle impacts mvmt muscle contributes ot weight w/ dev - 25% @ birth --> 54% adult men and 45% adult women muscle mass grows until 13years old in girls and 17years old in boys strength: - important for many motor skills - strength may be a rate limiter to walking 1. heavy babies cannot walk as soon as leaner babies - inc strength via hypertrophy flexibility: - mvmt of body segments through ROM - necessary in daily living, sports, and injury prevention - flexibility inc until 10 years in boys and 12 years in girls - women are more flexible 1. body/size comp 2. hormones 3. phys activities

development of attention

newborns: - pay more attention to patterned than non patterned stuff - stop looking at repeatedly presented stimuli 3 month olds: - the visual field expands because of retina stim, attention sustained for 5-10 secs 6 month olds: - orient and focus on most envir. stim. - attracted to caregiver 1. short lookers v.s. long lookers second decade of life --> selective attention improves Those who paid less time attending to stimuli (short lookers) had increased inhibition, memory, and cognitive flexibility -Short lookers have a higher rate of information processing (more efficient, can get the information faster) 3 categories of attention: - over exclusive (5-6 y/o): uses one piece of info and ignores the rest - overinclusive (6-11 y/o): takes every piece of info in, easily distracted - selective attention (11+): pick and choose which info to pay attention to; ignore task irrelevant stim choice v.s. simple RT - adults outperform kids

development of knowledge

order of knowledge: - declarative, procedural, metacognitive declarative: learning language, can describe and have knowledge of mvmt procedural: knowledge related to specific actions, more experience than age EX. "port de bras" for dance or "bunt" for softball metacognitive: last to develop, req piaget's formal operations and experience - more age defined, experience is necessary children are able to learn actions before having the ability to carry them out - knowledge precedes performance declarative knowledge is a part of skill, not only a byproduct of experience - if at a high place in learning (olympian,) still need basic knowledge to improve - knowledge helps in closed skill sports (not affected by environment)

psychosocial factors: motivation

set of reasons that determines behavior. exists in a continuum. - amotivation: no desire to engage in any type of physical activity - non-self determined extrinsic motivation: not a personal value. desire to please others - self determined extrinsic motivation: personally valued with favorable outcomes - intrinsic motivation: behaviors performed due to personal interest and enjoyment intrinsic and self-determined extrinsic motivation are positively correlated to higher levels of physical activity. - health and fitness, stress management and social-emotional benefits appearance becomes less of a motivator as age increases - weight-management and appearance will not motivate older adults because they no longer care - older adults will be more motivated by social benefits like playing with friends or increasing flexibility to improve quality of life

phys growth

skeletal, muscular, and nervous sys change over the lifespan impacts both performance and learning greatest rate of change is experienced during 1st year of life - 50% gain in height - 200% gain in weight - many new motor skills gained

sociocultural factors

social theories of aging: 2 theories: ■Activity Theory ●Life satisfaction in adults can remain high or increase if they maintain social interactions and a healthy lifestyle ●Activity encourages adults to remain engaged, for example if they retire they should find other activities to do ■Disengagement Theory ●Adults who are older slowly detach themselves from society. ○Done through decreasing relationships and activities ●Disengagement theory states its counterproductive for them to participate because of their physical decline ●Social Support: ○Perceived social support has a big impact on all walks of life ■This is when you anticipate help from someone in your life ■Very different form actual social support ○Socializing agents ■People who provide support socially that have an affect on their adherence to a healthy lifestyle. ■These change throughout the lifespan ●Ex. parents are the socializing agent for infants and children

development of play

solitary play: - dev begins @ 1 month - child plays by himself parallel play: - dev begins @ 2 yrs - child plays near proximity to others, seldom interacting w other kids cooperative play: - dev begins @ 4 yrs - 2+ kids work together to achieve the same goal a game: ●Is defined as having an element of competition as some semblance of rules and guidelines, but players can change the rules to suit conditions. ●As we learned there are primary and secondary rules to a game. ●They are more structured than play, but less formal than sport. ●Competition begins here... There are physical games and table games, both promote cognitive development and competitive skills to form.

erikson's psychosocial development theory stages

stage 1: basic trust v.s. mistrust (birth to 1 yr) - basic trust emerges with caring parents - some mistrust strengthens understanding of trust 1. babies learn to trust themselves/sense of being "all right" on their own - social impact of self-concept stage 2: autonomy v..s shame and doubt (1-3 yrs): - become autonomous in action but w/i social regulations - cognitive and physical dev - awareness of social and cultural expectations - "from a sense of self control w/o loss of self-esteem comes a lasting sense of good will an pride" stage 3: initiative v.s. guilt (3-6 yrs): - enjoyment of physical and mental powers = action - goal directed and imaginative behavior - consequences unknown and therefore not considered - aggression, jealousy, rivalry for attention, guilt - autonomy challenged by failure 1. learn to accept social regulations through self-control, self-punishment, and self-observation stage 4: industry v.s. inferiority (6-12 yrs): - learn to win recognition - acquire cognitive skills beyond play 1. social skills, reading, writing - cooperate w/ others to achieve shared goals - compare themselves to others 1. coaches and teachers critical for solving feelings of mediocrity and inadequacy stage 5: identity v.s. role confusion (12-20yrs): - search for "who am i" in the social world - rapidly changing body and sexual awakening - peer influence is significant - wonder how others perceive them and what's their social role

muscular sys: phys aging

strength: - decline w/ age: early life (max peak), adult life (maintain peak), older life (minimize loss) - sarcopenia: red in amt of sk muscle mass - dynapenia: loss in muscle strength - lose type I muscle fibers as you age (dyna.) - lose ability to recruit muscle units (dyna.) - strength dec around 40 y/o - 30-50% of sk muscle mass is lost btwn 40-80 y/o - greater dec in strength of legs than arms - power is reduced faster than strength in older adults injury/age/disease/genetics --> long-term inactive lifestyle --> muscular atrophy/fraility/etc. flexibility - women have a more gradual dec than men - declines are joint specific 1. shoulder joint faster than knee/elbow - flexibility training helps maintain and improve flex.

demonstrations

●Demonstration is method of learning a skill through a practitioner displaying a skill with verbal cues to display what should be repeated ●Often interchangeable with modeling and observational learning ●Demonstrations and models may serve three functions (Weiss, Ebbeck, & Wiese-Bjornstal,1993) ○Help acquire new skill or behavior ○Elicit already learned behavior ○Reduce avoidance behavior ●Developmental Considerations ○Development of a skill can vary greatly on age, skill level, and knowledge of the task at hand ■First developmental factor is the tendency for children to focus more on task goals than specific movement patterns from demonstration ■For younger children a show and tell models are useful for displaying step by step movement patterns with verbal instruction ■For people who may have slightly more experience than beginners, repetition of show and tell showed to be more helpful for developing a skill (Wiese-Bjornstal and Weiss, 1992) ■Adults, adolescents, and others that are experienced in a certain skill will use self regulated learning strategies that have come from years of practice

motor competence, health related fitness, phys acitivity

these concepts are all intertwined high motor competence = high phys activity - and vice versa however, this has changes due to a number of dif factors - socioeconomic status - family fitness/phys act young children will engage in more phys activity and be more fit if they perceive that their motor competence is high - this will dwindle if they don't find it fun - this is known as negative spiral of disengagement to combat obesity, parents should foster a high level of phys activity and fitness

nature v.s. nurture: impacts on performance

twin studies - monozygotic - identical twins - dizygotic - nonidentical twins

types of extrinsic feedback

verbal feedback: Most common type of feedback ● Knowledge of results (KR) ○ Describes the outcome of the movement (eg. speed of a pitch, distance of a golf shot) ● Knowledge of performance (KP) ○ Specific feedback about the quality of the movement ○ Components of the movement pattern that led to the outcome ■ Eg. "You need to shift your weight to the opposite leg" or "You need to use more torso rotation when throwing the ball". nonverbal feedback: Visual feedback such as pictures or videos ● Auditory feedback such as a buzzer, a metronome, or consequent sound of a movement Forms of nonverbal feedback: ● Equipment ● Biofeedback ● Visual feedback ● Video feedback Nonverbal Feedback - Equipment ● Radar guns to monitor speed of a pitch or shot ● Activity tracking apps or watches ● Therapists rely on equipment when helping a client with walking, balance, and strength training Nonverbal Feedback - Biofeedback ● Feedback providing concurrent information related to physiological processes - helps you receive information about your body ● Heart rate monitor - helps people adjust intensity level of workouts ● Blood pressure monitor - particularly helpful for people with cardiovascular problems to monitor blood pressure ● Frequently used during rehabilitation process

sensory sys

vision - how your eyes work - infants are initially farsighted (eyes squished) - infants have weak ciliary muscles so focusing is difficult visual funcs - motor perceptions begin @ 8 wks of age - visuomotor communication - tracking a moving object from the background; cont to dev until we are 18 y/o - figure-ground perception - distinguish an obj from the background, cont to dev until 18y/o - depth perception- ability to see things 3D (length, width, depth) audition - most ear struc intact @ birth, except for drum membrane, ear canal, and eustachian tube - differentiation of speech and nonspeech by 4 months - localization of sound 3y/o --> teen years - attentional focus dev through childhood kinesthetic perception - receptors in muscles, tendons, joints, skin, the inner ear, and eyes help us perceive our body position - important aspects of optimal perception 1. body awareness: being aware of the body parts and body image 2. spatial awareness: being aware of where the body is in relation to others, objs, and body size 3. a wide range of mvmt activities

sensory sys: phys aging

visual sys: struc changes - cornea/iris/lens/retina auditory sys - hearing loss can begin in mid-30s 1. noise induced hearing loss (NIHL) can begin earlier - presbycusis: loss of hearing higher pitched tones; common and can begin ~18y/o kinesthetic sys (not much research) - lower extremities lose tactile sensitivity before upper - progressive loss of sensitivity to pain and temp - dec vestibular func begins in 30s

CV sys

women have inc HR due to smaller heart size VO2 max is best measure of CV fitness - inc w training - inc until 14 yrs in girls and 18 yrs in boys otherwise

affective factors: 5 strategies to move through levels

●Awareness talks ○remind learners about the levels of responsibility ●Individual decision making ○Learners at each level make different decisions ●Group meeting ○A discussion of what constitutes self-control and responsibility and is used to establish self-control rules ○Ex. Discuss fundamental rules that all students are prepared to accept ●Reflection time ○Learners contemplate what went well or not so well in the session ●Counseling time ○Time devoted to a discussion of problems identified by the teacher and learners A positive emotional atmosphere conducive to learning: ●Acceptance of individual differences in skill ●An opportunity for students to make decisions ●Set goals ●Self directed some aspects of learning ●Knowing that effort and personal improvement will be rewarded

phys factors

●Control parameters that can cause change to an attractor state ○Ex: wind, humidity, incline, etc. ●Environmental physical factors constrain movement patterns ○Manipulate factors for variability, discovery learning, and problem solving ■Ex: XC runner trains in various terrains with slopes and natural obstacles ●Body-scaled equipment: size and mass of equipment compared to person ○Task constraint that can affect movement patterns and attractor states ○Inadequate body-scaled equipment can affect skill acquisition ●Environment influences attention and memory ○Type of environment affects selective attention and memory ○Manipulate to increase or decrease difficulty ●Ideal learning environment ○Equipment of various sizes, shapes, and textures ■Promotes exploration and variability when completing tasks ○Introduce more physical constraints to challenge individuals or ease up ■Ex: incline degree in rehabilitation setting, lower basketball net, one-vs-one drills, etc.

motor learning theories

●Demonstrations are an integral part of theories for skill acquisition, including both schema theory and closed loop theory of motor control Schema Theory ●Schema theory (Schmidt, 1975) is an open loop method of motor control ○Open loop model is the execution of a motor function without feedback ○This theory includes two types of schema - recall schema and recognition schema ○Recall schema involves the function having a pre existing template for the action involved while recognition schema is the ability to have a response evaluation Closed Loop Theory ●Closed Loop Theory (Adams, 1971) is a method of motor control that requires feedback to learn a function during demonstration and practice ○sensory feedback is found when completing a movement to be compared to perceptual movement which is developed through practice

sports

●Emerge when coaches, referees, schedules, and standardized rules enter the fray. ●Has been argued to have positive outcomes related to physical health, social and psychological well-being, and intellectual involvement ●Leads to increase motor development, reduces obesity, increases competence, produces a sense of autonomy, initiative, fun, positive social interactions, cooperation, good sporting behavior, and moral reasoning. Coaches, and peers begin tohave a greater impact in children at a later age (adolescence) as parents socializing agent decreases. Youth sport can help children and youth to improve motor competence, enjoy social acceptance, and have fun, according to a study by Weiss and Williams. In addition, it may reduce the negative aspects of youth sport (e.g., stress and drop out) while advancing the positive.

affective factors

●Learners of all ages approach movement tasks with a variety of emotional reactions ●Situation one ○You felt confident of success if you persisted ○Aware that if you made an error it would not be embarrassing ●Situation two ○You had little confidence of success ○Failure would be public and perhaps embarrassing ○The instructor Clearly dictated all class activities and expected your movements to conform to everyone else's ●The second situation would negatively affect learning —Hellison's (2003)model of teaching personal and social responsibility ●It was originally designed for youth at risk who demonstrated little interest in school, physical activity, or respect for others. Social responsibility model: Level one- Respecting the rights and feelings of others Students are taught self-control and personal responsibility to prevent physical and psychological harm to others and to respect the feelings of classmates. Level two-Participation and effort Emphasis is on physical activity participation rather than non-participation and assuming responsibility for self-motivation. Students are encouraged to determine whether effort is related to improvement and not to give up. Success as a personal accomplishment or degree of effort is explored. Level three-Self-direction Students take more responsibility for their choices and work independently when not supervised. They establish their own goals and plans to achieve those goals, and they evaluate their plans. Level four-Helping others and leadership Students are encouraged to support and assist others with compassion and sensitivity, helping those who want help, including conflict resolution. They take leadership roles and develop the inner strength to make decisions that might not be popular. Level five-Outside the gym Students are encouraged to transfer responsibility for learning in their physical education classes to other areas such as teaching younger students, participating in service projects, and being role models for others.

goal setting

●Motor learning assumes learners are goal oriented ●Structured & deliberate practice relies on goal-setting ●Enhances performance ●Better effort & persistence in task ●Leads to development of new learning strategies ●Influences confidence & anxiety ●Involved with treatment for stroke and cerebral palsy Goals should be specific, moderately difficult, realistic, short and long term, periodically evaluated (Weinberg & Gould) Self-regulatory skill to monitor progress towards self-determined goal

play, learning, and competitive environments

●Play has been described as an essential of optimal human development for many years. ●It contributes to social, cognitive, physical and emotional well-being. It enhances cooperation, persistence, problem solving, creativity, language development, imagination, negotiation skills, and the development of strong healthy bodies ●It has been described as an experience free of an immediate purpose that is inherently enjoyable. Ex: young infants gaze at their moving hands, 12 months they reach and grasp objects, 18 months they throw a ball and a year later places his favorite cars in a careful line.

variable prac

●Practice that includes variations of the skill itself or the context of the skill ●Constant practice ○Same skill practiced repeatedly; fixed amount of time or number of trials; concentrate on one before moving to another ○Sometimes beneficial (free-throws, pitching, gymnastics, aka especial skills) ●Variable superior for wide range of skills when novel variation of skill required ●Variability of Practice Hypothesis: Schmidt (1975) ○When faced with a goal-oriented movement, retrieve GMP, select parameters ○Variable practice changes parameters not invariant features ○Schema: general set of rules that connect person's actions to parameters needed to produce desired outcome ■ex dribbling a basketball ●Advocated by models of skill acquisition ○Gentile: provides necessary variation of regulatory and nonregulatory conditions ○Dynamic Systems/Ecological Approach: explore and discover perceptual motor landscape so functional motor patterns can be assembled ●Schemas used to determine parameters for different versions of a GMP ○Practice so variable so different parameters of movement are included ●Initial hypothesis→ variability in movement patterns in single GMP ○Should practice include mixture of different skills/GMPs? ○Contextual interference ●Activity ○Pick an skill and describe how you would teach it using each type of practice (constant vs variable)

part and whole prac

●Practicing one part of the skill will transfer to performing the whole skill ○Established by Naylor and Briggs in 1963 ●Task complexity and task organization ○Task complexity: number of parts or components and the attention required ○Task Organization: relationship between skill components

distribution of practice

●Refers to the amount of practice during each period and rest between practice sessions for optimal learning of motor skills ●Massed vs distributed practice ○Massed practices involve longer sessions with many practice trials ■Better with distributed skills (hitting a baseball) ○Distributed practices involve shorter sessions with less practice trials ■Better with continuous skills (swimming, dancing, skiing) ■Not a lot of research done here but researchers recommend distributed practice. ●Massed practice might result in more physical fatigue, reduction in cognitive effort, and less time for the motor skills to be consolidated

verbal cues

●Sometimes necessary ●Explicitly saying what you want to happen ●"Run!" "Everyone Line Up!" ●Less effective/Potentially detrimental for learning ●They should not interfere with performance ●Typically 1-3 word phrases ●Direct shifts of attention ●Prompt key skill components, initiate activity