EXSC 351 Exam 1 Review
What is the relationship between abilities, motor skills, and motor learning? (2.1)
Abilities are the general capacity to be able to perform motor skills, which are voluntary conscious body movements directed towards a goal while motor learning is done prior to those motor skills to learn about these motor skills and refine them.
What are the differences between acquisition, consolidation, and retention, and how are they related to motor learning? (7.3)
Acquisition: trial-by-trial improvements that occur during practice May lead to long-term improvements that define motor learning May be transient in nature (ie. do not include long-term improvements) Often referred to as online learning or adaptations Consolidation: improvements that are retained for 1-2 days Typically underlies long-term improvements that define motor learning Occasionally transient in nature (ie. do not induce long-term improvements) Retention: the preservation of a skill/movement over periods of rest. Related as there are distinct types of neural plasticity that underlie acquisition, consolidation, and learning. Acquisition and consolidation involve phosphorylation of synaptic proteins and motor learning involves gene expression and
What is attention and what sources of information does attention allocate information processing resources? What are examples of information that would be allocated to information processing resources by attention during (1) driving, (2) cooking, and (3) attending a lecture? (5.6)
Attention: Neural process that allocates resources used to processes information Attention allocates many different sources of information -External information from the environment (sensory information) -cooking driving and lecture -Internal information from the body (sensory and motor information) - driving and cooking -Internal information from mental processes (cognitive information) -lecture
What are the differences between retention tests and transfer tests? Why are retention tests used to measure persistent improvements and increased consistency, and why are transfer tests used to measures stability and adaptability? (7.5)
differences :Retention tests assess motor performance before and after retention intervals. Retention intervals refer to periods of no practice. Transfer tests assess motor performance in a new environment or context
Using a dartboard like the one in the lecture notes, draw examples of (1) a rightward bias with large variability, (2) a leftward bias with small variability, (3) a negligible bias with large variability, and a negligible bias with small variability. How would the constant error and variable error differ between each example? Which would have the smallest and which would have the largest absolute error? Why? (3.6)
huh (page 148 in Textbook)
What are the differences between a stable body, quasi-mobile body, and mobile body? Give two examples of each and explain why they belong in the category. (2.7)
image on classification (Gentiles taxonomy)
What is randomization and why is it important? (4.5)
reduces selection biases (biased allocation of certain subjects to an intervention). Helps to balance known and unknown factors between groups. Needed for accurate interpretation of statistical results
Why would we consider a motor skill like high jumping to involve "object manipulation"? (2.8)
the bar the vaulter must go over is the object manipulated and necessary to complete the event
What are the three key properties of measures and how are they tested? (3.2)
validity, reliability, and accuracy; tested through repeated trials/trial-and-error (modifying and measure to repeat again) Often trade-offs between accuracy and reliability
What are bilateral and bimanual transfer, how are the related to transfer of learning, and how are they different from typical transfer of learning? (8.6)
Bimanuel transfer refers to bilateral transfer form 1 hand to the other hand. Bilateral transfer refers to transfer from 1 limb to opposite limb. They are related to transfer learning because the prior learning experience affects subsequent learning of the new skill which would be transferring to the untrained limb. They are different from a typical transfer of learning because they are mediated by neural adaptations.
What is blinding, why is it important, who should be blinded, and what are the differences between double-blind, single-blind, and open-label studies? (4.6)
Blinding conceals the identity of interventions from subjects and investigators Blinding of investigators should include instructors, evaluators, and statisticians Blinding of subjects and instructors is often not possible or very difficult Quality of evidence depends on blinding of subjects and investigators= Double-blind: both subjects and investigators are blinded Single-blind: either subjects or investigators are blinded Open-label: neither subjects nor investigators are blind
According to the Challenge Point Hypothesis, how do changes to information processing demands influence motor performance? How would the "performance curve" for driving change as a learner transitions from being a novice to an experienced driver? (5.4)
Challenge point hypothesis: learning is optimal when information is abundant but does not overwhelm information processing resources -Motor learning decreases when practice is too easy or difficult (driving) -Optimal challenge point varies between learners and task -Task difficulty in practice should be manipulated to provide challenging conditions that optimize learning
What do error measures examine, how are they used, and what are the differences and similarities between constant error, variable error, and absolute error? (3.5)
Error measures examines the accuracy and consistency of motor performance; used to give feedback on motor learning and assesses spatial/temporal components of outcome and production measures. provide feedback during motor learning. Constant error = Measures accuracy = assesses systematic biases Variable error = Measures consistency = assesses repeatability Absolute error = Measures accuracy and consistency = assesses systematic biases and repeatability ALL assess quality of motor performance. CE, VE, and AE can be used alone or combined to obtain greater info.
What are the differences between experimental and control interventions, what properties should be matched (i.e., similar), and why is it important to ensure those properties are well matched? (4.4)
Experimental and control interventions should be designed to ensure reliable results. Experimental interventions should be supported by strong scientific premise (evidence that the experimental intervention will enhance motor learning)
What are the two categories of motor skills based on movement precision and how are they different from each other? List two examples of motor skills in each category and explain why they belong in that category. (2.5)
Gross and fine motor skills are based on movement precision. Gross Motor skills: use large muscle groups and have little precision - walking, running (fundamental motor skills) Fine Motor skills: use smaller muscles and are precise - sewing and writing (perceptual motor or psychomotor skills)
What are the differences between the Identical Elements Hypothesis, Information Processing Hypothesis, and Specificity of Learning Hypothesis? Do any of these hypotheses accurately describe all of the key factors that influence transfer of learning?8.7
Identical elements hypothesis: emphasis on similarities of skills components; motor control process is mediated Information processing hypothesis: emphasis on the similarity of tactics and strategies; cognition process is mediated Specificity of learning: emphasis on similarity of the environment; mediates environmental perception all three together need to be similar for optimized transfer of learning
What are inclusion and exclusion criteria, and why are they important? (4.2)
Inclusion criteria identify subjects with characteristics that are representative of the population of interest. Healthy populations of clinical patients Demographic features (age, sex, race, edu) Exclusion criteria identify subjects who could negatively affect results or respond adversely to interventions Subjects participating in other studies or undergoing related treatments Medical history or procedures that could influence safety or efficacy of treatments Impairments that could influence safety or efficacy treatments. Both have to do with subject eligibility and screening participants for a study
How are neural adaptations and physiological adaptations related to motor learning? (7.2)
Inferred from measures of motor performance Improvements must exhibit long-term retention (days to years) Potential to improve can occur without measurable improvement Numerous factors independently influence learning and performance Involves neural adaptations induced by practice or experience Does not involve physiological changes due to growth and development Distinct types of neural plasticity underlie acquisition, consolidation, and learning Acquisition and consolidation involve phosphorylation of synaptic proteins Motor learning involves gene expression and protein synthesis
What are interventions, what three properties should be present in interventions for motor learning, and why are those properties important? (4.3)
Interventions are manipulations of subjects or their environment for the purpose of modifying a physiological process or behavioral outcome. Interventions should include sufficient repetition, duration, and intensity.
What are learner-based factors, instructor-based factors, and task-based factors, and how are they related to learning variables and performance variables? (7.8)
Learner based factors are physical factors such as injuries or inadequate strength, physiological factors such as fatigue & poor nutrition, and psychological factors such as low motivation or confidence. Instructor based factors are instructional factors such as ineffective communication or organization of practice, as well as assessment factors such as the use of unsuitable measures with ceiling or floor effects. Task-based factors include motor factors (learning novel skills or relearning old skills with a different technique) and cognitive factors (learning new tactics or rules). They often delay or slow improvements because learners must break their old habits. All three are causal factors of plateaus. They are related to learning and performance variables as learning variables affect learning and performance and performance variables only affect performance.
What are the differences between learning variables and performance variables, and how are they related to plateaus? (7.7)
Learning variables are factors that affect learning and performance. Performance variables are factors that only affect performance. Learning and performance variables are related to plateaus as they are the two factors that cause plateaus.
What are measures of motor performance and why are they important?
Measures of motor performance assess quality of motor performance. Determine strengths and weaknesses of individuals and groups Compare performances with stabilized metrics and milestones Identify information that can be used for feedback during practice Assess improvements resulting from practice or rehab 1) outcome measures: measures the results of a motor skill through binary and continuous measures (binary: goals, reps, HR; continuous: distance, time) 2) production measures: measures how a motor skill is produced; looks at spatial/temporal features of movement, force, or muscle activity (using discrete qualitative or continuous quantitative measures)
What are the key differences between motor control and motor learning? Does the brain contribute to motor control, motor learning, or both? Does the body contribute to motor control, motor learning, or both? (1.5)
Motor learning examines how motor skills are acquired and refined. Motor control examines how motor skills are planned, initiated and executed. Motor control has to do with what is going on in the body and motor learning emphasizes what is happening in the mind. They work together.
What are the differences between motor performance and motor learning, and how is motor performance used to infer that motor learning has occurred? (7.1)
Motor performance is observable outcomes during execution of motor skill. Motor learning is permanent improvements in the potential to perform motor skills due to practice or experience. Inferred from measures of motor performance: must exhibit long term retention (days to years), involves neural adaptations induced by practice or experience
What are the key differences between "motor skills", "coordination", "abilities", and "talent" and how are they related to each other? (1.3)
Motor skills are defined as voluntary motor skills we perform in order to accomplish a goal, which requires coordination, abilities and talent to perform these skills. Coordination is the actual patterning of movements, abilities are the general capacity to perform skilled or high quality movements and talent is being able to combine different abilities to perform multiple different motor skills.
What are "motor skills" and why some types of movements are considered motor skills whereas others are not? (1.1)
Motor skills are skeletal muscles producing a goal-directed movement, they are intentional and voluntary. Throwing a ball to someone in a game is a motor skill, whereas peristalsis in the gastrointestinal tract or your heart beating is involuntary.
What are the two key features of the Multiple Resource Theory, and what two limitations result from those features? What would be examples of consequences that could result from the two limitations during (1) driving, (2) cooking, and (3) attending a lecture? (5.2)
Multiple resource theory proposes that specialized resources (brain networks) process different type of information -Resource have a limited capacity -Resources are shared due to partial overlap Sharing of resources leads to limitations in information processing Interference between resources Delays in information processing Other complex interactions
What are the two categories of motor skills based on environmental stability and how are they different from each other? List two examples of motor skills in each category and explain why they belong in that category. (2.6)
Open skills: externally paced, are done in changing or unpredictable environments (dribbling a ball and running in a game) Closed skills: self-paced, performed in a stable and predictable environment (bowling and golf)
What are outcome measures, and when should they be collected? (4.7)
Outcome measures are used to test efficacy of interventions Must be collected before and after completing interventions Additional time points are needed to examine long-term retention of learning Measures should be collected by blinding assessor Prevents assessment biases from alternating results
What is the continuum of similarity, and how is it related to movement techniques, environmental features, and cognitive demands of motor skills? (8.2)
The continuum of similarity is a range that runs from positive transfer (high similarity) to negative transfer (similarities & differences) to neutral transfer (no similarity). With positive transfer, old & new skills/environments/contexts have substantial similarity. With negative transfer, old & new skills/environments/contexts have key similarities and differences. With Neutral transfer, old & new skills/environments/contexts have no similarity.
What are the differences and similarities between outcome and production measures? Provide two examples each of (1) spatial outcome measures,(2) temporal outcome measures, (3) spatial production measures, and (4) temporal production measures, and explain why each example belong in its respective category. (3.3)
Outcome measures assess the RESULT of performing motor skills. -Include binary (goals, catches) and continuous measures (time, distance) -Can assess both spatial and temporal components of motor skills -Often used to set goals for motor learning Production measures assess HOW motor skills are performed -Assess spatial and temporal features of movement, force, or muscle activity -Discrete, qualitative measures are typically obtained from observation -Continuous, quantitative measures are obtained using instrumentation Often used to ID targets for intervention
What are the three types of information processing resources. What would be examples of information processed by each of the three resources during (1) driving, (2) cooking, and (3) attending a lecture? (5.1)
Perception: detection, identification, and interpretation of sensory information Vision, proprioception (driving) Cognition: manipulation, storage, and recall of current and previous information Attention, memory, decision making (attending lecture) Action: planning, learning, and executing motor task and physiological processes Motor skills reflexes (cooking)
What are plateaus, how are they related to motor learning and motor performance, and why can motor learning occur during plateaus? (7.6)
Performance improvements rarely follow a steady path overtime Plateaus refer to times with little to no improvement May reflect learning and/or performance Learning may occur during a plateau (potential may improve) Identifying causes of plateaus is difficult but necessary cause: Fatigue, sore, tighter, brain changes
What are the four features of motor performance that are used to infer motor learning? Can motor learning be inferred from outcome and/or production measures? (7.4)
Persistent improvements: motor performance exhibits improvements that are retained after periods of no practice Increased consistency: motor performance exhibits decreased variability that is retained after periods of no practice Stability: motor performance is similar when the same motor skill is performed in difference situations or environments Adaptability: motor performance is similar when a motor skill is modified to perform it in different situations or environments Motor learning can be inferred from outcome and production measures
Review attributes and examples for different classifications of abilities. (2.2)
Physical: high jumping, marathon running, soccer, operating a jackhammer Psychomotor: catching a ball, dancing, driving Psychological: pitching, volleyball, driving and soccer
What are positive, negative, and neutral transfer, and how are they related to the continuum of similarity? (8.3)
Positive transfer occurs when prior learning or experience facilitates learning Old and new skills/environments/contexts have substantial similarity Negative transfer occurs when prior learning or experience impedes learning Old and new skills/environments/contexts have key similarities and differences Neutral transfer occurs when prior learning or experiences has no effect on learning Old and new skills/environments/contexts have no similarity (nothing in common)
What are the key differences between randomized, controlled trials, quasi-experimental studies, and observational studies, and why are those differences important for evidence-based practice?
RCTs: prodive moderate to strong evidence by require critical evaluation Quasi-Experimental Studies (QESs): provide weak to moderate evidence and should be treated with skepticism Observational Studies: provide weak evidence but inform the design of quality research studies
What are premotor time and motor time, how are they related to each other, and how are they related to reaction time? (6.3)
RT include two main components -Premotor time (pmt): time from stimulus onset to EMG onset Reflects the time for information processing Depends on information processing demands of different tasks Varies between individuals depending on experience and other factors -Motor time (mt): time from EMG onset to movement onset Reflects the time for muscles to initiate movement Does NOT depend on individual differences or tasks demands Longer for movements of large body parts (muscles overcome greater inertia) Reaction times!
What is the mind-body connection and why do we consider it to be bidirectional? (1.6)
The mind-body connection is a bidirectional connection that takes information through body movements in response to external stimuli and its surroundings, processes this information and then plans the next movement in response to said stimuli. We consider the mind-body connection to be bidirectional as we send signals both ways in order to be able to perform the motor skills required for the current situation we find ourselves in, those signals being both efferent, being sent from our body's muscles to the brain, and afferent which is being sent from the brain to our body's muscles.
What do reactive agility, trial making tests, visual occlusion (temporal and spatial), and eye tracking measures, and how do they differ from laboratory-based RT tasks? (6.6)
Reactive Agility: is an agility test that measures RT of athletes Show promise in discriminating differences between athletes Trail making tests are continuous variants of discrimination RT tasks (good predictors for road driving test - elderly) Visual Occlusion: involves occluding segments of videos of real-world motor skills Temporal occlusion (left) stops the video at diff times Spatial occlusion (right0 removes spatial feats from vids Participants predict what action will occur after the predict actions Skilled observes use less info to accurately predict actions Gaze Tracking: methods use cameras to track eye movement Used to assess how eye movements are used to gather visual information during real-world and laboratory tasks Gaze tracking shows that older adults and stroke survivors make less efficient eye movements during trail making
What are response time, reaction time, and movement time, how are they related to each other, and how are they related to measures of information processing and measures of motor performance? (6.2)
Responses to sensory stimuli are used to assess information processing Responses include 3 main components 1. Response time (RpT): time from stimulus onset to movement end 2. Reaction time (RT): time from stimulus onset to movement onset -Reaction time (RT)is typically used to assess information processing speed 3. Movement time (MvT) time from movement onset to movement end
What are selective attention, temporal attention, spatial attention, focus of attention, attentional switching, and inattentional blindness? How are all of these concepts related to each other, and how would each of these be involved in (1) driving, (2) cooking, and (3) attending a lecture?(5.7)
Selective attention refers to attention placed on specific information Temporal attention allocates attention to certain events in time Spatial attention allocates attention to certain locations in space Focus of attention often refers to two different properties of attention Attentional Switching: refers to spatial and temporal shifts of attention Inattentional (change) blindness: phenomenon in which selective attention makes us unaware of changes to information
Why would parallel processing occur during low task demands? Why would serial processing occur during high task demands? How would the processing change as a learner transitions from a novice to an experienced driver? (5.3)
Serial processing slows down information and also filters which is why we become overwhelmed and information bottle necks (too much info, 3). -Psychological refractory period: delays in information processing that occurs when high demands result in serial processing Parrallel?? nothing in notes
What are the differences between Simple RT tasks, Choice RT Tasks, and Discrimination RT Tasks, and how are they related to Hick's Law? (6.4)
Simple RT Tasks se one stimulus, which is paired with one response Ex. response to a start signal Choice RT Tasks use multiple stimulus, which are paired with different responses Ex. traffic lights Discrimination RT tasks use multiple stimuli and only one (target) is pained with a response (other stimuli are distractors) Ex. finding a friend in a crowed Hick's law: RT increases as the number of stimuli and responses increase Reflects slower information processing speed
What are two real-world examples of (1) Simple RT Tasks, (2) Choice RT Tasks, and (3) Discrimination RT Tasks? What limitations would affect the ability to use of laboratory-based RT tasks to accurately predict real-world reaction times in each example? (6.5)
Simple RT task: response to start signal choice RT task: traffic lights discrimination RT task: finding friend in crowed Most laboratory RT tasks do NOT predict performance on real-world motor tasks Involve distinct information processing demands Fail to assess the effects of anticipation resulting from previous experience Fail to assess continuous nature of information processing RT tasks should incorporate information processing demands of real-world tasks
Why should some involuntary movements should be considered motor skills? (1.2)
Some involuntary are in response to external stimuli taking place in our surrounding environment and involve all three classifications of abilities which are physical, physiological and psychological in nature.
Why is staging of research studies important? (4.8)
Staging of research studies is important for advancing evidence-based practice
What are the differences between stress, arousal, and anxiety, and how are they related to each other? What are examples of stressors that could lead to increased arousal and/or anxiety during (1) driving, (2) cooking, and (3) attending a lecture? (5.9)
Stress: physiological and psychological responses to changing conditions Stress can produce positive or negative effects Arousal: increases activation of physiological and psychological processes Arousal can produce positive or negative effects Anxiety: overactivation or psychological processes that cause and overwhelming sense of worry Anxiety results in negative effects
Why is talent identification difficult? (2.3)
Talent is a combination of abilities and subcomponent motor skills that contribute to one's overall performance. Talent identification is difficult due to the fact that scientists are always trying to incorporate all of the classifications of abilities into talent identification but the results for both the psychomotor and psychological are often inaccurate due to the difficulty of quantitative and qualitative measures for both.
What are the three categories of motor skills based on movement continuity and how are they different from each other? List two examples of motor skills in each category and explain why they belong in that category. (2.4)
The three categories of motor skills based on movement continuity are known as discrete movements, serial movements and continuous movements. Discrete movements has a distinct start and end such as throwing a baseball and hitting a golfball. Discrete and serial skills have a clear beginning and end point. Serial movements is a series of movements put together to achieve a larger motor skill (compound motor skill) and these smaller movements can be similar like typing or different dealing with something like drinking. Continuous movements are movements that involve the same repetitive movements and have no distinct start or end and this involves activities such as biking or swimming.
What are the three categories of abilities and what types of attributes are included in each category? List three examples of abilities in each category and explain why they belong in that category? (2.2)
The three different classifications of abilities are physical, psychomotor and psychological with physical abilities involving components such as strength, endurance and VO2 max, psychomotor involving reaction time, decision-making and cognitive thinking while psychological is all behavior and emotion with examples including concentration, confidence, and self efficacy.
What is transfer of learning, and how is it related to transfer tests that are used to infer motor learning? (8.1)
Transfer of learning occurs when prior learning or experience affect subsequent learning of a new skill OR an old skill in a new environment or context
How can previous experience practicing a motor skill result in positive, negative, and/or neutral transfer at different points in time? (8.5)
Transfer of learning often exhibits temporal changes. Positive transfer can precede negative transfer. It can be initially positive and later negative.
How could previous experience practicing a motor skill simultaneously produce positive, negative, and neutral transfer? (8.4)
Transfer of learning often exhibits temporal changes. Positive transfer can precede negative transfer. It can be initially positive and later negative.
What are five motor skills that you perform everyday life, and how would your quality-of-life be affected by difficulties performing those motor skills? (1.4)
Walking, posture, balance, holding things, picking up stuff. If we did not have balance or posture, there would be no way we could move at all. Those are necessary to do small daily tasks.
What are the differences between working memory and long-term memory, and what is their relationship to motor memory? What are the differences between procedural memory, semantic memory, episodic memory, and what is their relationship to motor memory? How would working memory, procedural memory, and semantic memory contribute to motor memory during (1) driving, (2) cooking, and (3) attending a lecture? (5.5)
Working (short-term) memory: Repositories that temporarily store limited amounts of information that are manipulated during task performance Long-term memory: Repositories that permanently store unlimited amounts of information that are retrieved and manipulated during task performance Procedural memory stores implicit information on how to perform motor skills Declarative memory stores explicit information on what we know -Semantic memory stores abstract knowledge and facts -Episodic memory stores information linked emotional events
What is the relationship between Nideffer's 2D scale and focus of attention, and what are examples of attention that would be classified as (1) external-broad, (2) external-narrow, (3) internal-broad, and (4) internal-narrow during driving? (5.8)
attention is internal or external (look at image in notes for examples)
What are the differences between measures of information processing and measures of motor performance? (6.1)
information processing is key component of motor planning Involves integration of sensory information with prior knowledge Distributed across the perceptual, cognitive, and motor systems Difficult to measure information processing Measures of motor performance assess quality of motor performance Important for research and practice: Determine strengths and weaknesses of individuals and groups Compare performances with stabilized metrics and milestones Identify information that can be used for feedback during practice Assess improvements resulting from practice or rehab
What are the differences between the Inverted-U Model and IZOF Model, and how would each model explain optimal performance and choking? (5.10)
inverted-U principle proposes that too much or too little arousal will negatively affect performance inverted-U shifts depending on the learner, motor skill and context Hanin's Individual Zones of Optimal Functioning (IZOF) proposes that optimal arousal is specific to individuals but influenced by emotional bearing Negative emotional bearing includes fear and nervousness Positive emotional bearing includes enjoyment and satisfaction - chocking could happen in BOTH if consumed by the negative arousal
What is evidence-based practice and why is it important? (4.1)
is a framework in which evidence from scientific research is used to determine "best practices" in medicine, education, and other fields. research on motor learning is important for practitioners in many fields. Framework for evidence in scientific research, helps figure out which intervention/practice is effective based on data presented
What are kinematics, kinetics, and EMG, and why are they well suited for obtaining production measures? (3.4)
kinematics - movements produced by body, joints and limbs + measures HOW body, joint and limb movements produce motor skills kinetics - forces produced by body, joint and limbs + measures HOW body, joint and limb forces produce motor skills EMG - an instrument that records muscle activity and measures how muscles are coordinated to perform motor skills these 3 methods are well suited for production measures because they all measure HOW muscles, joints or limbs produce motor skills and production measures are about assessing how motor skills are performed All assess HOW motor skills are preformed
What are three examples of learner-based factors, instructor-based factors, and task-based factors, and would each example be a learning variable or performance variable?(7.9)
learner-based: not enough upper body strength instructor-based: not enough constructive criticism or feedback task-based: improving beginners technique in gymnastics- back to the basics
