Fahmy the cambridge history of christianity vol 8 (En)1

which succeeded in ensuring that it was possible to lead more or less separate Socialist, Calvinist or Catholic lives inside the pillars of society. Just as important for the Dutch version of pillarisation, although it has received very much less attention, was the system which held the pillars in place, namely

26 Righart, De katholieke zuil. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 u. altermatt, f. metzger and m. wintle the network of mechanisms, formal and informal, for negotiation, conciliation

likeness of God, and that this image had been restored in Christ following its 29 C. Lyell, Principles of geology, 3 vols. (London: John Murray, 1830-3); C. Darwin, On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life (London: John Murray, 1859).

30 Addinall, Philosophy and biblical interpretation. 31 For a fuller discussion of the impact of Darwin and geological science see chapter 11 above. 32 C.Wordsworth, Genesis and Exodus: with notes and introduction (London: Rivingtons, 1865).

Table 20.1. Religious affiliation, 1899 Dutch Reformed Church 48.6 % Roman Catholic 35.2 % Orthodox Calvinist 8.2%

Agnostic/Atheist 2.3% Jewish 2.0% Lutheran 1.8% Baptist 1.1%

Press, 1983) and Richard Owen (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1994). Currently he is working on a project entitled 'Eminent lives in twentieth-century science and religion'. xiv

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 List of contributors Andrew Sanders is Professor of English in the University of Durham. He has written extensively on nineteenth-century literature and especially on thework of Charles Dickens.

the eighteenth-century confessional state gave way not to a secular state, but to a pluralistically Christian one. 77 Lambeth Palace Library, Davidson Papers, vol. xix, 101, pp. 26-7; Wolffe, Great deaths, pp. 79-80.

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Protestant dominance and confessional politics: Switzerland and the Netherlands A: Switzerland. Religion, politics and

church. At the conservative end of this scale, the Bible does not allowwomento exercise 'headship' over a man, and women should therefore be prohibited 1 G. B. Hill (ed.), Boswell's Life of Johnson, 6 vols. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1934), vol. i, p. 463.

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Women preachers and the new Orders from taking on leadership positions within the church. From this perspective, female ministry means service-oriented activity that is rooted within the

associated with the Enlightenment is far less significant than is often assumed for the formation of nineteenth-century Christian thought. If one considers the enormous influence of Locke in the eighteenth century - particularly on Law, Paley,Watson, Lessing and Kant - it becomes clear how potent both the

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 douglas hedley Socinian and Spiritualist legacies were in Enlightenment theology.4 The real battle was within Christendom, not without.

the majority of the population was at the centre of this question, recognised as crucial for the very survival of the Polish nation. Before going into the details of religious history, it is useful to chart the effects of the Poles' great struggle for independence in the years 1815-1914.

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 gabriel adri ´anyi and jerzy kloczowski The deep 'ethnic base' determined the outcome. Polish-speaking peasants freed from serfdom found in the course of the first decades of the twentieth

the denominations. By contrast, the radical left-wing liberals demanded the 'democratisation' of the Catholic Church, and the abolition of religious orders, of celibacy and of ecclesiastical privileges, together with the nationalisation of church property. The bishops therefore cautiously aligned themselves with

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 gabriel adri ´anyi and jerzy kloczowski the De´ak party's policies and suppressed both the Ultramontane and radical liberal tendencies among the clergy. The bishops and leading Catholics envisaged

unity, a choice had to be made between the church and a modern polity.5 Their conviction only hardened in the early 1870s following the experience of the 5 Cf. J. Ferry, Discours sur l'´education: l'´egalit´e de l'´education (Paris: Soci´et´e pour l'Instruction El´ementaire, 1870).

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 james f. mCmillan 'moral order' regime of Marshal MacMahon, which to the republican mind offered evidence that attempts to rechistianise French society went hand in

defeat they were not only executed by royal authority but also condemned and excommunicated by the church. The turning point for the church in Spanish America was the year 1820, when a liberal revolution in Spain forced the king to renounce absolutism

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 john lynch and accept the constitution of 1812. The new regime promptly exported itself to the colonies, where it had immediate implications for the church. Spanish

determination. 22 Ibid., pp. 175-200. 23 Ibid., pp. 85-7, 192, 117-23. 24 See Rickard, H. B. Higgins, pp. 171-5.

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 john molony and david m. thompson The other element of the encyclical that heralded the future development of the relations between the church and the world was the acceptance of

perceptions of the inferiority of the heathen. Growth meant competition, and one consequence of the competition between churches in some countries was the reinforcement of denominational differences. These became parts of wider political conflicts as between

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 sheridan gilley Catholics and Protestants in Ireland, in the war between the Catholic and Protestant cantons in Switzerland, and in the Kulturkampf in Protestant Prussia,

Mehrkonfessionelle Gesellschaften im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert (Frankfurt and New York: Campus Verlag, 2004); Michael Geyer and Hartmut Lehmann (eds.), Religion und Nation. Nation und Religion. Beitr¨age zu einer unbew¨altigten Geschichte (G¨ottingen:Wallstein Verlag, 2004).

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 u. altermatt, f. metzger and m. wintle principle of territoriality - cuius regio eius religio - guaranteed confessional homogeneity within precisely defined areas.2 However, this right of existence

schools, asmuch for social as for religious reasons (the Jesuits had a particularly good track record in preparing their pupils for the elite grandes ´ecoles which were the passport to success in both the public and private sectors). Only Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

Catholic Christianity in France, 1815-1905 the extreme left wanted to abolish the concordat altogether: the moderate republicans appreciated the hold which it allowed them to exercise over the clergy, notably by suspending the salaries of priests who stepped out of line.

and encouraged to participate more frequently in denominationally specific rites of passage as well as communal events such as retreats, processions and pilgrimages, Catholics found their everyday experience to be increasingly different from that of non-Catholics. Taken together, the changes which swept

Catholic worship and devotion from about the middle of the nineteenth century added up to an experience for most observant Catholicswhich amounted to the adoption of a semi-monastic discipline, albeit one lived in 'the world' rather than in the seclusion of a seminary, convent or monastery.

or marriage of the centre-right led by Cavour and the centre-left led by Urbano Rattazzi in 1852 provided the parliamentary basis for additional antiecclesiastical legislation and the downfall of the D'Azeglio government,which proved unable fully to implement the Siccardi legislation. At the end of 1852,

Cavour assumed the presidency of the Council of Ministers. His government, to the pope's displeasure, assumed a more radical position on ecclesiastical and national issues than the D'Azeglio government. Pius believed Italian nationalists threatened both his temporal and spiritual power, perceiving the

Z¨ockler, Theologie und Naturwissenschaft, vol. ii, pp. 470-83. 24 Numbers, The creationists. 25 Kraus, Geschichte der historisch-kritischen Erforschung, pp. 120-264. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

Christianity and the sciences Society followed, who declared that revealed religion and science are not in conflict. More fundamental yet in taking down Scripture from its elevated level of

reform until his early death, Schelling's thought was far less open to the political reforms of the age, and was closer to the aristocratic conservatism of Novalis and de Maistre. The Whiggish optimism in Hegel can be seen as a form of cultural Protestantism.

Christianity, in Hegel's account, has survived the crucible of the Enlightenment and presents the spiritual values of a sophisticated occidental and basically liberal culture long before Harnack orWilliam Temple. Both Schelling and Kierkegaard can be seen as critics of this implicit domestication of

affirmed loyalty to the crown and diligent religious exertions to build a nonestablishmentarian version of British Christendom. By the time of Confederation in 1867, English Canada was well on the way to becoming nearly as thoroughly Christianised as French Canada. The

Clergy Reserves were distributed to all qualifying Protestant denominations, Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 mark a. noll Methodist and Presbyterian splinters consolidated into powerful denominations,

'ancient' and 'modern' 121 jeremy dibble v Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

Contents 9 · Christianity and literature in English 136 andrew sanders 10 · Christian social thought 142

that was directly challenged by Darwin. While liberal members of the church were not greatly bothered by Darwin's theories - and even some Calvinist theologians believed that he had simply described the processes throughwhich Godhadworked to create thehumanrace - therewere stillmanywhoregarded

Darwin as a threat to the Bible and the whole edifice of Christian theology.31 An excellent example of a response to Darwin from the traditional side can be found in Christopher Wordsworth's commentary on Genesis of 1865.32 Wordsworth, who would become bishop of Lincoln (1869-85), produced a

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Christianity and the sciences least the emplacement of a social divide between white settlers and coloured groups.40

Darwin himself, who in the Origin of species had circumnavigated the contentious issue of human origins and had restricted himself to a terse 'Light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history',41 at long last came out with The descent of man (1871), extending the mechanism of natural selection to

david bebbington conflict with the stance of thosewhohad adopted an intensely committed form of Christian faith. Although superstition could mesh readily enough with evangelical belief in providence, other aspects of folk beliefwere condemned by the

Free Churches. Such traditions as warding off evil by lucky charms remained strong at the end of the century, even in London. The normal insistence on sabbath observance also clashed with the wish of working people to use the day for other purposes. But the greatest obstacle in popular culture to the

a tentative beginning, with localised, parochial hymn publications, a wider range of hymn books for high church and evangelical persuasions began to appear by the 1850s led by J. M. Neale's The hymnal noted (1851-4), a collection of translations of Latin hymnswithmusic drawn mainly from plainchant,Edward

Mercer's Church psalter and hymn book (1854), Edward Bickersteth's Psalms and hymns based on the Christian Psalmody (1858) and CatherineWinkworth's Chorale book of England (1863, withmusic editedby Sterndale Bennett).The culmination of this trend, inwhich therewas nowa major commercial interest,was Hymns

This architectural awareness coincided with a new ecclesiology responsive to the latent 'catholicism' of theAnglican liturgy, given prominence by the Oxford Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 andrew sanders

Movement, and fostered by the influential journal The Ecclesiologist (1841-68). Although Tractarian principles were generally opposed by senior churchmen, the pervasive culture of Romanticism softened traditional English antipathy to Catholic worship and practice. Hence most churches constructed after

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Switzerland and the Netherlands a grouping of ultra-Catholics continued into the twentieth century, especially around the integrist networks of the weekly Schildwache.23

Nation and religion Unlike the Catholics, the Protestants saw themselves as the dominant confession in Switzerland. They were integrated within the freisinnige liberal-radical party which dominated political culture well into the twentieth century. The

by Cavour's tactics, lamenting that he had even charmed the Russians. Perhaps it was because a big dog does not notice the barking of a small one, he confided to his brother, adding that he had certainly followed the Piedmontese antics.40

Rome wondered why the study Napoleon had commissioned on the papal government and its finances (the Rayneval report) was not released. That report contended that the 'abuses' of the Roman regime were neither qualitatively nor quantitatively different from those elsewhere. Antonelli released this

of the non expedit rule forbidding Catholics to vote in Italian elections. Pius drew on his experience in Venice, where Catholics had acted with liberals to keep out radicals and socialists.Hewas no democrat. He distrusted the radical Catholic idea for a reforming Christian Democrat Party independent of the

clergy and open to non-Catholics, as identifying Catholicism with one political party, outside clerical direction, so that the churchwould be responsible for its mistakes and get no credit for its successes. Pius instead asserted his authority over the laity by dissolving the lay-run Opera dei Congressi, and regrouping

lawto Aristide Briand, a moderate, surrounded by politicians more anticlerical than himself. His government was united in little except its opposition to the church; by exploiting that opposition it might survive. The Law of Separation of 1905 abolished long-term state payment of the

clergy and transferred all their possessions - cathedrals, churches, seminaries and presbyteries - to the state, to be leased back free to lay-dominated 'cultic associations'. This unilaterally repudiated an international treaty, the concordat, without the agreement of the other partner, Rome. The Law was also

In health provision, sisters ran dispensaries, hospitals, nursing and convalescent homes, and mental health institutions. The conduct of nursing sisters, such as the Mercy order, in the American CivilWar and the CrimeanWar was widely reported in the press and had a favourable impact beyond the Catholic

community. Likewise Anglican sisters from the All Saints sisterhood and the Nursing Sisters of St John the Divinewho provided the nursing staff for several of London's large teaching hospitals, including King's College, Charing Cross and University College Hospitals until the end of the century, won increased

which an expatriate ethnic and religious identity survived the often traumatic uprooting to the NewWorld. After 1860, the Roman Catholic Church became the largest religious body in the United States. By 1910, it claimed more than 12 million communicants,

compared with 22 million communicants for all the Protestant churches combined. The body of believers or more casual adherents was, of course, much larger in both cases. Rome's policy was an expansive one of erecting vicariates and dioceses where virtually no church existed. As the bishops set out

among the Christian churches. Rulers desired an alliance between throne and altar. They regarded the churches as necessary pillars of order and authority, and relied on clergy to serve as local agents of state power. Churches likewise lent the princes their support, seeing the latter's conservative policies as

complementary to their own efforts to root out religious rationalism and promote the rechristianisation of German Europe. The Holy Alliance between Catholic Austria, Protestant Prussia and Orthodox Russia stands as one of the clearest expressions of this Romantic ecumenism. But it also appears in

insistently taught that, when masters violated the rights of their workers who were unable to defend themselves, the state had to intervene or there would never be a just outcome for the working classes: he regarded it as self-evident that 'between a capitalist and a working man there can be no true freedom of

contract' and that capitalwould remain invulnerable as long as theworker had to continue to labour at a price decided by the employer.The Congress timidly called for an international convention to limit working hours. Manning called 12 Calvez and Perrin, The church and social justice, pp. 404-6.

Faur´e was able to merge those distinguishing elements of an 'old' style (in his deployment of modal harmonies and melodic lines) with a 'new' romantic parlance, showing some awareness of Wagner and Liszt, yet also displaying something strikingly modern whether in the stark tritones and austere, imitative

counterpoint at the opening of the Offertoire or the chromatic harmonies that accompany quasi-plainchant lines in the Kyrie. Faur´e's delicate musical chemistry perfectly embodied the composer's agnostic spirituality which was devoid of all sense of judgement or damnation. A different French sensibility

Spontini, Baini, Alfieri, Zingarelli and Raimondi), Spain (Eslava), Switzerland (Schubiger) and Belgium (F´etis). In Belgium, the cause of Catholic church musicwas taken up by the organist, teacher and composer Jaak Nikolaas Lemmens, who, under the auspices of the Belgian bishops, established the Ecole

de Musique Religieuse at Mechelen in January 1879. There Lemmens inaugurated the Soci´et´edeStGr´egoire, an organisation devoted to the amelioration of musical standards in churchwhich involved the training of clergy, organists and choirmasters.Lemmensled his newinstitute until his death in 1881, afterwhich

to benefit from the active promotion of his art by Cardinal Wiseman and who established a mutually sympathetic partnership with the Aberdeen-born painterWilliamDyce (1806-64). InRomein 1828Dyce painted a Madonna (now lost) which attracted the attention of German exiles in the city, but his The

dead Christ (1835) and the later Madonna (1838) show most clearly the influence of the work of Raphael and of the Nazarene experiment. The Raphaelesque reference is also evident in his noble fresco Religion: the vision of Sir Galahad and his companions (1851) in the Palace of Westminster. Nevertheless, it is

for an 'ideal' church music with little or no instrumental participation gave rise to the establishment of Caecilian-B¨undnisse (Cecilian Leagues) in Munich, Passau and Vienna as well as in other cities in Bavaria and Austria, and found endorsement in Pope Benedict XIV's encyclical of 1749, later pronouncements

by Leo XII in 1824 and Pius VIII in 1830, and most notably Pope Pius X's Motu Proprio in 1903, which, besides giving final enfranchisement to Cecilianism, intended to proscribe perceived aberrant practices in countries such as Italy. The aesthetic principles of a 'true church music' had begun to emerge in the

'Piedmontese Machiavelli', who was frustrated by the unwillingness of the French and British to make any tangible concession to his country to bring her into thewar, and the unwillingness of his political ally, Urbano Rattazzi, to support Piedmont's entry without compensation. Cavour resolved the issue

by promising his support forRattazzi's Lawof Convents in return forRattazzi's 35 ASR, Miscellanea di Carte Politiche o Riservate, busta 121, fascicolo 4214; memorandum of 23 June 1852. 36 ASV, SSE, corrispondenza da Gaeta e Portici, rubrica 247, sottofascicolo 222.

survived the closure of the country in the seventeenth century to foreigners and the execution or exile of its clergy. The cruel martyrdom of Catholics in China, Indochina, Japan and Korea, another heroic missionary country, was connected to local fears of European invasion and conquest, which in some

cases were not unjustified. The emergence of the American colonies, and the rise of the British Empire and of the new international evangelical Protestant missionary movement of the eighteenth century, created by the leader of the Moravians, Count

royal fiat, he aroused the ire of many churchmen, above all Berlin's leading theologian, Friedrich Schleiermacher. The predominantly Reformed Prussian Rhineland and Westphalia, however, remained outside the union, receiving their own church constitution in 1835. In Bavaria toomultiple models of Protestant

church organisation co-existed: union in the Palatinate and a confessional Lutheran church for the rest of the kingdom. The same factors that encouraged the development of united Protestant churches also promoted peaceful relations between church and state and

within German Catholicism,which intellectuals like Ignaz vonD¨ollinger still championed from Munich and Bonn. The Ultramontane model stressed instead hierarchy, discipline and absolute obedience to the church's spiritual head: the pope. The Ultramontanes also fought states' efforts to push the

church out of public life. Instead of the Church compromising with secular trends, theyfelt that political, socialandcultural life should conformtoCatholic teaching. Mainzwas the initial home of German Ultramontanism. But as Pope Gregory XVI succeeded in making loyalty to Rome the precondition of being

Benedict XIV (1740-58), but, before Rerum Novarum in 1891, the papal encyclicals contained no social teaching as such.1 When the popes dealt with matters such as the state and the family, they usually looked to Revelation as their authority and spoke to Catholics, or to transgressors of the rights of the

church. Divine Revelation, formally speaking, is the source from which the church draws its teaching. None the less, for the development of its social teachings, the church increasingly turned to the natural law, sometimes referred to as

of his faith through paintings of landscapes permeated by divine light and charged by the presence of overtly Christian symbolism. The scanty remains of the abbey of Eldena, in the suburbs of his native Greifswald, probably inspired the Gothic ruins that appear in his paintings. The pinnacled, mistswathed

churches which loom over such paintings as The cathedral (1818), The cross in the mountains (1811-12) and Winter landscape with church (1811) equally Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 andrew sanders

will and representation) Schopenhauer replaced the optimistic-teleological idealistic conception of God or the Absolute with a pessimistic view of an absolute blind insatiableWill which produces continual suffering. The central philosophical question is the possibility of escaping this will: philosophy is a

doctrine of salvation. Schopenhauer, like Hegel, saw philosophy and religion as having the same metaphysical content. Only Christianity and Buddhism, however, possess a suitably pessimistic anthropology to count as true. The specific Christian doctrines of divine personality, the creation of theworld and

13 Carmo Reis, O liberalismo em Portugal e a Igreja cat´olica, p. 97. 14 See, for example, the strong attack by a liberal supporter against the archbishop of Evora for defending the cause of King Miguel. Francisco Freire de Melo,Reposta ´a infame pastoral, que escreveu o ex-arcebispo d'´Evora . . . contra o senhor Dom Pedro, Regente em nome da Reinha

e senhora Dona Mar´ıa II (Lisbon: Imprensa Nacional, 1834), pp. 1-18. 15 Oliveira, Hist´oria eclesi´astica, p. 232. 16 Almeida, Hist´oria da Igreja, vol. iii, p. 39. 17 By 1835, half of the parishes of the Evora diocese lacked parish priests: Neto, O Estado, a

pastorate in 1864.14 Theological orthodoxy, however, in the form of the holiness movement, also proved a fertile breeding ground for public female ministry. By 1864, for example, the radical abolitionist and holinessWesleyan Methodists (1842) had given local conferences the right to ordain women as

elders. One of the leading mid-century female preacherswas Phoebe Palmer, a member of the Methodist Episcopal Church and a holiness speaker. In the early twentieth century, women like Aimee Semple McPherson and Alma White founded holiness denominations and conducted highly public preaching ministries.

national conflict of Schleswig reached a peak when P. Hiort Lorenzen (1791- 1845) insisted on speaking Danish, not German, in the duchy's consulting assembly of estates, but was stopped. That event engaged even Grundtvig. To him the Danish mother tongue, which was spoken first by the peasants,

expressed the very heart of Danishness. For this reason he resented the lethal Latin and the non-spiritual German. Grundtvigianism and Folk High Schools became important measures in upholding Danish language and identity in southern Jutland, and after the defeat in 1864 in the whole of Denmark.

intact by the independent empire. Pedro II retained full powers of patronage and rights of intervention between Rome and Brazil. He nominated bishops, collected tithes,andpaid the clergy,whobecamein effectgovernmentservants. 'Political priests' of this kind tended to be hostile to Rome, servants of the

elite, and rarely faithful to their vows. During the monarchy (1822-89) there were only about 700 secular priests, products of state-controlled seminaries, to minister to 14 million people. Eventually, the decline and fall of the monarchy gave the church the opportunity to free itself from direct political influence and

appointments - only a little more than a third of the secular clergy were involved in parish work. So rural parishes still found it difficult to secure a priest, and rural stipends were very low. In the late eighteenth century a number of reforming bishops sought a better distribution of priests and an

emphasis on interior faith rather than simply outward observance. Significant 2 Boulard, Introduction to religious sociology, pp. 12-40; the quotation is from Le Bras, Etudes de sociologie religieuse, vol. i, p. 275. 3 Christian, Person and God in a Spanish valley.

Methodism had fallen to single figures. By 1848 there were only three female itinerants within the Bible Christians and by 1850 only one among the Primitive Methodists.11 However, there is evidence to suggest that within Methodism and in other Nonconformist denominations women's public ministry had not

disappeared, it had merely gone underground. Here, at the level of the local circuit or chapel, removed from the reach of denominational regulations, with a sympathetic minister and a congregational tradition of female preaching, women could find an audience that continued to endorse their ministry. Other

Inwardly, Pius had reservations about declaring war on part of his flock and resented the proclamation of General Giovanni Durando, which labelled the war not only national but Christian. These words created consternation in Austria, where Princess Metternich lamented that the pope blessed the troops

dispatched to conquer their provinces.23 Deeming his first responsibility to the church, Pius feared that his association with the war of liberation might provoke a schism in Germany. He was stunned by the April 1848 dispatch from his nuncio in Vienna, which reported that Catholics there held him

nicolaas a. rupke discourse. Quite the contrary was true. After all, both Christianity and the sciences have not merely a cognitive side, but a concrete existence as well in the form of people, careers and institutions, part of the rough and tumble of

distinct networks of power. This banal fact takes on significance if we want to deepen our understanding of the forces that drove the debates. A single text or a particular argument might have different and even contradictory meanings depending on 'geography', including ideological geography, as compellingly

effectively subordinated civil society to the church. The church gained extensive rights over the public schools, and the state pledged to uphold canon law as civil law, particularly with respect to marriage. But even in W¨urttemberg, Hesse-Darmstadt and Baden, the newconcordats reduced state influence over

episcopal and priestly appointments, gave the churches a freer hand in exercising church discipline and organising religious services, and enhanced the church's role in public schooling. The years after 1848 also witnessed important changes in the complexion

11 De Gasperi, I tempi, p. 27. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Christian social thought The concept of a corporate society had some appeal to traditionalists, and

especially in Francewhere Leon Harmel set up a mixed corporation of owners and workers in the early 1870s. It was an admirable, but paternalistic, venture accepted by the right-wing La Tour du Pin and Albert de Mun, who saw in it the germ of a corporate regime which would become the state. They failed

among three great powers, Russia, Prussia and Austria, was deprived of its own state and independence. The struggle for this independence in different forms dominated the minds of generations of the Polish elites, and influenced the whole of Polish culture and religious life. The remembrance of a great

federal Polish-Lithuanian state, which had existed until 1795 and which was increasingly idealised in the memories of the people, reinforced this struggle, and merged with the more recent memories of sacrifices and battles against oppression.

authority.1 When Ferdinand VII was restored to absolute power in Spain (1823) and revived hopes, however unrealistic, of the reconquest of America, Leo XII urged the Spanish American hierarchy (Etsi Iam Diu, 1824) to come to the 'defence of religion and legitimate power'. The popes thus made support

for the Bourbon monarchy and Spanish rule a matter of conscience, and appeared to deny the possibility of a Latin American church. These positions were impossible to maintain and in due course the papacy had to see reason and, from 1835, to recognise the new states. In the meantime the policy of the

also of missing priests. Parishes were so large that attendance at mass was impossible for many people. While average sizes in the dioceses of Bogot´a (3,732 parishioners) and Caracas (4,722) were barely manageable, parishes in the dioceses of Santiago (over 12,000) and La Paz (over 18,000) were too large

for the existing clergy. And priests were declining in numbers. The ideal proportion of 1/1,000 cited for contemporary Europe and the United States was never reached in Latin America in the period 1820-1900; by 1912 the average was 4,480 to a priest, and even in Mexico, where vocations were more abundant,

and in Denmark was very great.28 Despite the local variations in religious practice and the development of anticlericalism which have dominated the historiography, the nineteenth century was also a period of religious revival. Existing religious orders, particularly

for women, grew rapidly in Mediterranean Europe, such as the Daughters of Charity (1617) and the Daughters of Wisdom (1703), and new ones were 24 Ibid., pp. 167, 317-19. For a full discussion of pillarisation see pp. 333-4 below. 25 Ibid., pp. 34-6.

Adolf St¨ocker, a court chaplain to William I from 1874, shared with Todt in the founding of the Central Union for Social Reform in 1877, and a few weeks later founded his own Christian Social Labour Party. This was essentially a conservative opposition to the Social Democrats, and initially it drew recruits

from Social Democrats amongworking men.However, after the Anti-Socialist Law of 1878, the party tended to attract artisans, small shopkeepers and small officials rather than factory operatives and it increasingly based its policies on anti-Semitism; St¨ocker himself became a member of the Prussian House of

pope did not have 'any power or right to interfere with the allegiance that we owe to our state; nor to interfere in or with the concerns of the civil policy or the temporal government thereof, or of the United States of America'.5 Other adjustments required mediation between ancient church practice and

habits of American democracy. Trustees of local congregations often desired to followthe practice of American Protestants and vest ownership of churches in themselves. With an American environment enthusiastic for the rights of the common man, it took more than fifty years to bring American Catholics

cathedral's choir were designed by Sir William Blake Richmond (1842-1921) and are more Byzantine in inspiration, though with art nouveau touches. This belated decoration of St Paul's was rivalled by that of other great European churches in the later nineteenth century, though many of these schemes

have been lost to the ravages of war, time and changing fashion. One ambitious scheme of paintedmurals and mosaicswas designed by Cesare Fracassini Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 andrew sanders

to open churches, schools and monasteries, and the Latin liberalism which closed them down. The astute Bishop Dupanloup of Orl´eans argued that the Syllabus described an idealworld inwhich every onewas Catholic, not the real world in which the church must compromise. The case for the pope was that

he sawthe self-interested character ofmuch nineteenth-century liberalism, its selfish conception of individual autonomy and its greed to do well out of the properties of the church which were public patrimony and the patrimony of the poor. The criticism of Pius is that he bound the church to the values of

denounced the profane demeanour of the music he heard in Italian churches in 1839.3 The truth was that Italy's churchgoers did not distinguish between the 'sacred' and the 'profane', nor did its foremost composers such as Rossini, who happily juxtaposed 'learned' polyphony and fugues with operatic arias in

his Stabat Mater (1832, rev. 1841) and Petite messe solennelle (1863). Furthermore, Italian church choirs, which suffered a serious decline in numbers during the last third of the nineteenth century, were less well equipped to deal with the 3 Hutchings, Church music, pp. 61-2.

dealing with the Old Testament period, caused a storm because it described the history of ancient Israel in a way that equated it with the history of any other nation. This did not mean that Milman thought that Israel's history was like that of any other nation. He believed, and endeavoured to show in

his account, that divine providence had guided and sustained the people of 3 T. H. Horne, An introduction to the critical study and knowledge of the Holy Scriptures, 4 vols. (London: Longman, 1825). 4 Ibid., vol. ii, p. 36.

modus vivendi with the European states, and was thought too liberal to succeed Pius, though his aimswere still more extensive, the re-creation of Catholic Christendom. Leo's vision, like his name, was an imperial one, his favourite pope being the all-powerful Innocent III, whose remains he had reburied in

his cathedral of the Lateran, opposite his own tomb. Leo also looked to the thirteenth century for the renewal of Catholic intellectual life. In the encyclical Aeterni Patris (1879) he declared that all Catholic philosophy should be based on the study of St Thomas Aquinas, thereby producing

with the general convictions of the historian. There is a great deal about religious belief which lies in the human heart beyond historical observation and generalisation, and a summary is not easy. There is sympathy here, but also criticism. Like most periods of Christian

history, seen from different angles, it was the best of times and the worst of times. It is difficult to define a criterion for the success of religious faith; how many Christians got to heavenisknowntoGodalone. But if sheer influence and level of commitment count for anything, this was possibly a more successful

Alois Kneller (1857-1942),was published. Yet apart from a number of biographical studies of individual Christian scientists, 'few attempts to pursue this link between religion and science'1 have been made since. The majority of studies of 'Christianity and the sciences' have focused on the converse, namely the

impact of scientific discoveries and theories on Christian beliefs, in particular on biblical hermeneutics and the question of the historicity, inerrancy and literal-versus-symbolic meaning of Genesis. Nearly all the primary sources of the period of this chapter as well as the secondary ones, up to the present day,

the causewas taken up by his successor and ardent Cecilian, Edgard Tinel. One of the most significant effects of the institute and its trainingwas the number of Flemish organists invited over by the Irish bishops to fill newposts in the cathedrals and larger churches in Ireland,where church building since Emancipation

in 1829 had been extremely active. Through the work of Archbishop Cullen, moves to establish a footing for Irish churchmusic were made at the Synod of Thurles in 1850 in which the Cecilian ideals of Palestrina and Gregorian chant were reiterated. Irish church music moved into a higher gear, however, when

divine providence, the diplomacy of Antonelli and the troops of Napoleon III, Pio Nono remained in the eternal city while the greater part of his state was merged into the Kingdom of Italy. The spoliation of his temporal power took a toll on the pope's health, and

in April 1861, fever-stricken, he collapsed in the Sistine Chapel. However in 43 ASV, Archivio Particolare Pio IX, Sovrani, Francia, n. 42; 'Proclamation L'Empereur au peuple franc¸ais', Le Moniteur Universel, 3 May 1859; Victor Emmanuel to Pius IX, 25 May 1859, ASV, Archivio Particolare Pio IX, Sovrani, Sardegna, n. 52.

the Vatican', to rule a new empire of the spirit. European liberal reaction to Vatican I was hostile. Italy remained partly estranged for a generation.The pope repudiated the Lawof Guarantees in 1871, in which the Italian government unilaterally offered him an annual payment,

a measure of freedom for the Italian church from the state and protection for the curia and for the exercise of its spiritual authority, in return for a settlement of the Roman Question. The Law operated in a quasi-official manner in spite of conflict over the state's confirmation of episcopal appointments and further

of liberal society. 'Reason dictates that prescinding from the rights which have been swept away forever, and submerged at the bottom of the sea, we should content ourselves with saving those which, floating to the beaches, are still capable of being saved', declared Bishop Romo Gamboa in 1843.21 In 1841,

a proposal to create a Catholic association of a million members 'to defend the Catholic religion . . . by the means authorised by law' surfaced in the confessional press.22 This attempt to create a modern organisation enlisting the Catholic masses to work for the church within the liberal system did not

Hungarian as Pair-Schub, or batches of peers). Ten years later, these newmembers of the upper house decided the fate of the so-called 'interdenominational laws'. Despite many problems, the bishops remained loyal to the government. As

a result, the churchwas allowed to maintain its social influence, its institutions and its property, and even to develop them further. There was no question of founding a Catholic political party on the model of the German 'Centre Party'; the church even allowed the government to extend the royal 'right

School', represented the increasing influence of rationalism in religion. Meanwhile, the liberal governments after 1848 dismantled the bonds between church and state, while the Synodal Committee of the Dutch Reformed Church regularly launched innovative schemes like new hymn books, Bible translations

and liturgical forms. In reaction to this, therewere orthodox theological developments aswell, such as the 'Ethical Movement', and orthodox Calvinists also left the Reformed Church in protest. The Catholics built up their own episcopal hierarchy, and with it laid the foundations of their own Catholic world. In

mitigate sectarian animosities through mixed schooling.24 Then in February 1833 the Irish Church Temporalities Bill was brought forward. This measure proposed to reduce the hierarchy from four archbishops and eighteen bishops to two archbishops and ten bishops and to abolish or suspend cathedral

and parochial appointments that lacked active pastoral responsibilities. The incomes of the two wealthiest sees were to be cut, and the richer parish clergy taxed. Reforms in the tenure of church lands were expected to raise extra income. The net financial result of the measure was expected to be a substantial

in terms of the era's popular faculty psychology, and from authors like Phoebe Palmer (1807-74), who stressed the immediate availability of holiness to the earnest biblical seeker. American theologywas affected evenmore directlywhentraditional Calvinists

adjusted their convictions to fit the ideological certainties of the new 3 Nathan Bangs, A history of the Methodist Episcopal Church, 4 vols. (New York: T. Mason and G. Lane, 1838-41), vol. i, p. 46. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

sociology of Christian formation, worship and devotion in a broad cultural context. The question of relations between Christianity and other major faiths is also kept in sight throughout. The History will provide an invaluable resource for scholars and students

alike. List of volumes: Origins to Constantine edited by margaret m. mitchell and frances m. young

prosper, although it anticipated similar efforts later in the century. Portuguese Catholic leaders were more successful over the short term. In 1843, they created the Sociedade Cat´olica Promotora da Moral Evang´elica to engage in campaigns of religious propaganda through a membership open to

all Catholics,whatever their dynastic or political loyalties, and operating within the established political order. Although the new organisation, approved by Costa Cabral and Gregory XVI, survived until 1853, it was not successful. It failed to take root over the country as a whole, while supporters of absolutism

Deprived of the financial support of the state, the clergy nowhad to be paid for by contributions from the faithful themselves. Income fell, and so too did clerical recruitment (though arguably the calibre of the priesthood rose, given the commitment required from menwho often faced lives of real hardship). Above

all, the republican state had forever denied the church the central place which it aspired to occupy in national life. Nevertheless, the dream of recatholicising France did not die in the early 1900s: it lived on, for instance, in the ranks of militant social Catholics, who would make considerable headway in the Catholic

Women preachers and the new Orders increasing importance to their missionary work in Africa and Asia in the twentieth century, leading to an emphasis on it by existing foundations, and by newcongregations founded after 1900. Health services and educationwere

also a part of the evolution of social work as a profession in its own right, and so it is not surprising that the congregations moved easily between these categories of activity. In the field of social care they managed hundreds of homes for children and adults with physical disabilities and for old people; urban

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Scandinavia: Lutheranism and national identity however, revivalism remained mainly within the established churches and became 'free churches' within the boundaries of the state church. These were

also important in the founding of home and overseas missionary societies in the second half of the nineteenth century, which became a distinctive feature of Nordic church life, and gave women a 'public arena' in which to express themselves.

Francewas the role played by the Catholic press, and in particular by L'Univers, the Catholic daily directed by Louis Veuillot (1813-83). An autodidact and a journalist of genius, Veuillot declared himself independent of all political factions and a catholique avant tout. For almost forty years between roughly 1840

and 1880 his was the voice of intransigent, Ultramontane Catholicism with a French accent, much to the delight of the humble parish clergy for whom he Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Catholic Christianity in France, 1815-1905

Catholicism underwent great expansion in Argentina. In Buenos Aires there were nineteen parishes in 1900 compared to seven in 1857. Thiswas a conservative churchwhich still attracted people of the upper and middle classes,whose religiositywas marked by individual piety, devotion to the Sacred Heart, belief

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Latin America: the church and national independence in the Immaculate Conception and allegiance to Rome. But the countryside too was Christianised, and it was here that elements of popular religion survived

a figure like Mr Chadband. It should, however, come as no surprise that two great Russian novelists, Tolstoy and Dostoevsky, would admire Dickens as a popular disseminator of the gospel and that Dostoevsky would recognise in Mr Pickwick a type of the 'absolute beauty' he saw as supremely embodied in

Christ. 1 Letter to John Makham, 8 June 1870, in G. Storey (ed.), Letters of Charles Dickens, vol. xii (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2002), pp. 547-8. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

shrines, pilgrimages and traditional devotions designed to ward off earthly disasters, bring the faithful good fortune in this life and secure a holy intercessor in the quest for salvation. The strength of northern rural Catholicism in Spain and Portugal provided the church with a solid religious base, although

24 Santiago Jos´e Garcia Mazo, Sermones predicados por el licenciado Don Santiago Jos´e Mazo, 3 vols. (Valladolid: Manuel Aparicio, 1847), vol. i, pp. 1389-91. 25 Quoted in Almeida, Hist´oria da Igreja, vol. iii, pp. 258-9. 26 The Portuguese archdiocese for Braga, for example, had 1,270 parishes in the midnineteenth

the evolution of Dutch national identity were mutually complementary, part of the same process, and indeed two sides of the same coin. 43 Wintle, An economic and social history, chapter 11. 44 Van Sas, 'De mythe Nederland', pp. 18-19; Van Miert, 'Confessionelen en de natie'.

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Scandinavia: Lutheranism and national identity dag thorkildsen

series of fittings (most notably its pulpit and its domed font-cover). Street, the author of Brick and marble architecture in the Middle Ages (1855), was determined that the architecture of the Gothic Revival could be invigorated by knowledge of continental, rather than exclusively English, precedent. His taste for Early

French Gothic (which theVictorians sometimes called 'muscular') is evident in his fine churches of SS. Philip and James in Oxford (1858-66) and the more compact All Saints, Denstone, in Staffordshire (1860-2). The influence of northern Italian Gothic is clear in the two Anglican churches he designed for Rome,

concert works. Other important literary and scholarly works followed, with Winterfeld's biography in 1834, Bellerman's theoretical treatise in 1862 and A. W. Ambros's informative commentary in volume iv of his Geschichte der Musik (1878); Parry included him in his Studies of great composers (1887) and

Hans Pfitzner painted a romanticised picture of the composer in his opera, Palestrina, of 1915. As for Palestrina'smusic, Baini's editions (begun in 1841 and completed by Alfieri in 1846) in the Raccolta di musica sacra were superseded Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

be accompanied by observation and reflection, so that the human narrator appeared to be in charge of the exercise. The reception of The history of the Jews showed the extent of the conservatism of the ecclesiastical establishment, and what the emerging discipline of biblical criticism was faced with.7

If 1815 brought adventist hopes to the fore in Britain, the German states were preoccupied with the question of their political future and possible unity. The approach, in 1817, of the three-hundredth anniversary of the beginning of the Reformation led radical groups, especially among students, to demand

as Johann Kaspar Lavater and Johann Jakob Hess from Zurich, also found themselves among the antirevolutionary conservatives. Parallel to Catholic traditionalism, a Protestant revivalist movement arose. In 1839, the conservative rural population of Protestant Zurich overthrew the liberal government

after the appointment of the controversial theologian David Friedrich Strauss, author of Das Leben Jesu (1835-6), to a post at the University of Zurich.However, an alliance between Catholic and Protestant conservatives did not take shape because of the confessionalisation of political conflicts.8

A suggestive cameo of relationships between church, state and nation at the turn of the twentieth century is provided by a conversation between King Edward VII, and Randall Davidson, then bishop ofWinchester, soon to be archbishop of Canterbury, regarding the funeral arrangements for Queen

Victoria. Davidson was alarmed at plans by the royal family to include in the service the Russian Kontakion 'Give rest O Christ to thy servant with thy saints', an implied prayer for the dead that would outrage many. He thought that on such 'a great national occasion' controversy should be avoided. When

inerrant oracle of Scripturewere replaced with the idea of an immanent divine Spirit shaping the minds of the prophets and the apostles and thus speaking to the souls of those reading the sacred texts. The impulse to immanence affected both Protestantism and Catholicism.

The hostile reaction of the Vatican to Romantic Platonic monism can be seen clearly in the effects of the 1879 encyclical of Leo XIII, Aeterni Patris, which established Thomas Aquinas as the normative Catholic philosopher. Equally the critique of 'ontologism' in 1891 tended to repress the Platonic strain. However,

system established under the Austrians and maintained by the Piedmontese: Sarto received a good free elementary school education. The church was strong among the peasant small-holders, whereas in much of Italy it was overidentified with the greater landowners and disliked by landless labourers.

The north was an area of full churches, where the good works of late nineteenth-century Social Catholicism were numerous, and Catholicism was recast in a modern social mode. He felt himself unfitted to be pope, however, lacking diplomatic experience and foreign languages. Some cardinals wanted

always with the hope of pleasing, and thus retaining, as many of the faithful as possible. Why somany novel devotions, all jostling for attention and official approval, should have flooded the Catholic market during the latter half of the nineteenth

century is a question which has yet to be satisfactorily accounted for by historians. The phenomenon may have had something to do with theworld having become 'smaller' through railway travel, lower publishing costs, and the mass manufacture and export of inexpensive devotional kitsch, so that devotees

though the politics of religious unity continued for longer in Sweden and in Finland. Swedish citizens were not allowed to leave the Church of Sweden before 1860. In Finland Protestant Dissent was not legalised until 1889 and full freedom of religion was granted only in 1922. In this East-Nordic region the

changing understanding of the church found its initial expression through the establishment of new church bodies and extended self-government. Sweden received its Church Assembly in 1863 and Finland in 1869. To simplify, in Denmark and in Norway religious toleration came as a result

not living up to their pastoral responsibilities in a period when the very foundations of religious belief appeared threatened. Parish priests stood accused of abandoning the cure of souls by neglecting the teaching of the catechism and by failing to instruct the faithful properly in their preaching. 'In the majority of

churches', the report declared, 'confessionals and the eucharistic table' were left 'deserted'.25 These pessimistic assessments fell short of the mark, although assessing the religious condition of nineteenth- and early twentieth-century Spain and

Lucien Laberthonni`ere's Le r´ealisme chr´etien et l'id´ealisme grec (1904), as the title suggests, manifested an anti-Hellenism as pronounced as in Harnack. But for Catholic Modernism, as with the German Ritschlian school, the

compromise with science was inherently untenable. An interesting exception to thiswas the collection of Oxford essays entitled Luxmundi edited by Charles Gore and published in 1889. Here itwas argued that evolutionary theory forced the theologian to choose between the omnipresence or the non-existence of

nation at large; it was a search for legitimation, for a just and recognised place for themselves as an active, important, but unique part of the Dutch nation, past, present and future.44 National identity assisted the process of verzuiling by providing a common concept, even if the content of the concept differed

considerably from group to group. The growth of the various group national identities in the nineteenth century, often centred around the issues of religion and education, not only contributed to verzuiling but itself benefited from the culture of integration and accommodation. Thus religious pillarisation and

stories in the collection The light invisible (1903) and historical fiction such as By what authority? (1904) and Come rack! Come rope! (1912). In a class of its own is a work about a fantasy pope, Frederick Rolfe's Hadrian the Seventh (1904), Rolfe belonging to the decadent school which produced a number of Catholic

converts. The leading ideas of the OxfordMovement were variously to inform Newman's fictional account of an Oxford conversion to Catholicism in Loss and gain of 1848, and the Anglo-Catholic cleric John Mason Neale's oriental novels

many newly promoted devotions, nevertheless acknowledging that not only every individual but 'every nation and age' has 'its own taste'. As Newman of the Birmingham Oratory, unmoved by the sort of schmaltz beloved by his brothers in the London Oratory, counselled one of his more scrupulous

correspondents: 'Use your own taste, and let me use mine.'18 Changes in devotional taste appear to have had little or nothing to do with papal pronouncements or Vatican guidelines, let alone with thewholesale victory of something vaguely termed 'Ultramontanism' over something equally

seizures of church and monastic property, especially in Rome itself. One of Pio Nono's last anxieties was that his despoiler Victor Emmanuel II should die with the rites of the church. Austria repudiated its concordat, while in the newpredominantly Protestant German Reich formed in 1871 after the Prussian

defeat of France and the fall of Napoleon III in 1870, the Iron Chancellor, Otto von Bismarck, launched a persecution of Catholicism called the Kulturkampf or 'culture struggle' in Prussia from 1872 which was copied in a number of German states, though the persecution of the clergy only strengthened the

the establishment of regular Free Churches. The undisputed leader of Swedish revivalism in the nineteenth century was Carl O. Rosenius (1816-68), a lay preacher influenced by Methodism and representing what was called Neo- Evangelism. He published a widespread periodical (The pietist), and in 1856

directed a large part of the revival movement into the Swedish Evangelical Mission, a sort of home mission within the Church of Sweden. But as early as the 1870s, a large fraction broke away and established a Congregationalist Free Church (Swedish Covenant Church). In Finland, Denmark and Norway,

flow of priests and religious from Ireland confirmed the Hibernian character of theAustralian church, with the impressive expansion of parishes and schools chronicled by Moran in his massive celebratory History of the Catholic Church in Australasia. Moran also offered the sort of welcome to the more moderate

elements in the labour movement afforded by Gibbons in the United States, Lynch inCanadaandManningin Britain, and supported the aims of the strike of 1890. James Quinn, the first bishop of Brisbane (1859-81),who renamed himself O'Quinn in honour of the Liberator, and his brother Matthew, first bishop

the revivalists. The farmer Ole Larsen Skræppenborg (1802-73), a popular preacher and key figure among these groups, managed to reconcile pietistic revivalism with Grundtvig's emphasis on creed, church and sacraments. Thus therewas aGrundtvigian wing of Danish revivalism thatwas national and procongregational,

and amore apolitical pietistic wing leaning towards separatism and home mission. In contrast to Grundtvig's emphasis on community and collective life in Church and nation stood his contemporary Søren Kierkegaard (1813-55), the

became museums, libraries or other municipal buildings. Rome's intransigence on the matter of associations cultuelles proved highly costly for the French church. The influence of Rome continued to shape the French church up to 1914,

and beyond. Unrestrained by the French state, Pius X and Merry del Val Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 james f. mCmillan took full advantage of their freedom to appoint bishops who shared their

3 Longares Alonso, Pol´ıtica y religi´on en Barcelona, p. 207. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Spain and Portugal: the challenge to the church reorganisation to create parishes in accord with the size of local populations

and recommended that in non-Spanish-speaking areas, such as Catalonia and the Basque Provinces, parish priests should be fluent in the language of their parishioners.4 At least until the mid-nineteenth century, liberals believed that their task was to carry out a broad programme of ecclesiastical reform. There

of church government that, as has been explained in chapter 1, transformed and reinvigorated the papacy in the nineteenth century, especially during the long reign of Pius IX (1846-78). In France, as elsewhere, the rise of militant Ultramontane Catholicism stoked the fires of anticlericalism, but it should be

appreciated also that it was not accomplished without a great deal of internal controversy and conflict within the ranks of French Catholics themselves. In the period 1815-48, the Gallican tradition remained deeply entrenched in French culture, both at the Ministryof Ecclesiastical Affairswhere, asNapoleon

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Theology and the revolt against the Enlightenment The story of Abraham's terrible and haunting predicament is meant to show how the Christian life is almost impossible to live. Kierkegaard saw himself

as reintroducing Christianity into a worldly and complacent Christendom, a complacency reinforced byHegel's viewof the state as the divine idea on earth. In this sense the very Protestant Kierkegaard can be seen as the antithesis to those French thinkers from Lamennais to Durkheimwho have been interested

The democratic implications of the French Revolution were overtaken by the consequences of the French war in Europe which followed in the 1790s. Protestant churches in continental Europe did not hesitate to defend the political independence of the states ofwhich theywere a part. Furthermore in so far

as the Revolution had moved towards a 'religion of reason' it was understandable that the churches should be concerned about the threat this might pose to Christian faith. Thus the more significant issues surrounding democracy had to be tackled in the period after 1815, when Napoleon had been defeated. The

their families. The Lithuanian political nation of the Grand Duchy was to be distinguished from that of the crown of Poland in a more limited sense. Less frequently, the word 'Polish' was used for all the Poles of the federated states, the more so because the cultural Polonisation of this nobility, of varied

ethnic origin, was well advanced in the eighteenth century. The elites of the nineteenth century liked to call 'Polish' all the inhabitants of the former state (Rzeczpospolita). A great historian and one of the leaders of the Polish democrats, Joachim Lelewel, said before 1850: 'Do not distinguish among

interior of the church explodes with yet more colour: reds, greens, blues, ochres, blacks and golds. Its materials are suitably rich, but what immediately Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Church architecture and religious art

attracts the visitor is the reredos covering the east wall. All Saints is one of the key buildings of the century, enhancing London with reminiscences of the brick churches of north Germany and the chromatic splendour of Assisi, but habituating them to a Victorian urban context. Butterfield created similarly

structures and a highly emotional expression of religious feeling combined to create an environment in which female leadership flourished. Young, single women, predominantly from the northern states and from a variety of social backgrounds, could be found leading revival services and preaching to mixed

audiences at camp meetings. Freewill Baptists and the Christian Connexion, along with breakaway Methodist groups like the African Methodist Episcopal Church (AME) (1816)8 and the Methodist Protestants (1830), allowedwomen to preach from the pulpit and, in some cases, gave them access to decision-making

in response to the suggestions by parliament that cathedral choirs should be downgraded even further. The Cathedrals Commission of 1852 marked a sea-change for cathedral music in England, in that, after much stagnation and indifference, cathedrals

became central to diocesan life and, with the impetus provided by many 7 See Zon, The English plainchant revival, and Adelmann, The contribution of Cambridge ecclesiologists. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 jeremy dibble

Although descendants of the Puritans had opposed the reading of fiction, by the nineteenth century the religious novel had more than overcome that uneasiness. Biblical content contributed to the masters of nineteenth-century fiction, including Nathaniel Hawthorne's The scarlet letter of 1850 (the letter

being an 'A' for adulteryworn by Hester Prynne in a drama playing off biblical narratives at every point) and Herman Melville's Moby Dick of 1851 (which begins, 'Call me Ishmael'). Better read at the time was popular fiction inspired directly by Scripture.The first important novel of this kindwasWilliamWare's

Spiritualism The Romantics caricatured their religious predecessors as prosaic Philistines, men more content with their sinecures and cosy demonstrations of divine benevolence than with the life of the spirit or true religious experience. In fact

bishops Butler and Berkeley, and the non-juror William Law, were Christian apologists of genius who could have adorned any age. Genuinely religious philosophers like Shaftesbury, Burke and Richard Price were just as typical of the Age of Reason as Bentham and Paine. The leading lights of the English

dictated, and that crude forensic analogies were not to be foisted upon the Divine. Perhaps the central figure of Essays and reviews was Benjamin Jowett (1817-93). He was educated at the great humanistic institution of St Paul's School andwas aworthy successor to Dean Colet (who refounded the school)

in the tradition of Renaissance Christian Platonism as the Regius Professor of Greek at Oxford and a reforming Master of Balliol. He was a translator, like Schleiermacher, of theworks of Plato. For Jowett Christianitywas a religion of 14 Coleridge, Table talk, vol. i, p. 189.

it had the same structure of preachers (though by 1840 morewere 'settled' than were travelling 'circuit riders'), societies and classes. The Baptists were second to the Methodists in size, doing specially well in the South, not least among the enslaved African-American population. Methodists and Baptists alike split,

in 1844 and 1845, over the issue of whether slave-owning was tolerable, so prefiguring the national conflict of the Civil War. The main divisions among the Presbyterians were over the extent to which doctrinal standards could be relaxed to accommodate revivalism: the Cumberland Presbyterians were

kind which stresses the immediacy of the soul's relation to God and hence has affinities with German Idealism and the Platonising strands in the French Restoration thought of de Maistre. The journey of the finite mind to God in philosophy and religion points to the congruity of thought and being

in God as absolute subjectivity. Both Gioberti and Rosmini were averse to the strong division between natural and supernatural in traditional textbook Thomism, and stressed the importance of personal judgement. They were doubtful of the apologetic value of crude supernaturalism and critical of an

of civil war. Portuguese liberals acted even before defeating absolutists on the mainland by suppressing friaries and monasteries in the Azores in 1832.5 In 1834, the government of Queen Maria II (1833-53) ordered a general dissolution of the male regulars and the appropriation of their property by the state for

eventual sale. Spanish legislation (1835-6) under the ministry of Juan ´ Alv´arez Mendiz´abal visited the same fate upon that country's male religious, while ordering the sale of their property for the benefit of the public treasury.6 In both countries, the female orders survived, although legislation prohibiting

Murray, 1904-10), vol. v, p. 377. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 david bebbington The prodigious mass of literaturemust have exercised a powerful influence in

favour of the churches of the day. Evangelical Nonconformists also threw themselves into direct exertions for the spread of the gospel. In the early years of the century Independents and Baptists copied Methodists in organising itinerant preachers to penetrate

1 McLeod, Religion and the people of western Europe, p. 75. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 david m. thompson population to neglect their duty to take communion at the major Christian

festivals with much less chance of investigation and accusation. The religious changes of 1790-4 represented a violent upheaval from the past; and the religious scene in France has never been the same since. However, although before the Revolution it was rare for the population absent from Easter Communion

Hegel, who did much to reawaken interest in medieval German mysticism. Von Baader was appointed to a philosophical chair in Munich in 1826. The Bavarian capital also possessed in Johann Josef G¨orres (1776-1848), appointed to a chair of history in 1827, a vigorous and brilliant polemicist and publicist

for Catholicism. Amidst the birth pangs of the Italian Risorgimento the 'ontologism' of Gioberti (1801-52) and Antonio Rosmini-Serbati (1797-1855) belongs to the general nineteenth-century revival of Platonism of theAugustinian-Franciscan

Having emerged from the margins, Blake's work now seems central to the English poetic canon. One poem from the Songs of innocence has found its way into Anglican hymnals and, in Sir Hubert Parry's setting, the lyric 'Jerusalem' has assumed something of the role of an alternative Christian national anthem

for England. Blake's contemporary,WilliamWordsworth (1770-1850), moved steadily from a broad pantheism to a conventionally Anglican viewpoint.Some ten years after declaring that he 'felt no need of a Redeemer',2 Wordsworth published the sequence of 102 sonnets which make up his Ecclesiastical sketches

fine arts to Germany, remains in Frankfurt. Overbeck, however, kept his base in Rome, beginning work there in 1831 on the picture he considered to be his supreme assertion of faith, The triumph of religion in the arts. In his last years he produced drawings for a proposed series of monumental tapestries

for Pius IX showing the seven sacraments, which survive in the Vatican Pinacoteca. The greatest German painter of the early nineteenth century, Caspar David Friedrich (1774-1843), was a Protestant Romantic who offered an expression

contrast SouthAustralia, founded by the Baptist George Fife Angas in 1836,was designed from the start as a showpiece for religious voluntaryism. It was the first British colony to make a total separation between church and state. New Zealand, which was initially more of a mission field than a settler colony, was

fruitful terrain for Methodism,andtheCape, because it bordered the territories occupied by the London Missionary Society,was an area of particular strength for Congregationalism. Even the Dutch Reformed Church in southern Africa Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

most famous Danish philosopher and theologian of the nineteenth century.He promoted existential individuality, subjectivity and authenticity. In his writings he referred to Christianity as an 'impossibility', and he ended his life forcefully attacking the established church and its leaders for betraying Christ. Thus he

gave impulses to both cultural radicalism and religious individualism. 8 For a more general discussion of the social roots of evangelicalism see chapter 4 above. 9 Lausten, A church history of Denmark, p. 209. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

popularity began withWilliam Paley's Natural theology (1802), cresting during the 1830s when the so-called Bridgewater Treatises on the 'Power, Wisdom and Goodness of God, as manifested in the Creation' were published. The majority of studies of design belonged to the category of special teleology,

in that they demonstrated functionalism, the adaptation of plants, animals 26 Kippenberg, Entdeckung der Religionsgeschichte. 27 Kraus, Geschichte der historisch-kritischen Erforschung, pp. 265-308. 28 A. Schweitzer, Geschichte der Leben-Jesu-Forschung, 2nd edn (T¨ubingen: J. C. B. Mohr, 1913).

of Pacific Studies, 1996), Tongan Anglicans 1902-2002 (College of the Diocese of Polynesia, 2002), and Christianity in Aotearoa: a history of church and society in New Zealand, 3rd edn (Wellington, New Zealand: Education for Ministry, 2004). Jeremy Dibble is Professor of Music at the University of Durham. His specialist interests

in the Victorian, Edwardian and Georgian eras are reflected in the two major studies C. Hubert H. Parry: his life and music (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992) and Charles Villiers Stanford: man and musician (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002) and in his recent volume of Parry's violin sonatas for the Musica Britannica Trust. He has written on a

series that included many of Sankey's own compositions, like 'The ninety and nine'. But Sankey's most popular authorwas Fanny J. Crosby (1820-1915),who had become blind as a child. Her more than 8,000 hymns and religious verses offered a perfect complement to the themes of Christian sentiment emphasised

in the campaigns of Moody and Sankey. The religious practices that in home, church and public expressed the faith of North American believers drew on many strands of traditional Christianity. But they also reflected prominent aspects of North American experience by

countryside. Norwas the appeal of voluntary religion restricted to one sex.Womenwere rarely allowed to serve as ministers outside the Quakers, the Salvation Army and some of the lesser Methodist bodies, but theywere normally given a share

in the decision-making of Nonconformist communities. Among Congregationalists and Baptists women usually had an equal vote in church meeting and among Methodists they acted as class leaders, often with pastoral responsibility for both sexes. Many roles were predominantly female: ministering to

together with the centralising tendencies that came from Vienna, all caused a greatmany problems for the church, but they did temporarily banish the threat of liberalism. Until the settlement in 1867 therewas no liberalmovementworth mentioning within Hungarian Catholicism. But the old problems re-emerged

in thewake of the settlement and the restoration of the 1848 constitution. The main liberal 'Deak party' was moderately liberal, demanding reforms in the area of interdenominational issues such as marriage law, education, church property and registration, but with the objective of achieving peace between

the increase in the scale of production represented by the change from workshop to factory meant thatworkerswere nowselling their labour, rather than finished or semi-finished goods, and with this the balance of economic power shifted to the advantage of the manufacturer. With workers in towns

increasingly dependent onwage labour without any agricultural fall-back, the effects of the trade cycle led to sharp movements of wages and periods of unemployment. This changed the nature and extent of poverty. The churches had traditionally been to the fore in providing assistance for the poor, with the

to Roman Catholicism, while others, inspired by Edward Bouverie Pusey and John Keble, continued to press the Church of England's claim to be a part of the wider Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church. The outcome was that onewhole section of a traditionally Protestant church disowned its Protestant

inheritance, adopting a more Catholic theology and pastoral practice, with daily services, auricular confession, the worship of the Blessed Sacrament and prayer to the Virgin and saints, while Anglican ritual moved in a more Catholic direction, and the clergy assumed a more ecclesiastical character and

which was at the root of the argument from design in Buckland's and other Bridgewater Treatises, lost its scientific currency. Special teleology - the core of the natural theological discourse - was by and large replaced by general teleology in giving meaning to the organic form, in particular the fossilised

instances. The use of formrather than function in explaining organic diversity had been promoted by Cuvier's adversary at the Mus´eumd'Histoire Naturelle, Etienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1772-1844), as well as by the Jena zoologist Lorenz Oken (1779-1851) and themulti-talented Carl Gustav Carus (1789-1869).

hostels for young working women, homes for unmarried pregnant women and those thought to be at risk from predators or their own sexual activity; cr`eches and temporary or permanent homes for orphans and children unable to be supported by their families. Further activity took place outside specialist

institutions in the setting of the parish or in people's own homes, and this too took many different forms. Among the most prominent were the organising of sodalities and gatherings for devotions, sewing circles for church linen and clothes for the needy - all of which involved a social dimension - home

interchangeable with the universe. Yet rather than postulate any rational cognition of this totality he presents the proper mode of apprehension as a 'feeling' - 'die Anschauung und Gef¨uhl' - and disposes of the theistic idea of God and personal immortality. This is the aspect of Schleiermacher which

is developing the radical ideas of the Enlightenment, especially Spinoza. Schleiermacher represents a reaction to the Enlightenment in so far as he asserted the autonomy of the Christian religion over against both metaphysics and ethics. Religion is precisely the intuition and feeling of the universe rather

and identity, drawing on family and institutional loyalties, and binding past and present in one, in a view of things which for the children and grandchildren of the expatriates endured long after the disappearance of any first-hand knowledge of Ireland itself. The vast and expanding historiography of the subject

is now somewhat bedevilled by the modern tendency to interpret religious Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Catholicism, Ireland and the Irish diaspora behaviour in purely secular terms,whenwhat is required is amuchmore subtle

wish to imply that there was any inevitability about the eventual outcome of the war of the two Frances: the Separation, when it came in 1905, owedmuch to accident and circumstances. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

james f. mCmillan The fact remains, however, that the ending of the revolutionary era in 1815 did not close the question of the place which religion should occupy in national life. The concordat of 1802 restored order in the religious field after

female orders, the bonnes soeurs - played a crucial role in the consolidation of the reawakened faith through schooling. With the blessing of the state, irrespective of the regime (for, until the anticlerical initiatives of the Third Republic Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

james f. mCmillan after 1879, the ruling classes in France held firmly to the view that religion was 'good for the people', if not for the educated bourgeoisie) religion was assigned a prominent place in the primary curriculum and teaching orders like

together is their common experience of a divine 'call' to ministry and the informal and vulnerable nature of their authority. For most of them, public ministry 2 Brekus, Strangers and pilgrims, pp. 15-16. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

janice holmes and susan o'brien was only possible in smaller, less sacramentally focused denominations or in congregations far from the centres of denominational power. This section of the chapter will focus almost exclusively on women's ministry

to the status of Pontifical University in 1896. The qualitative life of the church and the standards of the clergy were also changing. During the first decades of independence manyMexican priests, like Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

john lynch their Peruvian counterparts, were a source of scandal rather than sanctity. But a process of reform and renewed evangelisation gathered momentum in the fifty years from 1860 to 1910.The revivalwas strongest in ruralMexico; a typical

number of German states was reduced from over three hundred to just over thirty; several acquired newliberal constitutions; and newlegal arrangements were made for the recognition both of Roman Catholics and of the Reformed (or occasionally Lutherans). Protestant churches found themselves in a new

kind of legal world. In Great Britain the Toleration Act of 1812, the legalisation of Unitarianism in 1813, the Repeal of the Test and Corporation Acts in 1828 and Roman Catholic Emancipation in 1829 represented similar developments. The Belgian Revolution of 1830 also marked a significant change for

of the papacy and reduced the pope's authority over the Spanish church to the purely ceremonial. The Revolution of 1843 and the beginnings of a long period of rule by conservative liberals gathered in the Moderate Party ended these radical projects. In fact, no liberal government ever again attempted the

kind of sweeping unilateral reform of the church attempted by the Espartero government. The Portuguese church fared little better during the 1830s, although spared the violent assaults against the regular clergy that occurred in Spain. Liberal

Methodists in particular began to experiment with 'female evangelists' homes' and the office of deaconess.21 The Salvation Army's decision to abandon the sacraments rather than impede the ministry of its female officers was an indication of how seriously

late nineteenth-century Protestants viewed the issue of ecclesiastical authority. Traditionalists believed that a woman celebrating communion bordered on blasphemy and that women in lay offices represented a serious breach of God's holy order. But attitudes were beginning to change and there was

of their clergy; to change churches; to set up their own devotional societies or, ultimately, to cease to be involved in them altogether. The nineteenth-century Catholic Church, whose missionary endeavour overseas had fallen well behind that of the Protestant churches during the

latter half of the eighteenth century, was not likely to make such an elementary mistake as to confuse theoretical authority with actual power. In India, Catholic missionaries who had been sent out with the blessing of the Congregation de Propaganda Fide (revived in 1817) were generally met with resistance

in Pomerania and Lutheran provinces east of the Elbe.39 Revivalism in Scandinavia was lay in origin. In eastern Jutland and western Norway there was a rural lay movement from the 1790s which converted several thousand. Hans Nielsen Hauge (1771-1824) was a popular Norwegian

lay preacher. In Copenhagen the Bible Society was founded in 1814 by a Scot, Ebenezer Henderson (1784-1858). By the 1830s this became a national religious revival,which linked with Danish andNorwegian cultural nationalism, though the rural awakening was rather different from the pattern followed by liberal

The separation of church and state was not a republican priority in the 1880s in the first phase of the French culture war. Indeed, for a brief moment there were signs of d´etente. The new pope, Leo XIII (1878-1903), was anxious to stay on good terms with the moderate

leaders of theThirdRepublic. Convinced that therewas no viable royalist alternative to the republican regime, he was anxious to see French Catholics join forces with conservative republicans in the face of a mounting challenge from the left. In his encyclical of February 1892, Au milieu des solicitudes, he explicitly

Pastorals and pronouncements, overtly indifferent to the Indians, were not the only evidence of the church's Indian policy. In Indian rebellions of the later nineteenth century in the central and southern Andes church leaders in the diocese of Puno and elsewhere defended the interests of the Indians or at

least acted as mediators between the rebels and the government. The Indians responded to these initiatives and reaffirmed their attachment to religion and respect for its ministers. In pacifying the Indians, of course, priests sometimes served government interests rather than those of the rebels, and it is difficult

programme. Even among liberals, defining this Germany at Frankfurt proved difficult. Yet, early on in the discussions a consensus did emerge to de-emphasise religion's role in public life. This certainly reflected the influence of the

liberal majority, who felt that the existing system of church-state relations (Staatskirchentum) thwarted political and social progress. But it also came about because Catholics and liberal-moderate Protestants wished to escape from the heavy hand of state tutelage in ecclesiastical affairs. Hence, Catholic deputies

in his teaching. By all accounts his tolerance of contemporary harmony, with particular emphasis on enharmonic modulation, the use of more distant tonalities, a freer attitude to dissonance and a creative use of modal colour in harmonic progressions, suggests that his methods were more advanced and

liberal than those of the Paris Conservatoire. After Niedermeyer's death in 1861, Saint-Sa¨ens was appointed to the school, where he taught until 1865. Though infrequently sung, Saint-Sa¨ens's corpus of sacred works, much of it for organ and a range of soloists, is varied and extensive, added to which his

The liberal thought of the Enlightenment and the newaesthetics ofRomanticism inevitably provoked debate within the ecclesiastical arena and across denominational barriers, motivated by a desire to restore a sense of traditional religious sentiment, the authority of the church and the imperative of the

liturgy, and by a sensibility inspired by the Romantic era itself - a longing for the past and a passion for historicisation. An early eighteenth-century fervour Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Musical trends and the western church

Linderberg (1854-1914), founder of the Danish Workers' Union, wanted to showthat Christianity and socialismwere compatible; in 1898 the first Christian socialist movement was organised in Denmark, and several of its organisers had been influenced by Anglican Christian socialism. Although it did not last

long, in 1906 a newChristian Social Committeewas founded by a groupwhich includedWestergaard; and eventually in 1913 the Christian Socialist Unionwas founded, with Linderberg as secretary. Sweden was in many respects more conservative than Denmark. Only in

stronger in the north than the south, and the majority of monasteries were dissolved in 1833-4. Subsequently the religious orders reappeared and developed inways very comparable to Spain andFrance.The state abolished tithes in 1832 and took over parochial endowments in the 1860s, resulting in a significant

loss of income for the parochial clergy. Religious toleration was introduced in 1864 despite the strong opposition of the church, but Roman Catholicism was recognised as the official religion of the state until 1911, when it was separated after the revolution of 1910. This legislation was very similar to the Law of

evidence, Robertson Smith's no less logically presented case was marked by Christian evangelical fervour. It is true that Smith's book was the published version of public lectures delivered to large audiences while he was on trial for heresy before the General Assembly of the Free Church of Scotland (he eventually

lost his case and was dismissed from his post in Aberdeen); but Smith believed passionately that biblical criticism was a continuation and completion of what was begun at the Reformation. The fact that the new criticism produced a version of Old Testament religion and history at variance with

of nature should not be at variance with Scripture and, in coming to terms with the apparent 'cognitive dissonance', a variety of harmonisation schemata were put forward. A genre of literature developed that exclusively or primarily concerned the harmony of the Bible and science. Across the western world,

many dozens of monographs on the subject were produced and thousands of articles, pamphlets and similar smaller publications. Not uncommonly, geological textbooks would include a chapter on how to reconcile the new earth history with the biblical accounts of creation and deluge.4 Catholics as well

on Eden and ninety-five on Salem.8 When in 1844 the Roman Catholic bishop of Philadelphia, Francis PatrickKenrick, petitioned city officials to allowschool 8 Leighly, 'Biblical place-names'. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

mark a. noll children of his faith to hear readings from the Douay-Rheims translation of the Bible instead of the King James Version (KJV) sacred to Protestants, the city's Protestants rioted and tried to burn down Philadelphia's Catholic churches.

u. altermatt, f. metzger and m. wintle Schaepman (1844-1903), who was the first Catholic priest to enter parliament. He had to pacify the traditional conservative Catholic elite, but at the same time mobilise political support for Catholic aims. As with the Protestants, this

meant a party organisation, with a political programme, and recruiting the votes of the masses. Rerum Novarum in 1891 was a vindication of Schaepman's efforts, and by the end of the century he had won most Catholics over to his approach. In 1901 the Roman Catholic and orthodox Protestant political

became an important part of education, and the vicar's absolute power came to an end with the new boards. The purpose of schools should be to support the parents in raising children, giving them a Christian enlightenment and a general cultural education, together with the knowledge and skillswhich each

member of the society ought to have. In order to break with the old orthodox and pietistic educational system, Grundtvig developed the idea of the Folk High School, which would give the youth a 'historical-poetical' education, emphasising the people's character and

Clotilde (1846-57), the work of the German architect Franz Christian Gau (1790-1853). The grandly proportioned Sainte-Clotilde is a rich essay in the fourteenth-century style. The design of its high western towers was completed after Gau's death by Th´eodore Ballu (1817-85). The most distinctive

mid-century Gothic churches in France remain those by Lassus, Viollet and their numerous pupils. In 1840 Lassus, who had been responsible for the restoration of Chartres cathedral, took over work on the substantial new church of Saint-Nicholas at Nantes. Here the influence of Chartres is clear, though the

upheavals throughwhich the earth had passed in a struggle between good and evil.19 The 'gap interpretation' gave geology all the time it needed and a literal interpretation of the Genesis days of creation was left intact. Noah's deluge

might well have been a historical event, but had left no appreciable geological traces. The last global cataclysm had taken place just before the human world was created. This exegesis seemed corroborated by Cuvier's observation that human fossil bones do not occur, and by Buckland's failed attempt to find

support. Thus the last parliament of estates (1847-8) began a new chapter in the life of the church. As a result of the introduction of the Hungarian Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 gabriel adri ´anyi and jerzy kloczowski

ministerial administration, the so-called 'royal right of patronage' was transferred to the control of the ministry. Political events snowballed. Article xx of 1848 on the equality of the received religions could not be altered even by the newly elected parliament (Reichstag) or the hierarchy's proposal to establish

of the expanding United States. In the new French empire, anticlericalism was not for export, until the advent of the administration of Emile Combes, as in spite of tensions the church was seen as an instrument of France's civilising mission. In some new British colonies like New Zealand, the French

missionaries found the Protestant churches and settlers already in possession, and British Protestant and French Catholic rivalry in evangelism spurred their competing wills to empire across the Pacific and through Africa. Religion was intimately bound up with national culture and character: British Australia

smaller; but the newsawmills, metalworking towns or old iron-mill towns still had sharply demarcated social areas, in which revivalists struggled to make an impact. The Social Democratic party in Swedenwas founded in 1889, based on the German and Danish precedents, but in almost every respect it was more

moderate; in the first decade of the twentieth century political co-operation with the Liberals brought a number of measures of social reform, such as pensions, social insurance and unemployment benefits. Although the party officially worked for the disestablishment of the Church of Sweden, in practice

particular were hugely influential figures in the twentieth century. The great contribution of nineteenth-century theology was its emphasis upon the spiritual dimension of Christianity - the question of self and salvation - and the mediation of these spiritual questions in dialogue with

modern science and other religions. This can be seen in such figures at the end of the period as Ernst Troeltsch, William James or Maurice Blondel. Theological orthodoxy was already on the retreat back to Aquinas and medieval scholasticism within Catholicism, or to Protestant orthodoxy within

arose, interpreting national history as an expression of the will of God. The prime minister, Christian Michelsen, deliberately used the Church of Norway to give legitimacy to his secessionist government and to gain support in the two referendums for the break-up of the Union and the acceptance of a new

monarchy. After the ending of the Union, the Young Church Movement in Sweden used 'folk church' to mean a national church, rediscovering the historical roots of church and nation and describing the vital role of the church for

for this change was industrialisation, though not all new industry developed in towns. Population growth posed significant problems for the church, particularly when associated with urbanisation, because of the need for new churches and

more clergy. Notwithstanding significant efforts made by the church - sometimes with active assistance from government, sometimes by raising funds from benefactors - levels of religious practice were not sustained. It became possible to argue, as one contemporary, Karl Marx, did, that industrialisation

20,000women of 1868 had grown to 11,000 men and 40,000women by 1904. By contrast the number of diocesan priests almost halved between 1867 and 1951.10 But the regular clergy ceased to be involved in home missionary activity, and ironically as urbanisation and industrialisation developed the church became

more concentrated in the countryside than the towns. The state refused to create newparishes in the towns from the 1880s.11 Lannon regards the religious revival in later nineteenth century Spain as 'a mainly bourgeois phenomenon, not a popular one'.12 Certainly the church became more exclusively identified

expanded,women found increased opportunities to exercise their faith in active and useful ways. However, the justification for this activity was often based on restrictive attitudes towards women's 'suitable', 'proper' or 'natural' sphere of influence. In the nineteenth century, women were perceived to be

more religious than men and to be the guardians of their family's spiritual and moral development. Charitable work was seen as simply an extension of women's primary role in society, that of mother and wife. Women's public ministry was another matter. Throughout the nineteenth

vii Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Contents 32 · Christianity as church and story and the birth of the Filipino

nation in the nineteenth century 5 28 jos ´e mario c. francisco 33 · Christianity in Australasia and the Pacific 5 42 stuart piggin and allan davidson

Catholic resistance to the multi-national empires of Britain, Prussia, Russia and Austria in Ireland, Poland and Hungary, as well as among the diasporas of emigrants from those countries. Faith flourished among regional groups like the Bretons, resistant to the centre, and more could be said here about smaller

nationalities which achieved a greater self-consciousness in the nineteenth century, like the Croats, Slovenes and Czechs. Religion, however, also acted as a spur to European imperialism, and Protestantism could be described as the ideology of the global British empire, and as part of the manifest destiny

professionalisation of medicine, poor relief and socialwork meant that several church functions were being eroded. However, improvements in transport andcommunication allowed the mobilisation at national level of the emerging confessional organisations: Kuyper reckoned the advent of the affordable daily

newspaper to have been critical to his success.39 The internal integration of religious groups escalated, and they began to take on a new, nation-wide identity, the Calvinists assisted by an idea of their mission in the world, for example in South Africa or the Dutch East Indies.40 This specifically Calvinist

14 Rupke, The great chain of history, p. 205. 15 F. Delitzsch, Commentar ¨uber die Genesis, 4th edn (Leipzig: D¨orffling and Franke, 1872), p. 87. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

nicolaas a. rupke church history and Old Testament studies, Johann Heinrich Kurtz (1809-90).16 Among the problems of the concordist approach were that, first, it limited the freedom of stratigraphy, because the sequence of geological periods had to

vol. ii, pp. 516-29. 20 Riper, Men among the mammoths. 21 F. H. Reusch, Nature and the Bible, 2 vols. (Edinburgh: Clark, 1886), vol. ii, p. 356. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

nicolaas a. rupke not real. This schema was advocated by several Catholics, the Braunsberg theologian Friedrich Michelis (1815-86), editor of Natur und Offenbarung, and the theology professor Johann Baptist Baltzer (1803-71), in his Die biblische

Historians who favour this sort of institutional interpretation tend to see the whole paraphernalia of changes to nineteenth-century Catholic worship and devotion as little more than an accompaniment to the Vatican's essentially political struggle to close ranks, strengthen internal unity and command

obedience throughout the Catholic world, homogenising religious practice formuch the same reasons that it sought to tighten ecclesiastical discipline: to mould Catholics everywhere into a single, powerful pro-papal lobby. Although few historians go so far as to claim changes in Catholic piety to have been the

Spain's first modern parliamentary assembly, were accused of passing legislation 'under the cover of every kind of insult to religion and its dogmas'.2 In fact, every Spanish and Portuguese constitution of the nineteenth century affirmed Catholicism as the state's religion.With the exception of the Spanish constitution

of 1869, none authorised the introduction of religious liberty, although the Portuguese constitution of 1822 and the constitutional charter of 1826 allowed the private practice of other religions, as did the Spanish constitution of 1876. Legislation ordering religious instruction in primary schools (Portugal, 1832,

by their poverty, and the first attempt to create a national trades union, the Knights of Labor, led from 1878 by a Catholic, Terence Powderly, with millions Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Catholicism, Ireland and the Irish diaspora

of Catholic members, confronted the church with the problem of the poor in its modern industrial form. Elz´ear Taschereau, archbishop of Quebec, with his predominantly rural flock, had Rome condemn the Canadian Knights, but the banwas successfully opposed in the United States by James Gibbons, archbishop

dismissed it. Nearly all the others, however, embraced a form of teaching derived from the Evangelical Revival of the eighteenth century. First among its characteristics was a devotion to the Bible. Some Primitive Methodists in a remote village, for example, stuck pins in the family Bible to mark the promises

of God until there were two or three thousand pins in the volume.5 Equally important was the attachment of evangelicals to the cross of Christ as the fulcrum of their theology and the core of their spirituality. It was typical that the 'infinite value of the atonement' was the consolation of a Congregational

arrangements and assumptions were overdue for adjustment. Such a situation was even more acute in Ireland, where the rapid growth of the Roman Catholic population, and its increasing politicisation during the 1820s (see chapter 16), represented a serious challenge to the status of the Church

of Ireland. It responded from 1822 onwards in the 'Second Reformation' 12 Mathias, The first industrial nation, p. 449. 13 Machin, Politics and the churches, p. 17. 14 Gilbert, Religion and society, p. 130.

17 Brown, The national churches, pp. 138-9. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 john wolffe popular antagonism to the church, because when in October 1831 the House

of Lords rejected the measure the negative votes of twenty-one bishops had determined the outcome. When it was eventually passed, the 'Great' Reform Act of 1832 had important implications for religion, because the expansion of the parliamentary franchise and the reshaping of constituencies to provide

Early incursions by traders and trappers into the Red River Valley had left a hardy population of m´etis, mixed French and Indian, who resented the fact that they had not been consulted when in 1869 the Hudson Bay Company ceded the Red River region to the Canadian Dominion. Under the leadership

of Louis 'David' Riel (1844-85), a messianic and earnestly Catholic leader, the m´etis resisted. After years of negotiation, increasing settlement from the east, the execution of a Protestant by Riel's military court and deployment of an armed Dominion force, Riel in 1885 was himself tried, convicted and

Christianity and literature in English andrew sanders In a letter written the day before he died Charles Dickens insisted that he had 'always striven in [his] writings to express veneration for the life and lessons

of Our Saviour'. He felt constrained to add, however, that he had 'never made proclamation of this from the house tops'.1 Dickens was responding to a correspondent's complaint that he had made a flippant reference to Scripture in a passage in Edwin Drood. His forceful response is two-edged. He protests

Hottentot than a Hottentot from a chimpanzee or gorilla, thus demonstrating the closeness of 'man and monkey'.38 Another strategy in establishing the essential animality of humans was to argue against the unity of mankind and for polygenesis. To Vogt and many others, polygenesis was an integral part

of a materialist, evolutionary theory of human origins.39 It had links with the theologically heterodox view of pre-Adamites which went back to the French Calvinist Isaac de la Peyr`ere (1596-1676), but in the USA polygenesis was championed by Christian scientists such as Harvard University's Louis

revival. Western Europe might, however, be considered something of an anomaly even in the present, in which Christianity continues to grow and expand elsewhere, in the Third World, in the United States and, with the collapse

of atheistic communism, in eastern Europe. This must be one reason for the somewhat unconventional appearance of this volume by the standards of other histories of the nineteenth-century Christian faith, as here at least a third of the space is given to the new Christian churches outside Europe. Catholic

Worse was to come. Liberal regalism reached its high point during the regency (1840-3) of General Baldomero Espartero, who was associated with the Progressive Party. Before the refusal of Pope Gregory XVI to approve the government's episcopal nominations, the authorities forced the appointment

of diocesan administrators, sometimes at gunpoint. In 1841, the government proposed a radical reorganisation of the church involving the suppression of seventeen dioceses and 4,000 of the country's approximately 19,000 parishes. A later proposal in 1842 exalted the authority of the bishops at the expense

appealed to rather different social groups. As emphasised in chapter 4, the period after 1815 saw a significant expansion of Protestant Nonconformity of all types.18 Nevertheless not all villages in a given area were the same. There is a correlation between the presence of Nonconformity and patterns

of landholding, such that it was most often found when there was a large 15 Chadwick, The popes and European revolution, pp. 96ff. 16 Chadwick, A history of the popes, pp. 578-608. 17 McLeod, Religion and society in England, p. 2.

history of western Christianity have frequently commented on the 'extraordinary' or 'unusual' sight of a woman preaching to a public, mixed audience, especially since that activity was meant to be reserved for an ordained clergy, or at least laymen. However, women have always, if intermittently, held positions

of leadership within the Christian tradition. As 'fellow labourers' in the early church, as medieval nuns and as prophetesses of the radical Reformation, women have occupied some measure of public religious space. Women in nineteenth-century Protestantismwere no exception. Throughout

In the English-speaking world, the approach was followed by Richard Owen (1804-92) and carried to perfection in his On the archetype and homologies of the vertebrate skeleton (1848). The vertebrate archetype represented a generalised and simplified skeleton of all backboned animals, to which the many parts

of real skeletons of fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals could be reducedonthe basis of theirhomological relations.The meaning of a particular organwas to be determined not by its function but by itshomological relations. With this demotion of special teleology, a compensatory effort was made by

itself from any overt support for the church, but in the face of mounting social unrest and political opposition it increasingly appreciated the church as a bastion of social order: for the Protestant Franc¸ois Guizot, the towering ministerial figure of the age, the church was 'the greatest, the holiest school

of respect which the world has ever seen'.2 What eventually disturbed the harmony which had been achieved by 1840 was the launch of Montalembert's campaign for 'freedom of education', a liberal ideal enshrined in the 1830 Charter but one which militant lay Catholics (the church hierarchy wasmuch

federation was enormous. Their governments organised a strict control over the whole of ecclesiastical life. They changed the borders of dioceses to fit the new frontiers, and tried to place the maximum restraint upon links with Rome. The nomination of docile bishops was a crucial factor in the politics

of subjugation. Because of protests from Rome, dioceses sometimes lacked bishops in ordinary for decades. Loyalty towards the civil power, presented as coming from God, was everywhere imposed upon the clergy, with public prayers for the king-emperor and his family. The confiscation of the church's

jeremy dibble by amonumental series in thirty-three volumes under the editorial leadership of F. X. Haberl between 1862 and 1903. AsmusicalRomanticism gathered momentum, so did the fervour and influence

of the Cecilian movement which spread outwards from Bavaria. An important symbolic event on Good Friday 1816 was the revival of Gregorio Allegri's setting of Psalm 51 (the Miserere) at the service of Tenebrae by Ett and Schmid. Once the exclusive property of the papal choir in Rome, this most

gabriel adri ´anyi and jerzy kloczowski leaders reacted to this development far too late and indecisively. Bishop Ott´okar Proh´aszka (1858-1927) became a champion of social justice, and a noteworthy organiser was S´andor Giesswein, a canon of Gy¨or diocese, the founder

of the Christian-Social Union, which in 1906 already had 20,000 members and which soon developed into a political party. The party's co-operation with the Catholic People's Alliance ('Katolikus Nepszovetseg') increased its membership to 300,000, and it was active in ninety-eight working men's associations

northern parts in 1844-5. Out of this breach, which resulted from northern complaints about the appointment of slave-holding missionaries, arose the Southern Baptist Convention, which would by the early twentieth century become the largest Protestant denomination. Most serious was the schism

of the Methodists, also in 1844-5, and over virtually the same issue - in this case, whether bishops should hold slaves. Leaders at the time looked upon the Baptist and Methodist schisms with great trepidation.Words from the last public speech in 1850 of the Southern statesman John C. Calhoun were long

1847. The Dissenting Presbyterians attracted a substantial following in the Lowland cities, in 1835 enjoying the support of as many as 27 per cent of the churchgoers of Glasgow and 30 per cent of those in Edinburgh.17 Technically the Scottish Episcopal Church, the equivalent of the Church of England south

of the border, was not established and so was a voluntary communion. So were the Independents, Baptists and Methodists,who enjoyed close links with their coreligionists in England, and indigenous bodies such as the Evangelical 16 Edwin Hodder, Life of Samuel Morley (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1888), p. 237.

claimed that the pope constantly supported the majority in favour of infallibility. Thus not many were surprised, at the end of April, when he agreed to give precedence to the section on the powers of the pope, removing it from its order in the face of the opposition of the minority, and the reservations of part

of the majority. In mid-May, the chapters on the papacywere placed before the general assembly. On the final vote on 18 July 1870, 535 assented to infallibility while only two opposed. The dogma declared that the Roman pontiff, when he speaks ex cathedra and defines a doctrine regarding faith or morals to be held

obliged to take a more or less hidden, even clandestine, form, very different from official declarations. The problems of elites The existence of important social and intellectual elites was a great strength

of the national Polish movement in the nineteenth century, compared with other movements in central-east Europe. The social elites, the aristocracy and numerous and diversified nobility, were in process of slowly losing their privileged position, but remained generally faithful to Polish allegiance; they

that his religious faith is implicit in what he had written, but that he had been disinclined to express that faith explicitly. Not a regular churchgoer, he attended a Unitarian chapel occasionally in the 1840s. Dickens's response can be seen as typical of a great deal of the literature in English produced in the first twothirds

of the nineteenth century. It is a literature that can best be described as Christian in its broad cultural context and Christian in its moral ethos, but rarely is it specifically propagandist in intent, confessional in inspiration or dogmatically defined. This is particularly true of the dominant genre in

state should use its authority and influence to 'forestall and prevent' strikes. Liberatore had initially toyed with the possibility of a reversion to some form of guild system, or at least the development of corporate bodies comprising workers and employers. Ultimately an explicit decision was made in favour

of trade unions, but the text, whether in Latin or Italian, fell short of using direct terminology. None the less, that trade unions were endorsed gradually becomes clear as the argument develops, and especially when their freedom from state intervention is demanded. It is evident that common sense prevailed

pp. 334, 337-8. 23 Wintle, An economic and social history of the Netherlands, p. 28. See p. 335 below. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 david m. thompson

of urbanisation and of religious practice, obviously represents an exception to any general theory of secularisation. Indeed the process of 'pillarisation', or the differentiation of the population into distinct religious groupings in the nineteenth century, might almost be seen as an alternative to secularisation.

progress of voluntary religion was the widespread devotion to strong drink. The consumption of alcohol rose steadily down to late in the century and the number of drink outlets, whether in metropolitan bars or in frontier saloons, was legion. The public housewas a centre of male sociability, sustaining aweb

of values that fostered gambling, tolerated swearing and admired a manliness that could express itself in violence. The temperance movement, though originating outside the churches, was grafted into their life. They banned alcohol from their events, provided organisations such as the Band of Hope to train

Spain by the early twentieth century, the circles numbered 257, with a membership of 180,000; in Portugal by 1910, they numbered twenty-five, with a membership of 10,000.36 But membership comprised only a small minority of industrial workers. Moreover, their 'mixed' character as joint associations

of workers and employers left them open to the charge that they were little more than tools of capitalism. Later, 'pure' Catholic labour syndicates emerged, although they proved only marginally more successful. In Spain after 1906, Catholic agricultural syndicates began to appear. They enjoyed

style. Moreover, there seemed little scope for aspiring composers to step beyond the limited stylistic parameters laid down by Cecilian values; indeed, much of the original liturgical music written by Cecilian composers was, by dint of its own aesthetic and theological imperatives, artistically modest and

often banal. Adherents to the new harmonic progressivism, such as Liszt and Bruckner (and even the more conservative Rheinberger), were scorned for their 'secularism'. Indeed Bruckner's extraordinary corpus of motets, notably 'Ave Maria' (1861), the graduals 'Locus iste' (1869) and 'Christus factus est'

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 u. altermatt, f. metzger and m. wintle politicisation of religion very explicitly. In 1841, they imposed a Catholicexclusionist constitution in Lucerne, which made the right to vote dependent

on belonging to the Catholic Church. They promoted the appointment of Jesuits in order to ensure the Ultramontane orientation of the new generations of Catholics. From the early nineteenth century onwards, Protestant theologians, such

and more of these studies are needed. Yet the most urgent desideratum of secondary scholarship remains a comprehensive critical documentation of the primary literature, combining and comparing the Anglo-American with the continental, Protestant with Catholic, scientific with theological, and building

on the encyclopaedic approach by Z¨ockler. 52 Rupke, Richard Owen, pp. 323-52. 53 W. B¨olsche, Alexander v. Humboldt (Berlin: Rubenow, 1891). 54 Daum, Wissenschaftspopularisierung, pp. 220-4.

15 Baptist Magazine, November 1862, p. 702. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 The growth of voluntary religion gymnasia, girls' sewing classes and mothers' meetings. Nonconformists also

operated directly charitable agencies. They maintained orphanages, financed hospitals and founded deaconesses' institutions to train women for Christian social service. They supported the great interdenominational voluntary societies that held their annual May meetings in the Exeter Hall. And some

pre-Enlightenmentworld. Rationalistic and cerebral theologywas rejected by the 'GroningerMovement' from the late 1820s onwards with their 'theology of feeling' and Christian Humanism; meanwhile the orthodox Calvinists rejected all these new initiatives en masse. Amongst the Catholics, powerful elements

opposed the attempts of the government to reformthem, and Ultramontanism evolved in reaction to the Enlightenment. Later on in the century, the rise of modernism in Dutch Reformed theology, led first by J. H. Scholten (1811-85), and later renowned as the 'Dutch Radical

births, marriages and deaths to civil authorities affected Catholic and Protestant church alike, to the consternation of the latter. Thus, when Pope Pius IX died in 1878, Bismarck decided to reverse course. By the time he resigned from office in 1890, almost all of the Kulturkampf legislation had been either repealed

or disabled. The Kulturkampf was supposed to integrate Catholics into Protestant Germany. Instead, it widened the gulf between Catholics and Protestants. Accused of being national enemies (Reichsfeinde) and vilified as disturbers of

the age. (The rationale for the law was that desecration of the sacred Host equated to themurder of the body of Christ,which, as the liberalRoyer-Collard observed, effectively wrote the doctrine of the Real Presence into the Constitution.) But nowhere was the influence of the church more apparent -

or resented - than in the field of education. A leading ecclesiastic, Mgr Frayssinous, was appointed minister of education and of ecclesiastical affairs, with a remit to give a distinctly Catholic bias to education at all levels. Bishops were empowered to appoint all teachers in primary schools and they also

in an era of urbanisation, industrialisation and empire. Historians have concluded that the emerging gender ideology of the nineteenth century with its constructs of female moral superiority and separate feminine and masculine spheres of activity provided a cultural environment in which the new

orders were able to flourish. This ideology was not without ambivalence, as the repeated and well-documented conflicts between the leaders of the congregations and clergy over control and authority demonstrate, but overall the movement was accommodated within the prevailing culture. Moreover,

major leader of church, party and government, an important theologianwhose Princeton lectures on Calvinism in 1899 had a global impact,33 a leading academic and co-founder of the Calvinist Free University of Amsterdam, a prolific homilist, a journalist of legendary energy and influence, and an indefatigable

organiser. He bound his orthodox Calvinist following into a modern political 33 Kuyper, Calvinism; see Heslam, Creating a Christian worldview. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 u. altermatt, f. metzger and m. wintle

not so much in terms of the long-standing ideological conflicts, but rather in the growth of the various ideology-based organisations and of the negotiating system which made it all work: these were the crucial nineteenth-century contributions to the creation of verzuiling. Moreover, they played an essential

part in the reformulation and crystallisation of Dutch national identity before the FirstWorldWar. While religious groups in other countries experienced pillarisation in the sense of vertically integrated institutions, only the Netherlands developed such

Geopolitical changes and pan-Scandinavianism The geopolitical map of Norden has changed dramatically since the beginning of the nineteenth century, with a resulting impact on the churches and church life. Sweden lost Swedish Pomerania in 1807. Finland, the eastern

part of Lutheran Sweden, was separated from Sweden in 1809 and became an autonomous Russian Grand Duchy, a traumatic loss for Sweden. But the Tsar, Alexander I, promised the Finnish Diet in Porvoo in 1809 to uphold the Lutheran religion of Finland. After the Russian Revolution and a terrible civil

religious impulses of the rural masses: the cult of saints, the veneration of shrines, the organisation of pilgrimages and enthusiasm for miracles. All of these elements were combined in the promotion (from the pope downwards) of the cult of Mary, the Virgin Mother of God, who famously appeared to the

peasant girl Bernadette Soubirous at Lourdes in the Pyrenees in 1858 and who was reputed to have been seen at other sites such as La Salette in the French Alps in 1846 and at a convent in Paris in 1830. Pilgrims came to Lourdes in their hundreds of thousands, testifying to the mass appeal of the new, revitalised

Britain and Ireland, 1859-1905 (Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 2000). Ogbu U. Kalu is the HenryWinters Luce Professor ofWorld Christianity and Missions, McCormick Theological Seminary, Chicago, and Associate Director of the Chicago Center for Global Ministries. He has written and edited a number of books, including Divided

people of God: church union movement in Nigeria, 1875 -1966 (NewYork: NOK Publishers,1978), The history of Christianity inWest Africa (London: Longman, 1980), Power, poverty and prayer: the challenges of poverty and pluralism in African Christianity, 1 960-1996 (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 2000) and Embattled gods: the Christianization of Igboland, 1841-1 991 (Lagos: Africa

On the age of the earth, Wordsworth accepted that geology showed it to be much older than 6,000 years. However, what geology had discovered was the state of the earth before the six days of creation in Genesis 1, when the earth was 'without form and void' (Genesis 1:2). Somehow, but with divine

permission, a hostile agency had distorted this creation and the six-day account in Genesis was the description of a re-creation. Darwin's view that the human race had evolved from a barbarous statewas contradicted, among other things, by the biblical teaching that the first humans were created in the image and

of the Midwest. Among the older churches, Presbyterians did best at adjusting to the helterskelter realities of the new nation. Their main contribution to organisational innovation was the free-standing theological seminary, a distinctly American

institution pioneeredbyCongregationalists atAndover, Massachusetts, in1808. By 1860 there were at least fifty such schools existing to prepare college graduates for the ministry. One-fourth were Presbyterian, with Princeton in New Jersey as the leader. Presbyterians, by insisting on an educated ministry, could

foundations, known as sisterhoods, were also made within the Anglican communion. This widespread movement appeared to occur in several countries spontaneously and in parallel, but closer examination shows the existence of a geographic heartland in France and French-speaking Belgium, out of which

it spread and from which leaders in other countries took their models, their inspiration and often their training. Although themovementwas more powerful in some places and contexts than others, and continued to owemuch to its French origins, it proved highly adaptable to differing political, socio-economic

of the nineteenth century Catholic societies and the Catholic press blossomed. However, the country's total of sixty-two Catholic newspapers could not compete with the liberal Hungarian press: in 1886, the Catholic press still only accounted for 3.6 per cent of the media output in the capital city alone. This

meant that a Catholic press apostolate was needed. The Jesuit B´ela Bangha achieved this objective when, in 1908, he founded a Catholic news agency, a publishing house, and a famous newspaper (Magyar Kultura) with the help of an endowment.

still smarting from the Turin government's insistence in 1863 on the exequatur, requiring its consent to have papal bulls, briefs or other documents approved in the Kingdom, as well as the placet, requiring approval for ecclesiastical acts, was anxious to speak out. There had been talk of tying the condemnation of

modern errors to the Proclamation of the Immaculate Conception in 1854, but thiswas deemed inappropriate. The pope returned to the need for a forthright condemnation following the seizure of the greater part of the Papal States.He catalogued many of the errors later listed in the Syllabus.46

Rome acquired sole power to name the French Catholic hierarchy, regardless of politicians, for the first time in history: anticlericalism had delivered French Catholicism into papal hands. The Gallican tradition of autonomy from Rome received its final quietus, the state having abandoned it. More favourably, the

pope had reasserted the church's freedom as a supernatural society, throwing off the golden chains which the state had laid upon her. On this view, the pope was asserting the spiritual independence of the church, against any sacrifice which the state might require of her. If this was 'integralism', it was also the

Switzerland and the Netherlands On the level of ideology andWeltanschauung, Catholic identity was characterisedby an antimodernist cultural code basedonantiliberalism, antisocialism and antifreemasonry. Such anti-positions also found expression in rites and religious

practices, such as anti-Judaism in the Passion plays. Mass pilgrimages to the statue of Our Lady of Einsiedeln, or the veneration of Pius IX, were manifestations of the transformation of Catholicism from a traditional religion into a mass one.16

instigation of Ernst Haeckel (1834-1919). For decades, the monist movement had gathered strength in Germany, claiming to replace the churches and appropriating Christian ritual. Sciencewas put forward as a secular religion, Darwin as its saviour and redeemer, Humboldt as one of its saints; scientists were

priests or high priests, monistic Sunday sermonswere preached, and hymns of scientism composed and sung during the Sunday services.53 Haeckel wrote a widely translated confession of scientific faith under the title Der Monismus als Band zwischenReligion und Naturwissenschaft (1892).Whenthe monists founded

the defence of the Irish church in the 1830s was followed in 1845 by a campaign of resistance to Peel's plan to provide a permanent state endowment for the Roman Catholic seminary atMaynooth near Dublin. Although the protesters could not prevent parliamentary approval of the Maynooth grant, they did

show that they were a political force to be reckoned with, and knowledge of the likely Protestant outcry held governments back from pro-Catholic measures. A notable example of this restraint occurred in the late 1840swhen Lord John Russell, now prime minister, had to conclude that plans he personally

For the European continent, the situatedness of Christianity-and-science literature is by and large an uncultivated field of study, yet equally suggestive. The Protestant authors of major treatises, from Kurtz to Z¨ockler, were close to the nineteenth-centurymovement of neo-Lutheranism with its ecumenical

programme and openness to contemporary currents of thought, including scientific thought. The Catholic theologians in Germany, cited above, who addressed the issues of Bible and science all belonged to the movement of Old Catholicism and were, because of their disobedience to the Vatican, excommunicated

new Kaiserreich as a 'Protestant empire'. Protestants comprised roughly twothirds of Germany's population. Protestant religious and cultural values figured prominently in statements of German national identity. The state Protestant churches abandoned their former resistance to the nation and actively

propagated nationalist symbols and rhetoric. Bismarck and liberal politicians Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 anthony j. steinhoff even tried to force Catholics to assimilate into this Protestant nation. But this

decoration) glows with coloured marble, inlay and sculpture which would have seemed incongruous in a building based on northern European Gothic. The cathedral is a properly 'imperial' structure, possessing an exuberant dignity which testifies to its ancient Mediterranean roots and a noble restraint

proper to the heart of the British empire. Architecture John Ruskin was the most eloquent and influential apologist for the Gothic Revival. His influence was felt in Europe and America and is discernible in

set itself in motion. By the early twentieth century, priests and religious of an apostolic spirit had emerged, who did outstanding work especially in the capital. Some of the bishops, however, remained as immovable as ever, and were still closely allied to the ruling political factions, primarily in order to

protect the church's property, wealth and estates (latifundia). The warnings and wake-up calls of individual bishops, priests and Catholic politicianswent unheeded, and as a result, in 1914, Hungarian Catholicismwas inwardly completely unprepared as it slid into World War I and thence into

One reason for Humboldt's avoidance of the language of natural theologymay have been that teleology, and especially general teleology, was a central tenet of nature philosophy, from which Humboldt believed science should keep its distance. His critics, by contrast, were concerned that Kosmos should not

provide additional impetus to philosophical materialism, which was drawing considerable new strength from nineteenth-century science, as described by the Kantian philosopher Friedrich Albert Lange (1828-75).33 Belief in miracles, for example, came under renewed criticism from the sciences. It was critically

women appear to have packaged their preaching under the guise of 'Bible teaching' or charitablework. During the mid-nineteenth century, a number of English women set up evangelistic missions to the working classes, and some even established new churches. Accounts suggest that such activity involved

public preaching to mixed audiences.12 In mid-nineteenth-century Britain it was the emergence of an evangelical sub-culture that provided women with a more favourable environment for their public ambitions. Stimulated by the revival in Ulster in 1859, British

Rhineland provinces it had acquired in 1815, and after initial distress he recognised the July Monarchy established by the French revolution of 1830. Meanwhile a small but influential body of French Catholic Ultramontanes, led by Robert F´elicit´e de Lamennais, demanded that the pope champion liberal

reform. Indeed the third Catholic Relief Act in the United Kingdom in 1829, the union of Catholics and Liberals in Belgium in 1830 to overthrowthe rule of Protestant Holland and the Polish rising against Russia in 1830-1, all indicated, despite the pope's reservations, that liberalism might sometimes be in the

Surprisingly, Marx and Engels had little influence on the development of Catholic thinking on the social question, as did the growth of the early socialist movement, although there were reactions to socialist doctrines and especially to that of inexorable class conflict.Writing in the Vatican, where he had taken

refuge from Mussolini, Alcide De Gasperi looked back in 1928 and decided that Vienna was the birthplace of the Catholic social movement and that Baron Karl von Vogelsangwas its master. Vogelsangwas convinced that the divisions within society could only be solved on a vertical level,which meant that owners

eventually only two were discussed: Dei Filius and De Ecclesia. The former, adopted by a unanimous vote on 24 April 1870, aimed not simply to condemn rationalism, modern naturalism, pantheism, materialism and atheism, but to elaborate the positive doctrines which these 'errors' violated. Reason was not

rejected, but its limitations were exposed in the natural order, and more so, in the spiritual sphere. It reaffirmed the reasonableness of the supernatural character of Christian revelation, deeming faith an assent of the intellect, moved by will, and elevated by divine grace.

List of contributors in literature and theology, he began teaching at Loyola School of Theology and Ateneo de Manila University in Manila and lecturing at the Jesuit School of Theology at Berkeley. In addition to organising and lecturing at conferences around Asia, he has written essays on

religion and culture for journals and anthologies and has published books on Philippine vernacular texts from the Spanish colonial period such as Sermones [Prancisco Bloncas de San Jos´e O.P.] and Bocabulario Tagalo [Miguel Ruiz, O.P.]. Robert Eric Frykenberg is Professor Emeritus at the University of Wisconsin-

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 The growth of voluntary religion david bebbington Charles Haddon Spurgeon epitomised the success of nineteenth-century voluntary

religion. From the early 1860s to the beginning of the 1890s the celebrated Baptist preached regularly at his Metropolitan Tabernacle to congregations of around 6,000 people. His vivid, witty and uninhibited approach in the pulpit made him one of the sights of London. By 1865 his sermons had aweekly

peasant masses and the rural nobility, rich and poor, everywhere laid claim to at least an outward or intended fidelity in spite of a daily morality which was often not very edifying. When they moved into towns, people now liberated from their peasant state and traditional serfdom tried to maintain their

religious traditions. There are striking examples from certain towns in the United States, above all Chicago, to which millions of Polish peasants came at the end of the nineteenth century. As they began to earn money, they first constructed their parishes with Polish clergy in order to be 'at home'. The

Argentina, unlikeMexico and Peru, did not inherit from the colonial church an infrastructure onwhich it could later build. The period 1830-60was the low tide of Argentine Catholicism, a time when it collaborated with dictatorship and traded its freedom for protection. In these vast and empty lands, bishoprics

remained unfilled for decades, seminaries closed from apathy, and priestswere few and far between. The national constitution of 1853 established and funded the Catholic Church as the religion of the state, which was obliged to 'support' but not 'profess' the Catholic religion. The government controlled the

Charlestown, Massachusetts, under the erroneous suspicion that the nuns were corrupting their charges. In 1840, the Irish-born Catholic bishop of New York, John Hughes, asked the city's Public School Society to provide money for Catholic schools to balance its support for Protestant-run establishments. The

resulting quarrel flared close to violence and earned Hughes his nickname of 'Dagger John' for his vigorous defence of Catholic churches. The antebellum climax of anti-Catholicism was the formation in 1854 of the American Party, which held that immigrants, especially Roman Catholics, were corrupting

in Britain for a number of reasons. He had been accused of following F. D. Maurice in denying that there was eternal punishment for unbelievers21 and he was invited to dine with scientists such as Charles Lyell, T. H. Huxley, Herbert Spencer and Joseph Hooker.22 Later he would support the

rights of the Zulu people against the colonial policies of the white settlers in Natal.23 From 1863 Colensowas in contact with Kuenen by letter, the two men 19 Ibid., p. 259 n. 8. 20 J.W. Colenso, The Pentateuch and book of Joshua critically examined, Part 1 (London: Longmans,

on American theology. Varieties of Calvinism that had dominated the colonial period remained alive in the new republic, especially through the works of Jonathan Edwards (1703-58). Against such views, Methodists urged a stronger sense of human ability, both in appropriating salvation and in exercising the

rights of the redeemed to advance towards Christian perfection. Methodists at first did most of their theologising through sermons, hymns and personal exhortations. But by the 1830s more formal presentations came from scholars likeWilbur Fisk (1792-1839),who explained Methodist reliance on divine grace

41 S. R. Driver, An introduction to the literature of the Old Testament (Edinburgh: T. and T. Clark, 1891). Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 History and the Bible

scholar Theodore Parker, who was a follower of deWette, and who published an English version of the latter's Old Testament Introduction with extensive notes of his own.42 In Sweden Otto Myrberg strongly resisted the tide of Old Testament criticism, and in particular S. A. Fries's History of Israel (1894),which

authority. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 nicolaas a. rupke science of the middle of the nineteenth century, claimed for himself and his

scientific colleagues a truth mission and a scientific priesthood - no less than his non-Christian rival Huxley did. Scientific discovery - he maintained - was a form of divine revelation. The scientific institution founded by Owen, the British Museum (Natural History), was seen by many of his supporters as a

the reliance on traditional cures. The mechanised industrial world was more obviously under human control than the world of nature which determined agricultural prosperity, and did not require supernatural remedies.51 Furthermore the more intense timetable of industrial work, by comparison with the

seasonal variations in agriculture, put greater pressure on people's use of their small amount of leisure time; and freedom not to go to church was often exploited. Secular political gospels, such as those of positivism or socialism, 47 Sperber, Popular Catholicism, pp. 30-5.

who urged him to negotiate with the 'rebels', and assumed leadership of the national movement. In mid-February, the acting secretary of state invoked the intervention of the Catholic powers: Austria, France, Spain and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, to restore the states of the church. Piedmont and France,

seeking reconciliation rather than revenge, urged the pope to retain his earlier reforms, but Rome balked. Pius cited the incompatibility of constitutionalism with the free exercise of his spiritual power. While the Austrians defeated the Piedmontese at the battle of Novara (23 March 1849), the French Republic

schemed with Napoleon to reorganise Italy. At Plombi`eres, in late July 1858, the two plotted war against Austria and a diminution of the Papal States. The nuncio in Paris, Sacconi, reported that the French empire had little good to say about the papal government, proposing that the pope have a smaller state

so he would be less embarrassed by the burdens of power.42 39 ASV, Archivio Particolare Pio IX, Francia, Sovrani, nn. 30 and 32. 40 Monti, Pio IX, p. 260. 41 Gabriele (ed.), Il carteggio Antonelli-Sacconi, vol. i, p. xiii; ASV, Archivio Particolare

nuevo concordato (Madrid: Aguado, 1843), p. 341. 19 Neto, O Estado, a Igreja, pp. 86-9. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 william j. callahan

the Progressives in Spain and the Historicals in Portugal, took amuch tougher stance towards the church when they were in power. By the last quarter of the century, a political consensus of sorts had emerged in both countries that gave the church breathing space. There were tensions among the parties over

Nikolaus von Zinzendorf, and the founder of Methodism, John Wesley, also made Protestantism a global religion, through a complicated combination of mission and settlement. Its enormous expansion came in the nineteenth century, especially through voluntary bodies outside the established churches in

the Protestant countries, spectacularly enough in Great Britain, among several varieties of Methodist, Baptists, Congregationalists and Presbyterians, as well as many minor or purely local bodies, and within the new Britain in Canada, but most dramatically in the United States, with hundreds of denominations,

The two psalms Opp. 78 and 91 are altogether more Romantic in deportment, as are the outer sections of the 'Ave Maria' Op. 23 No. 2, though the central section of the latter reveals Mendelssohn's devotion to Bach, one of course reflected in his all-important revival of Bach's St Matthew Passion at

the Singakademie in 1829. The amalgam of Mendelssohn's Protestant sacred style was later promoted by Grell's pupil, Arnold Mendelssohn, by two Catholics, Herzogenberg and Reger, Kiel and, most substantial of all, Brahms, 6 Einstein, Romantic music, p. 166.

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 david bebbington people), which co-operated closely with the Independents but retained its separate organisation. Presbyterians (with 0.3 per cent) who had not trodden

the Unitarian road had churches in many cities and were strong in Northumberland, close to the border with Scotland, from where came many of their members. The international Moravian Church had places of worship, some of them in residential communities such as Fulneck near Leeds,

pre-existing impressive solidarity of German Catholicism. A small number of educated middle-class Catholics in Germany and Switzerland, who rejected Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 sheridan gilley

the Vatican decrees, went off to found or join the Old Catholic Churches in union with the schism of Utrecht. In France, the conservative reaction to the violence of the Commune of 1871 seemed likely to restore the French Catholic monarchy, but in 1875 the country drifted into its Third Republic, leaving the

public monuments in Senate Square.The sloping square is dominated by the domed, cruciformLutheran cathedral,which rises above a stately flight of granite steps. The work of the German Johann Carl Ludwig Engel (1778- 1840), itwas constructed between 1830 and 1851.The principal church in Copenhagen,

the Vor Frue Kirke,was handsomely rebuilt from 1811 to 1829 following damage from bombardment by Nelson's navy. The new church, designed by Christian Frederik Hansen (1756-1845), is entered through a severe Doric portico above which rises a boldly unadorned tower. Its interior is notable for

be seen as a great philosophical theologian justifying the Christian religion to its cultured despisers. However, the Hegelian pair Vorstellung and Begriff can be seen in a very different and inherently reductive manner: the Begriff reveals the true meaning of the extravagant and metaphysically otiose language of

the Vorstellung. Hence the real task of the theologian is radically revisionary. Here we can see the stance of Feuerbach and Strauss. The rich theological background of Hegel's and Schelling's thought meant that German Catholics could employ these ideas readily. Freiburg, M¨unster,

The relationship of the church to the state had long been a vexed question wherever the church had to struggle to maintain its rights in the face of absolutist states. This was especially so in France since the Revolution, and in Germany where Bismarck with his Kulturkampf had attempted to Prussianise

the church and make it subordinate to his will. Understandably any talk of welcoming, or fostering, state intervention was mistrusted in Catholic circles, arousing anxieties expressed forcibly at the Catholic Congress of Li`ege in 1890. Conversely, Henry Edward Manning, archbishop of Westminster since 1865,

Christian socialism and social issues (charity, the status of apprentices, male and female workers, prison chaplaincy, etc.) were given special attention. In this way the Catholic congresses - despite defamatory attacks from the anticlerical and liberal press - contributed to directing the attention of society and

the church to developments which until then had gone more or less unnoticed. As for the bishops, who in 1900 were still living like aristocrats, changes began to take place in 1906, when the new minister for cults, Albert Apponyi, assumed office. He was instrumental in the appointment of truly apostolic,

spoke to the bishops and their flocks through an encyclical, both clergy and laity were expected to accept its contents as so weighty that disagreement or rejection bordered on the unthinkable. Once the papacy began to enunciate principles on the social question, the material itself and its diffusion within

the church took on a magisterial aspect. Catholic social teaching, rather than individual expressions of social thought, was now possible. Nevertheless Leo, inheritor of a mindset in which a hierarchical model for church and state was dominant, was as committed as his predecessors

month. But it is a reminder of the real distance that separated church leaders from influence on the outcome of political events. It is also a reminder that the most obvious example of a church leader we have discussed exercising political power is Abraham Kuyper, a clear conservative in politics. In none of

the countries discussed can it be claimed that church involvement was decisive in moving social attitudes in a new direction. This does not mean that those Christians who were involved in thinking out new ways of expressing their faith in contemporary society were merely following the general political

Mission in the 1890s.44 One of the chief characteristics of revivalist movements was the expectation that there would be weekly attendance at church, perhaps even twice on a Sunday. There is little evidence to suggest that this had been normal in

the eighteenth century, or even earlier. The Roman Catholic, Lutheran and Anglican churches specified the laity's obligations of church attendance in different ways, but all gave particular emphasis to attendance at communion at Easter.Weekly attendance reflected a particular devotion. Of course, in estate

principally from German Protestantism's status as a state religion (Staatsreligion), where the head of the state was also the head of the church. With the Kaiserreich legitimately established, church authorities transferred obedience to king and state to the new emperor and nation. Pastors celebrated

the emperor's birthday and the anniversary of the German victory at Sedan as religious events. Church leaders, like Oberkirchenrat President Herrmann, proclaimed the church's duty to help the nation develop its most noble powers and overcome its gravest weaknesses. Protestant ministers also joined in

higher. Men actually formed a majority in many morning services, even at 10 Field, 'Social structure'. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 The growth of voluntary religion

the end of the period, because at that point in the day wives and domestic servants were often expected to be preparing the Sunday dinner. The male proportion in Nonconformist congregations was regularly higher than that in the parish churches. The chapels projected a virile image. Manliness was a

science was this critical tradition within theology, leaders of which ranged from Johann Gottfried Eichhorn (1752-1827) to JuliusWellhausen (1844-1918), both G¨ottingen orientalist-theologians. The documentary hypothesis of the historical school in biblical studies, especially Old Testament studies, reduced

the entire Pentateuch from a unitary record of divine revelation to a product of historical change, cobbled together from a variety of other sources and repeatedly altered in a process of editorial changes.25 Higher criticism did not become a topic of major public debate in Britain before the 1860s, with the

kingdom of the saints of the Most High. British Protestant interpretation of Daniel 7 identified the fourth kingdom with the papacy, and its war against the saints of the Most High with the persecution of movements such as the Waldensians and the Hussites.On the viewthat 'time' meant a year of 360 days,

the period of domination of the fourth kingdom would be 1,260 years, and depending on when it was believed that papal power began to be exercised in an anti-Christian way, the ending of the period of 1,260 years could be seen as 1798, when the French republican army took possession of the city

more than socio-economic (class) ones, and where those ideologies are 'pillarised' in the formof institutions formed on ideological or denominational lines, such as social clubs, schools, welfare agencies, churches and political parties.26 The Netherlands had become extensively 'pillarised' in that sense by

the 1920s, and remained so until the 1950s; the nineteenth centurywas therefore formative, while pillarisation was taking place, into four pillars, of Catholics, orthodox Calvinists, Socialists and liberals. Two features distinguished these pillars. First, they had their own organisations in every conceivable arena,

sheridan gilley part i CHRISTIANITY AND MODERNITY 2 · The papacy 13

sheridan gilley 3 · Theology and the revolt against the Enlightenment 30 douglas hedley 4 · The growth of voluntary religion 5 3

Catholicism which gave it a new cultural cachet, even if this was sometimes accompanied with a frisson of Protestant horror. Certain novels argued for a Catholic view of early Christian history (e.g. Cardinal Nicholas Wiseman's Fabiola, or the Church of the Catacombs of 1854, or J. H. Newman's Callista, a

sketch of the third century of 1855), and others for a liberal Protestant one (e.g. Charles Kingsley's Hypatia, or New foes with an old face of 1853). Two Catholic literary canons, the Irish Patrick Augustine Sheehan, author of The graves at Kilmorna (1915), a novel about the Fenian rising of 1867,

whose musical aspirations - ultimately to train cathedral organists - were closely intertwined with the Anglican church. The genres of cathedralmusic at the beginning of the nineteenth century - the verse anthem (for soloists and chorus), the full anthem (for full choir,

sometimes with a central verse) and the service (settings of the morning and evening canticles and the ordinary of the mass) - showed little change from those practised in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Moreover the style of early nineteenth-century church music was one largely formed during the

Gladstone had written a book affirming the duty of the state to recognise and support religious truth as taught by one church, he now openly admitted that this position had become untenable, at least in relation to Ireland.50 Moreover disestablishment of the Church of Ireland could be viewed as a

strategic retreat, giving up something indefensible to preserve wider interests, the establishment of the Church of England itself and British rule in Ireland. The complex legislation required passed through parliament in 1869 and became law on 1 January 1871. Disestablishment was initially devastating

of Baltimore (1877-1921), the effective primate, though not in name, of the United States.With John Ireland, archbishop of St Paul, and John Keane, bishop of Richmond and first rector of the Catholic University of America, Gibbons led the liberal arm of the American church. A more conservative

strategy was offered by Michael Corrigan, archbishop of New York; he was strongly sympathetic to the city's famous Tammany Hall political machine and provoked popular demonstrations by suspending the pastor Fr Edward McGlynn, whose social gospel drew on the ideas of the land reformer Henry

has reserved a special love', namely the 'less fortunate and the poor', among whom the pope included the great mass of the workers in their 'depressed state'.21 When it came to the central thesis of the worker question, Rerum Novarum

strongly asserted the right of the worker to humane labour conditions, especially forwomen and children. Although the encyclical accepted that theworkers had a just cause to withdraw their labour when their hours of work were too long, their labour excessive or they judged their wages insufficient, the

than the papacy. The 'Roman Question' was a matter of indifference to most voters, but it drove hardline Ultramontanes like Veuillot into the opposition camp, all the more so when in 1863 the emperor appointed the anticlerical Victor Duruy as his education minister with a remit to promote state rather

than church schools (Duruy's attempts to establish secondary courses for girls taught by members of the Sorbonne were denounced in vitriolic terms, even by the so-called liberal Bishop Dupanloup). By the end of the Second Empire, tensions between church and state were already mounting.

people which was not easily measured by external practice but was part of national and popular culture. The religion they received from bishops and priests often tended to be prohibitive rather than encouraging. It has been said of piety and liturgy in Chile

that in many ways they expressed 'a religion of Lent, of fasting and penance, rather than a religion of Easter joy and gladness'.4 Church teaching imposed a sharp division between the sacred and the profane, and Catholicswerewarned to avoid the devil, the world and the flesh. These were universal Christian values

regions affected by the Kulturkampf, such as Solothurn, St Gall and Argovia and the diaspora, a strong milieu was constituted, and in predominantly Catholic regions loose structures dominated by the Churchwere prevalent. Among the elites we can identify an Ultramontane network predominant in Fribourg, in

the Kulturkampf regions and in the diaspora and a more moderate conservative one developing out of the Catholic cantons of central Switzerland.18 Ultramontane elites created associations on a national level. For more than a quarter of a century, the publicist Theodor Scherer-Boccard was one of

grew by 11.2 million in the thirty years after 1871, and there was significant church building after 1880. By the end of the century the number of new parishes had nearly kept pace with the growth of population. Statistics for churchgoing in 1891 showed that it was generally worst in those places where

the distance to the parish churchwas greatest - east Prussia, parts of Franconia and Bavaria east of the Rhine, Schleswig-Holstein, the Hansa cities, Hanover, Frankfurt and other industrial towns. Berlin, however, was almost unique; the legal difficulties in dividing parishes resulted in around eight parishes

presence overseas and received state assistance for this work. Representatives of these missions, Catholic and Protestant, also had seats in the Kolonialrat, the council KaiserWilhelm II created in 1890 to co-ordinate German colonial policy. In other words, colonial policy was notably 'confession-blind', even if

the most zealous advocates of imperialism, the Colonial and the Pan-German Leagues, were essentially Protestant organisations. Ultimately, it was this underlying idea of a Christian Germany that distinguished Catholics from the two other major groups with contested claims

on the European continent similar churches sprang from the same evangelical impulse. Although the growth of the Free Churches slowed in the later years of the century, they were still capable of adapting to changed circumstances and of generating new forms of spirituality. Perhaps their greatest triumph during

the nineteenth century has not previously been mentioned here: the same imperative that induced them to spread the gospel at home also impelled them to undertake missionary effort abroad. The result, as Part iii of this volume reveals, was the implanting of Christianity in many lands for the first

of their own priests. Here it is all explained in terms of human frailty. So concubinage is widespread, tolerated by parents, who allow it before their own eyes, under the same roof.'9 These informal relationships, in fact, were treated as virtual marriages, and the church itself admitted that the principal

obstacles to marriage were not immorality but the shortage of clergy, the distances separating communities, and the lack of money to defray expenses. To what extent did religion in Latin America divide into an official church and a popular church? Was there a religious subculture independent of the

the idea and practice of an active religious life for women, for this had been pursued persistently, if with great difficulty, through the centuries.28 Rather, it was the scale of growth of the religious life, the trends that developed within the church's personnel as a consequence, the emergence of a new model

of governance for active women's orders and the expansion in missionary activity by Catholic women that made for a distinctive change. All of these developments were closely linked together, but it has been argued that the 27 Gibson, A social history; McMillan, France and women; Magray, Transforming power ;

Henry Newman's Dream of Gerontius (1864), most of which was later set to music by Edward Elgar, contained two hymns which joined the enormous popular canon of Victorian sacred song, 'Firmly I believe and truly' and 'Praise to the Holiest in the height',where they found a place with his youthful hymn

of hope and aspiration, 'Lead, kindly light'. The rhythms of the seasons and the celebration of Christian feasts mark the longest and perhaps the greatest religious poem of the nineteenth century, Alfred Lord Tennyson's In memoriam AHH of 1850. Tennyson (1809-92), the

and divisions between churches were a fact of religious life. Rome regarded them all as Latins with common origins, and unity of race, language and interests, and was astonished to observe that 'they live divided and in virtual isolation from each other, with hardly any communication or exchange

of ideas and doctrines'.13 Rome was the point of unity, and republican Latin America gave Rome more access to Catholics than the Spanish monarchy had ever allowed; by the end of the nineteenth century the Holy See had diplomatic relations with most of the countries of the sub-continent.

Tsar Nicholas I malachite and lapis lazuli for two of its altars. The eastern crossing was reopened for worship in 1840 and the complete church was consecrated by Pope Pius IX in 1854 in the presence of 185 bishops. Despite the grandeur of the eighty granite columns that support its nave, and the richness

of its interior, the church has had many detractors. Most mourn the loss of its predecessor and deplore the 'coldness' of its strict neo-classical detail.Augustus Hare even described its exterior as looking 'like a rather ugly railway station'. The rebuilt San Paolo is a reassertion of the continuity of Christian tradition

Church, the encyclical Providentissimus Deus, issued by Leo XIII in November 1893, gave qualified encouragement to critical scholarship. Catholic scholars were encouraged to master the Semitic languages and to utilise the discoveries of archaeology. The main purpose of the Bible was to disclose the way

of salvation and not to be a handbook of scientific knowledge. Unfortunately, the Biblical Commission that the encyclical established took a very conservative line, partly in response to the views of another Catholic scholar, Alfred Loisy, who argued in 1903 that the Pentateuch was not composed by Moses

of Asia and Africa were not addressed in the contemporary context of the worker question is explained by the lack of industrial development among them, as well as their subservience to the colonial powers. Itwould be as naive to imagine that Leo and Liberatorewere not conscious

of the intimate link between free trade unions and a democratic state, as it would be to imagine that they were unaware of the danger to which the church would expose the workers were she to promote the intervention of totalitarian states on their behalf. To this extent it could be said that Rerum

to ensure that theywere not exploited economically. Perhaps the most positive development was that of deaconesses in Germany from quite early on in the nineteenth century,which provided an opportunity for singlewomen to commit themselves to the work of the church. Florence Nightingale's experience

of this inspired her to develop a newapproach to nursing in England. From the 1880s opportunities were provided for single women as missionaries overseas. The Salvation Armyfrom its foundation in the 1860s recognised the equality of women and men among its officers, largely through the example of Catherine

translation andwas rendered into English as 'the spirit of revolutionary change which has long been disturbing the nations of theworld'.17 Students of the late 14 See H. E. Manning, A pope on capital and labour: the significance of the encyclical Rerum Novarum, new edn (London: Catholic Truth Society, 1931), pp. 21-37; De Gasperi, I tempi,

pp. 83-105; Molony, The worker question, p. 48. 15 Molony, The worker question, pp. 54-8. 16 Ibid., pp. 165, 201. (The author's translation of the encyclical is used here and throughout.) For the drafts of Rerum Novarum in Italian and Latin, see Antonazzi, L'enciclica Rerum

in doing so contributed further to social integration. In Mexico and Guatemala, countries with large Indian populations, practised and prescribed religion more or less merged, and the main disquiet of the church concerned denial and superstition rather than popular or local

practices. Church authorities in Peru looked with suspicion on many of the religious practices of Andean Indians. In 1912 the bishop of Puno, Valent´ın Ampuero, described the religion of the Indians as distorted by ignorance: 'their religious beliefs are minimal, their Christianity is adulterated and consists

higher doctrine of church, ministry and sacrament, partly in a strengthening of clerical elites against the tendency by governments to invade the traditional province of established churches in family matters and education.The reaction was strongest in the Catholic Church,where the expropriation of ecclesiastical

property beganinthe suppression of the Society of Jesus in 1773 and the reforms of the Emperor Joseph II, and resulted in the nationalisation of all French religious property in 1790, the suppression of the ecclesiastical principalities of the Holy Roman Empire and, for a time, Napoleon's seizure of the Papal

Once pope, Pius proposed a series of innovations encouraging liberals and nationalists such as Minghetti and Cavour, while inspiring the revolutionary Mazzini. Pio Nono's July amnesty of political prisoners electrified Rome and Italy. To the delight of liberals extraordinary tribunals were abolished, while

railway lines were projected and telegraph companies chartered. The pope reformed the collection of revenue and the management of finances, while opening a number of offices to laypeople. Unlike his predecessor, Pio Nono allowed his subjects to participate in the scientific congresses that were convoked

Pius considered himself a priest first, and only secondly a temporal ruler, and acted accordingly. When his ministers urged him to enter the war of national liberation, he consulted a number of theologians to determine if thiswould be legitimate.24 A majority considered it improper, and he followed their advice

rather than that of his cabinet. His reluctance to enter the war, announced in an allocution of 29 April 1848, provoked a revolution in Rome and his flight from the capital at the end of November 1848. It was a flight from his subjects and his earlier reformism. Patriots denounced the papal refusal to declare war

30 Bowler, The eclipse of Darwinism and The non-Darwinian revolution. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Christianity and the sciences doctrine. The social order with its class hierarchy and privileges could be

ratified by natural selection just as well as by natural theology. In the latter the inequalities of wealth and poverty were expressions of divine laws, in the former of the laws of nature.31 A further significant factor may have been that Cuvierian functionalism,

a kind of lucky charm or spell. Systematic evidence of this is often hard to secure, since the dominating interpretation of the meaning of religious festivals comes from official sources. At the end of his career Gabriel Le Bras stated that religious practice had 'social rather than properly and profoundly

religious meaning'; he even rejected the term 'dechristianisation' because he thought that the 'ages of faith' were a myth, and he distinguished between social custom and personal conviction.46 The social institutions of Roman Catholic countries changed in the nineteenth

early death in 1887, published Radical German socialism and Christian society in 1877. He examined the work of Lassalle and Marx, concluding that the New Testament endorsed the principles of socialism, but not atheism. Whereas Wichern and Huber had not called for state action, Todt believed that the only

remedy for current problems was state intervention. In England B. F.Westcott (1825-1901), Regius Professor of Divinity at Cambridge from 1870 until he became bishop of Durham in 1889, was particularly influenced by Auguste Comte's positivism. He rejected the atheism but

The Austrian ambassador sought the election of a moderate pope. On 31 March 1829, the 68-year-old Francesco Saverio Castiglioni, supported by both the French and the Austrians, was elected. The new pope showed himself well disposed towards antinationalist Austria. Devoting himself to the

renewal of the church, he left the task of governing the Papal States to Cardinal Giuseppe Albani. In his first encyclical (May 1829), Pius VIII denounced its enemies. Commencing with a condemnation of those who attacked the church's spiritual mission, he condemned indifferentism as a contrivance of contemporary

during the first part of the nineteenth century. After a spurt of growth with the arrival of American Loyalists in the 1780s, and a liminal period of revival in the 'New Light stir' under the charismatic Henry Alline (1748-84), the Maritimes dropped back into the settled patterns that prevailed for the

rest of the century. Religious leadership was supplied by vigorous contingents Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 mark a. noll of Scottish Presbyterians, Methodists influenced by BritishWesleyanism, conservative

in the French revolution of 1848. Gregory, however, remained intransigent: he urged his faithful Catholic Poles to obey the Tsar after their rising, while the secretary of state, Cardinal Bernetti, in 1832 created a civil guard, the Centurions, whose unruly behaviour contributed to the unpopularity of papal

rule. The liberal conspiracy to kidnap three leading ecclesiastics (one of them the future Pius IX) in 1843 was repressed by another secretary of state, Luigi Lambruschini, with executions and condemnations to the galleys. Gregory's antiliberalism was confirmed by the destruction of Spanish monasticism by

confessional Lutheranism or the Reformed tradition. While the terrible guns Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 douglas hedley of the GreatWar were about to exact slaughter andmutilation on an unprecedented

scale, and even more terrible tyrants than Napoleonwere looming, the creative energy and inquiring spirit of the nineteenth century were about to be replaced by a more intransigent mood of opposition between the Christian religion and its cultured despisers.

(1849-67), academic theology was nevertheless able to develop. Several professors at the Theological Faculty of Budapest University became well known throughout Europe, high-quality, ambitious new journals helped develop theology and pastoral work, and every area of theology could boast outstanding

scholars. Particularly remarkable were the church historians, who attracted considerable attention both at home and abroad as a result of distinguished serial publications such as Monumenta Ecclesiae Strigoniensis, Monumenta Vaticana Dioecesis Vesprimiensis and Monumenta Vaticana Hungariae. At the end

1867) and the Methodist itinerant Egerton Ryerson (1803-82). Strachan, who eventually became bishop of Toronto where he contended that an Anglican establishmentwas the necessary basis for Christian civilisation, used his funeral sermon for Jacob Mountain in 1826 to blast Methodists and other Dissenters as

uneducated louts threatening the body politic. Ryerson responded vigorously to criticise Anglican ritual as pompous formalism and to urge passionate gospel preaching as the secret to creating a Christian society. Yet as the Methodists grew rapidly and as a never-ending series of complications

for this reform was theWomen's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU), which was guided by the able FrancesWillard (1839-98), a Methodist teacher and collaborator withD. L. Moody,who looked upon temperance as the most important means of protecting women, children and the urban poor from the

vagaries of modern industrial society. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 'Christian America' and 'Christian Canada' In the face of the rapid social, intellectual and demographic change, earlier

Church in Prussia in 1822 exposed the liturgical diversitywhich already existed: it was revised in 1856 and 1895.37 By contrast with the Church of England, where suggestions for any modification of the Book of Common Prayer were suspect in the nineteenth century, in Germany and Sweden liturgical revision

was not only possible but took place; and several revisions moved in a more Catholic direction. In some parts of Germany any liturgical reform was resisted or regarded with suspicion - Silesia, Thuringia and Saxony, for example - and in other parts the new liturgies did not penetrate rural parishes.

law respected. A movement for national solidarity was organised around the parishes and Polish clergy,whowere able to profit from the lessons of German social Catholicism. Priestswere often the natural leaders of the masses. Above all, therewas a fierce legal struggle to teach the catechism in Polish - schooling

was only in German - which by the beginning of the twentieth century found favour not only in Polish opinion. One achievement inspired by this dynamic movementwas the Polonisation of a considerable part of the population of the industrial region of Upper Silesia. This area had been outside the Polish state

Many of the large-scale works for Napoleon's chapel and the Chapelle Royale of Louis XVIII and Charles X were composed in an operatic and theatrical style largely devoid of counterpoint and the style s´ev`ere (the equivalent of the stile antico). Of varied quality, it nevertheless stood in stark contrast to

the poor state of music in the cathedrals and parishes where little more than plainchant was sung. Some relief came with the restoration of a few maˆıtrises (such as the one at Notre-Dame)which proved to be the only significant agency ofmusical education during the Monarchy, but the church, impoverished after

energetic senior bishops, of whom Ott´okar Proh´aszka was one example. A man of many talents, Proh´aszka used both the written and the spoken word to arouse Hungarian Catholicism from its slumbers. He gave fresh impetus to the formation of priests and to pastoral work, attended to social issues and

the relationship between theology and science, and led the ascetic life of a saint. Although he was the most noteworthy figure in Hungarian Catholicism since the death of Cardinal P´eter P´azm´any (d. 1637), he had opponents who in 1911 saw to it that three of his works were - completely undeservedly and

churchmen, including Cullen, who also acted to prevent the involvement of his clergy in the Tenant League for land reform. The reasons for the failure of Catholic anticlericalism to take root in Ireland had to do with the patriotism both of most of those clericswhowere opposed to violence, including Cullen -

the so-called 'Castle Catholic'who favoured full-blown rule fromWestminster was rare - and of the minority of clerics who supported rebellion, at least by seeming wild rhetoric, like Cullen's enemy and rival in the Catholic hierarchy John MacHale, archbishop of Tuam (1834-81), christened by O'Connell 'the

centenary of the martyrdoms of St Peter and St Paul in 1867, were the preliminaries to the Ecumenical Council opened in 1869. About a third of the prelates attending were Italian, with large blocs from the Spanish-speaking states, the great majority of them Ultramontanes. The Council set the seal on

the triumph of the Holy See over the church by declaring the pope infallible in matters of faith and morals, in a repudiation of all the forms of Gallicanism which had haunted Rome for centuries. The pope was a partisan for his own position - he remarked that 'I am tradition' - and some eighty prelates, mostly

revivalism challenged the unity of premodern agrarian society, created new social forms and mobility, promoted a claim for individual authenticity and thus represented an early modernity.8 The early religious revivalist groups emerged around the same time and

they had a charismatic leadership. In Denmark radical groups of religious revivalism arose in the area of Vejle and Horsens in the 1790s and an ecstatic group in Korning around 1800.9 From the mid-1830s, the young theologian Jacob Christian Lindberg (1797-1857) introduced Grundtvigian ideas among

The emphasis of the holiness movement on charismatic leadership, that the Holy Spirit had been 'poured out on all flesh', acted as a powerful justification of women's right to preach.15 It is important to remember that the wider social and religious impact of

this public female activity should not be overestimated. Middle-class female evangelism, without denominational endorsement, may have gained women some notoriety, but it never functioned as a stepping-stone to ordination, let alone achieving official sanction. The denominations which were endorsing

10 See Stadler, Der Kulturkampf, pp. 260-316, 586-94. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Switzerland and the Netherlands population. Freedom of worship, freedom of settlement and legal equality

were accorded solely to Christians. It was only in the context of a trade treaty with France that a partial revision of the Swiss constitution in 1866 granted the Swiss Jews the right of free settlement and legal equality. Freedom of belief and consciencewas not extended to all Swiss until the revision of 1874. In 1893,

in 1862, 'the people were roused as though a bomb had fallen. Moans & groans, lamentations & strong cryings & tears burst out on every side.'14 Although revivalism later turned into a routine procedure planned by visiting evangelists, it was originally a powerful expression of group emotion. Many

who professed conversion might fall away, but others were led to enduring commitment. Mission was by no means confined to evangelism, for Nonconformists believed they had a calling to serve bodies as well as souls. Chapels possessed

Christian's sense of dignity andworth.This led to the emergence of indigenous black African churches sometimes inspired by the flourishing black Protestant churches in the United States, themselves the outcome of Protestant missionary activity, but in reaction against the prejudice of other churches,

with a faith deeply founded in their historic experience of servitude and oppression. This growth of Christianity abroad was not always paralleled in Europe. Some of the challenges to the faith were intellectual, leading to the attempt

women at least limited access to official ministerial positions. Women did achieve a measure of denominational recognition and a number of exceptional individuals conducted highly public ministerial careers. But thiswas not always the liberating achievement it has been made out to be. The number of

womenwho took up these positions always represented only a small minority of the total female churchgoing population. Their authority, often only locally valid, was vulnerable to future restrictions. Their activity encountered substantial discrimination, both from the wider public and from within their own

discussed within Christianity by the Savilian Professor of Geometry at Oxford, Baden Powell (1796-1860),34 and its evidential objective nature was denied by the physicist and enthusiastic supporter of Darwin, John Tyndall (1820-93). In the decades that followed, many religious writers in the English-speaking

world 'recast their language about miracles to meet these objections', admitting that the concept of a miracle was ultimately a religious category.35 Most heatedly debated was the issue of an immaterial soul and whether or not humans occupy a unique place in nature. In this matter, the military

For Poles acutely conscious of their national identity, the interiors of Polish churches represented a zone of public liberty; private houses symbolised the Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 gabriel adri ´anyi and jerzy kloczowski

zone of family liberty and friendshipwhichwere equally important, andwhere religious symbols naturally held their place of honour. The overconfident authorities did not recognise the strength of this world of profound values or the resilience of the culture, inwhich many customs and

Joseph G¨orres and Friedrich Jahn called for the creation of a state to unite and protect the Christian people of Germany. Instead, the statesmen at Vienna recognised thirty-eight German sovereign states and grouped them loosely together as the German Confederation (Bund). The Bund was an even weaker

expression of German political identity than the old empire had been. It also preserved many of the empire's shortcomings as a German nation-state. Many ethnic Germans still lived outside of the Confederation's borders, three states had foreign sovereigns (Luxemburg, Hanover, Schleswig), and the Bund's two

momentous.The theory of natural selection as the modus operandi of biological evolution was a very powerful intellectual force. Not only did this hypothesis appear to challenge the account of human origins in Scripture, but Darwin's deep pessimism reinforced a mood of disenchantmentwhichmuchweakened

the prevailing Romantic immanentist theology. In The descent of man (1871) Darwin argued explicitly that the difference between man and the rest of the animal kingdom was one of 'degree' and not of 'kind'.15 Darwin's influence can be seen, for example, in the thought of Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), which

promised to work against indifferentism in his first encyclical Traditi Humiliati (1829).3 In Cum Primum (1832), Gregory XVI (1831-46) came closer to social teaching in insisting on civil obedience to higher authority because all authority comes from God, and with another encyclical, Mirari Vos (1832), he set

the stage for Pius IX's Syllabus of Errors. Gregory rejected the possibility of gaining salvation 'by the profession of any kind of religion so long as morality is maintained' and condemned those who held themselves free to publish any writingwhatsoever. Lamennais's Paroles d'un croyantwas rejected with fervour

After the king's dismissal of the Whigs, Wellington and Sir Robert Peel formed a minority Conservative government, and made significant gains in a general election in early 1835. Although their administration was nevertheless short-lived, and fell in April 1835, it had a substantial impact in steering

the stream of church reform into a substantially more moderate course. In particular Peel set up a Royal Commission to reform the Church of England, with five bishops among its membership of twelve, thus giving the church the opportunity to reform itself, and escape the more radical treatment already

Catholics with more formidable enemies than the sons of Voltaire. Ernest Renan's Vie de J´esus, published in 1863, was a sensation, depicting Christ as an extraordinary human being but not the son of God. In the burgeoning free-thought societies of the Second Empire era, militant atheists - many of

them disciples of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon - called for a war against God and the complete extirpation of religion from society. True, such hard-linerswere a minority, even in the free-thoughtcommunity: the majority of the adepts of the id´ee la¨ıque - liberal Protestants, freemasons and

Consoler, Skelton-on-Ure, 1870-6 and St Mary's, Studley Royal, 1871-8), but his triple-spired St Finn Barre's is his most ambitious and successful ecclesiastical work. Certain aspects of the Cork cathedral design derive from Burges's success in winning an international competition, with his partner Henry Clutton,

to design a newcathedral at Lille in 1856. Although a foundation stonewas laid, and prize money was awarded, the cathedral was not finally built to Burges's plans. Burges and Clutton may have been the victims of local chauvinism (being neither French nor Catholic). Certainly in Ireland ecclesiastical commissions

growth facing both the Church of Scotland and the Church of England in 1815. His previous parish, Kilmany, in Fife, was rural and predominantly agricultural with a declining population, amounting to only 787 in 1811. In such an environment it remained relatively easy for an energetic pastor like Chalmers

to develop a ministry that brought him and the Church of Scotland into meaningful contact with all his parishioners.2 Glasgow on the other hand had tripled in population - from 40,000 to over 120,000 - during Chalmers's own lifetime, and his own parish had a population of approximately 11,000, many

level of national politics by opponents who, usually in the name of popular sovereignty and an essentially republican idea of the nation, were determined to set limits to ecclesiastical authority. The clergy, on the other hand, rejected any interference in their mission to save the souls of the faithful. From popes

to humble parish priests, while always recognising the legitimate authority of the established power, the church categorically refused to renounce a public role for religion on the grounds that religion was a social, not an individual phenomenon. It was the church's business to reconstruct a Christian social

a German bishop and as German seminaries came under the influence of priests trained at the Jesuit Collegium Germanicum in Rome, Ultramontane sympathies spread quickly. Indeed, so advanced was the Ultramontane movement among the German clergy, that when Pius IX indicated his opposition

to the plan to establish a national bishop and synod at the first conference of German bishops at W¨urzburg (1848), the bishops quickly dropped it. Public Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Christianity and the creation of Germany

and Italy; the Prussian-Austrian andFranco-Prussianwars,up tothe diplomatic tensions which eventually incited the FirstWorldWar. The industrial revolution, vast improvements in travel andcommunication, and the great prosperity of the latter part of the nineteenth century all coincided with a shift in thought

towards understanding those natural forces thatwere being utilised so dramatically. Philosophy and theology moved from an Idealistic-Romantic to a more materialistic and pragmatic ethos: the impact of the pessimistic doctrines and sombre spirit of Charles Darwin upon this development is undeniable. The

dozens of churches in the centre of Chicago still bear witness to this striking and very important phenomenon. Chicago quickly became the largest centre of Polish Catholic life in the United States. In the 'old country' of the Russian zone, state authority prevented the creation of new parishes. A new industrial

town, L ´od´z, with 142,000 inhabitants in 1906, of whom90,000 were Catholics (the others were Jews and Germans), had two parishes, but at the same time, two of the biggest parishes in Warsaw included 82,000 and 65,000 faithful respectively.

of pietism within the state churches, Methodism put downroots and Baptists launched missionary work. The Evangelical Alliance in Britain often provided, particularly in the 1850s, timely intercession with the authorities on behalf of pioneering evangelical groups in German lands. Meanwhile Russia

was affected by two very different impulses. In the Ukraine the Stundists represented an indigenous rigorist movement stemming from Russian Orthodoxy; whilst in St Petersburg during the 1870s the elite around the courtwas touched by the salon evangelism of an English peer, Lord Radstock. Thus the growth

32 Rupke, Richard Owen, pp. 161-219. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 nicolaas a. rupke argument from design developed or even mentioned, causing a stir across the

western world. The British reviews of Kosmos noted with dismay the absence from this book of 'proofs of divine design' and of even just the word 'God'. Whereas in France the positivistically inclined orientalist-theologian Ernest Renan (1823-92), in his review of Kosmos for La Libert´e de Penser, explicitly

were also beset by mounting difficulties. Temperance societies hesitated over whether to seek all-out prohibition of alcohol, and then found that prohibition laws could not deliver all the social benefits they had seemed to offer. But the greatest difficulty was slavery. The American Colonization Society,

which tried to raise money to send blacks to Africa, never could reach its funding goals andwas roundly criticised by African Americans. The American Anti-Slavery Society faltered when its demands for immediate emancipation generated ever stronger defences of slavery, the most powerful of which drew

from Ireland to Canada were Protestant, who did much to confirm the power of Canadian anti-Catholicism. The major Irish Catholic settlement of Newfoundland, of fisherfolk largely from Waterford and New Ross, had six successive Irish-born bishops, the first James Louis O'Donel (1796-1807),

who carefully conformed to English colonial rule. Very different was the fiery Franciscan bishop Michael Anthony Fleming (1829-50), a priest formed on the model of O'Connellite nationalism, who championed the poor against the elite of his own flock as well as against British authority. The Irish also dominated

the young in the dangers of drink and sponsored counter-attractions such as coffee taverns. They also increasingly turned to political measures to restrict the availability of strong drink. The effect was to reinforce the polarisation of society between respectable folk,whowent to church, and the rough drinkers,

who did not. The endorsement of total abstinence erected a barrier between the Free Churches and many of their potential converts. The problems faced by the Free Churchesmultiplied in the last two or three decades of the century. The process of suburbanisation, already underway in

(forwhich Stanley had a lower regard than prophecy) had, indeed, enabled the 'Jewish church' to endure when the monarchy and prophecy were no more. In 1867 English readers were able to begin to have access to Ewald's History themselves, thanks to the initiative of a Unitarian woman, Charlotte Lupton,

who financed and assisted in the translation.17 The effect of this, and of Stanley's lectures, was to assure liberal-minded people that biblical criticism could yield results that were sufficiently traditional not to cause great anxiety. Such reassurance was necessary in view of developments that were taking place in

the second half of the nineteenth century, then, those who opposed the influence of rationalistic progress, of the Enlightenment and of liberalism began to organise themselves in a struggle which Kuyper represented as the 'antithesis between Christendom and Humanism', or between true Christians and those

who placed their trust in such things as human reason and progress, or in mankind itself.32 The Dutch Reformed Church (Nederlandse Hervormde Kerk) was the mainstream Calvinist church, and was descended from the Calvinism of the Dutch

The newpope shared the zelanti views on church-state relations, and in his first encyclical (May 1824) condemned dechristianisation, indifferentism, toleration and freemasonry, tracing contemporary problems to the contempt for church authority.5 Hewarned the bishops of the sects and railed against the indifferent,

who under the pretext of toleration undermined the faith. Leo proved a jealous guardian of the Holy See's prerogatives, continuing the centralising tendencies of his predecessor while abandoning his political moderation. Pope Leo initially sought to safeguard the papacy by invoking the support of

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Introduction sheridan gilley Historians of modern Christianity in western Europe, writing amid the chill

winds of secularism at the beginning of the twenty-first century, may be tempted to apologise for their subject. Why write about something of diminishing importance, which has been in decline since the French Revolution? No student of the medieval or early modern eras doubts the central role of

means of industry and communication, in mass-produced newspapers, books, pictures and devotional objects, with the pope's portrait in every Catholic presbytery, school and home. This inspired CardinalWiseman's comparison, in his hymn 'Full in the panting heart of Rome', of neo-Ultramontane loyalty

with the electric telegraph. In this triumphalist mood, the pope negotiated concordats with Spain (1851 and 1859) and Austria (1855), and restored the episcopal hierarchies of England andWales (1850) and Holland (1853), and later in Scotland (1878), the last completed by Pope Leo. Pius also greatly extended

As a corollary to the intrinsic rights of the individual, Leo insisted that the family is the basic unit of society. 'It is a great and pernicious error, therefore, to propose that the State can interfere at will in the sanctuary of the family.' He accepted that, in case of dire need or of 'a grave violation ofmutual rights'

within a family, the public authority should intervene, but he rejected that child care should be taken from parents by the state, because it is 'against natural justice and destroy[s] the structure of the home'. Leo furthermore insisted that the church had a special obligation to care for those for whom 'God himself

initially sceptical about Bernadette's visions in 1858, not least because of the variety of local Pyreneean cults to which they bore similarities; he demanded evidence, but subsequently became one of her chief protectors.31 In Spain the various processions at religious festivals were a distinct culture. Popular religiosity

within its own cultural structures was a phenomenon quite distinct from conventional Catholic practice.32 Lannon observed that HolyWeek processions belong to the streets not the churches, the people not the priests, the lay singers of saetas and noisy bands not the church choirs, just as the

levels of government, banned the waltz at carnival and reopened the Jewish ghetto. Such conservatism drove opposition underground among the secret revolutionary brotherhood of carbonari or 'charcoal-burners', and there was a reaction in the conclave of 1829, when Consalvi's disciple Cardinal Albani

worked to secure the election of the moderate Francesco Xaverio Castiglione, bishop of Montalto, who took the name Pius VIII (1761-1830; ruled 1829-30). He attempted, unsuccessfully, to reach a compromise with the Prussian government which wanted him to authorise mixed marriages in the Catholic

during the 1850s and 1860s. Spanish Redemptorists calculated that between 1879 and 1931 they had conducted nearly 6,305 popular missions in rural and urban areas across the length and breadth of the country.32 In spite of their tireless energy, missionaries were most successful in those areas where one

would have expected them to be, the still observant villages of the north. In the southern estate lands, they encountered opposition at worst, indifference at best. In Portugal, Jesuit missionaries made little headway as they worked in southern dioceses, while the Spanish Jesuit Francisco de Tarin, known as

and accordingly were initially without any organised religious provision. The urgent needswere recognised in 1818when parliament passed a Church Building Act which provided £1 million of public money for the Church of England, supplemented with a further grant of £500,000 in 1824. Voluntary subscriptions

yielded a further £1.5 million by 1832.13 Between 1821 and 1830 235 new churcheswere built, a notable upturn from the twenty-eight between 1801 and 1810 and the seventy between 1811 and 1820.14 Nevertheless it was a belated and insufficient response: in many places a generation had already grown up

reaction to a royal commission report on the state of education in the principality which had attacked both Dissent and the language for allegedly giving rise to backwardness and immorality.56 In the religious census of 1851, only 18.6 per cent of attendanceswere at Anglican churches, with all the remainder,

apart from a tiny proportion of Roman Catholics, at Nonconformist chapels.57 From the middle of the century onwards the Church of England developed an increasingly effective response.Asymbolic turning point came in 1846when it was decided not to proceed with a merger of the North Wales bishoprics

of all the heresies, implying a consistency of Modernist belief not found in any one thinker or system. Some of the statements are loosely framed, much depending on their interpretation. Loisywas excommunicated in 1908. In1910, an anti-Modernist oathwas introduced, for candidates for higher orders, newly

appointed confessors, preachers, parish priests, canons, the beneficed clergy, bishops' staff, Lenten preachers, the officials of the Roman congregations, tribunals, superiors and professors. Meanwhile the 'Sodalitium Pianum', or Sodality of St Pius V, was set up by Monsignor Umberto Benigni with the

The last two decades of the nineteenth century saw the spread and consolidation of the critical positions that had been painstakingly established during the preceding decades. In England, E. B. Pusey, who had consistently rejected critical developments in Old Testament scholarship, was succeeded in 1883

as Regius Professor of Hebrew in Oxford by S. R. Driver, whose Old Testament introduction of 1891 provided a critical, lucid and positive advocacy of the 'Wellhausen' theory.41 This became a standard work and went through many editionswell into the following century.Ajoint Anglo-American projectwhich

Igreja, p. 59. In the town of Vila do Conde (diocese of Braga), twenty priests supported Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Spain and Portugal: the challenge to the church The dramatic ecclesiastical changes imposed by liberalism and the turbulence

associated with them appeared to leave the church with few options. 'Observing the furious interferences of the revolution', declared Bishop Romo Gamboa of the Canaries in 1840, prelates could not see 'howthey could salvage the ship of the church in the midst of such shocks'.18 The suppression of the

either renounce any claim to the canonical (and social) status of religious and be recognised as lay institutes where women took simple annual vows - as had the many filles s´eculi`eres and soeurs de charit´e which developed in France during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. In this case theywere free to

be centrally organised under a superior general like the Daughters of Charity under the general of theVincentian Fathers. Or, following an important ruling made by Pope Benedict XIV in 1749 concerning the Institute of the Blessed Virgin Mary, they could be recognised as a religious institute with permanent

simple vows, but with approval to operate only under obedience to a diocesan bishop, not a superior general. When, for the first time, official approbation was given to female religious institutes governed by an elected superior general with direct responsibility to the Vatican, an historic Gordian knot had

been cut. The creation of such pontifical institutes meant that women could lead transnational missionary organisations under the auspices of the Vatican and that members had the recognition and security of religious status through permanent simple vows. By no means all new congregations were of this

16 Connolly, 'Catholicism in Manchester and Salford', vol. iii, pp. 5-6;Wilson, Blessed Dominic Barberi, p. 262. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 mary heimann

been in good taste during the eighteenth century but which, by the middle decades of the nineteenth century, had widely come to be seen as 'cold' or overly 'intellectual' - in short, insufficiently active and enthusiastic - to appear to attest to earnestness of religious conviction. This Romantic or 'evangelical'

of Jesus (1835) contained a sustained attack on the credibility of John's Gospel as a source for the life of Jesus and the same year sawthe publication of an article by Karl Lachmann which argued for the priority of Mark, and that theremust also have been another source for the synoptic gospels. Lachmann's work

began a line of research which ended with the publication in 1863 of H. J. Holtzmann's The Synoptic Gospels which put the classic case for the priority of Mark and for the existence of another source.34 However, a radical alternative for the origins of the New Testament had been proposed by F. C. Baur, in a

hardly of sane mind, who was much rather accessory to the intellectual than to the moral degradation of mankind'.1 In the middle decades of the nineteenth century, duringwhat has come to be known as the Catholic Revival, the tone and presentation of the Catholic message

began to change inwayswhich, within a generation,were to become characteristic of Catholic communities just about everywhere. Catholic churches ceased being designed to look like neo-classical temples, butwere built instead in Gothic or Romanesque idiom, the implication being that eternal values

Thomas Arnold, headmaster of Rugby School, to learn German in order to read and review it. In Germany it became the model for Heinrich Ewald's History of Israel.13 Niebuhr demonstrated how classical legends and other literature could provide a solid basis for the writing of history; but he also

believed that history written in this way contained evidence of the workings of divine providence in human affairs. Arnold did not attempt to write a history of Israel, but he was emboldened by Niebuhr's work to preach and write about the Old Testament in a way that showed how Israel's history

street corners in working-class districts, were professedly undenominational. There were teeming ranks of Protestant Christianity outside the Church of England. Beyond these groups, furthermore, was a sectarian fringe. There were

bodies - Swedenborgians, Mormons, Christadelphians, Theosophists -whose claims to inclusion within the bounds of the Christian faith would have been challenged by contemporaries on the ground of their heterodoxy. Most of the sects, however, embraced a form of Christian orthodoxy. The Sandemanians,

17 · Catholic nationalism in Greater Hungary and Poland 260 gabriel adri ´anyi and jerzy kl oczowski 18 · Christianity and the creation of Germany 282 anthony j. steinhoff

19 · Anglicanism, Presbyterianism and the religious identities of the United Kingdom 301 john wolffe 20 · Protestant dominance and confessional politics: Switzerland and the

in particular the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (the Mormons) and the Seventh-Day Adventists. The common man in America, encouraged to carve out his own path in religion as in politics, ensured that the religion of the republic was even more diverse than in British territories.

Although state churches continued to dominate continental Europe, voluntary religion made inroads there too. There were inherited pockets of 18 Ross, 'Student kaleidoscope', p. 206. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

or nothing to the actual behaviour of churchmen. Mythic anticlericalism, in short, was a continuation of the 'culture war' started under the Revolution - a refusal to accept that theRevolutionwas overwhile there remained unfinished business with the church.

As aword, the term'clericalism' only came into common usage in the 1870s. Before then, opponents of the clergy spoke of their 'tyranny' or 'despotism' or 'contempt for the civil authorities'. What is clear, however, is that throughout the nineteenth century priests were confronted both at village level and at the

Romania. Croatia-Slavonia, which was 70 per cent Catholic and a little over a quarter Orthodox, andwas to become a part of Yugoslavia, had its own institutions, but was subordinate to Hungary, with representation in the Hungarian government and parliament. Hungarywas very diverse religiously. Where the

Austrian half of the empire in 1900 was 91 per cent Roman Catholic (including 3 million Uniates), Hungary (excluding Croatia) was only just under half Roman Catholic (8,200,000 people) and another 10 per cent Uniate (over 1,800,000), mostly Romanian and Ruthenian. The remaining 40 per cent of

'To my request and earnest cry' (c.1835), 'Let us lift up our heart' (c.1836) and 'Wash me throughly' (1840) as well as the influential Service in E major (1845). Wesley's service in particular articulated a brand of diatonic harmony, a thoroughly modern fusion of sixteenth- and seventeenth-century archaisms,

Bachian counterpoint and contemporary dissonance, that would have a 8 See Temperley, 'Mozart's influence on English music'. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Musical trends and the western church

of candidates for the priesthood was modernised, support was provided for the theological faculty of Budapest University, the first Catholic publishing house was founded and the first Catholic societies were established. The religious orders, particularly women's orders, flourished. The Jesuits returned.

But there were also political problems, as was demonstrated in 1864 by the case of Bishop Lajos Haynald of Transylvania, who had to resign because of his support for the incorporation of Transylvania into Hungary. The suppression of the Hungarian revolution and of the constitution,

42 McNeile, Nationalism. 43 Wolffe, The Protestant crusade, pp. 318-19. 44 Ibid., pp. 198-246. 45 Young and Handcock, English historical documents, p. 365.

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 The religious identities of the United Kingdom Russell identified himself with the storm of popular protest, complaining publicly of the pope's 'pretension of supremacy over the realm of England'.

Church, far from becoming 'more Roman than Rome',was actually becoming more accepting of the low tastes of its poorest and most marginalised members from around the world, making it far more eclectic in its devotional, as well as its aesthetic, tastes.

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Women preachers and the new Orders A: Women preachers in the Protestant churches

the limited funds available to the architect. The most distinctive ecclesiastical architect in nineteenth-century America drew his inspiration from Romanesque rather than High Gothic precedent. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

Church architecture and religious art Henry Hobson Richardson (1838-86) was a Harvard graduate trained at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts in Paris. His early careerwas notable for buildingswhose plans were not dictated by the demands of an Anglican liturgy: a Baptist

Independence (1776-83), religious uncertainty had proceeded in tandem with political uncertainty. After the revival fires of the colonial Great Awakening cooled in the 1750s, church growth for a half-century lagged behind the general rise in population. The authority of the colonies' two established churches -

Congregational in New England, Anglican in the South - drained away in the face of the free market in religion defined by the first amendment to the United States Constitution (1791): 'Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof.'With only

rejection of morality as a consistent rational structure as well as his rejection of salvation was linked to his admiration for the Dionysian. He employed strongly Darwinistic or vitalistic language, relishing the corrosive impact of such ideas for inherited morality.

Darwin tended to be ignored in France, where the prestige of Jean Baptiste Lamarckworked against the reception of theEnglishman.TheFrenchtradition exerted an influence through its rich and subtle sociology of religion. Auguste Comte (1798-1857) shared with de Maistre the fear that modern society was

Second, a succession of concessions to Nonconformists helped gradually to take the sting out of their hostility to the Church of England. Legislation in 1854 for Oxford and 1856 for Cambridge allowed them to graduate at the ancient universities. At the other end of the educational scale, the 1870 Elementary

Education Act, while continuing support to church schools, provided that religious instruction in board (state) schools would be non-denominational in character. In 1868 church rates, a long-standing Nonconformist grievance, were made voluntary, and the 1880 Burials Act allowed Nonconformist ministers

on the fringes of Catholic Rome. The new cathedral at Westminster, by contrast, asserts an emphatic Catholic presence at the centre of Protestant Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 andrew sanders

England. Catholic dioceses had been re-established in 1850, but the foundation stone of the cathedral of its metropolitan diocese of Westminster was laid only in June 1895. Both the inspirer of the project, Cardinal Vaughan, and the architect John Francis Bentley (1839-1902),were persuaded that the newchurch

Nation und Nationalismus in Europa: Festschrift f¨ur Urs Altermatt, ed. with C. Bosshart-Pfluger and J. Jung (Frauenfeld: Huber, 2002), 'Die Reformation in der Schweiz zwischen 1850 und 1950. Konkurrierende konfessionelle und nationale Geschichtskonstruktionen und Erinnerungsgemeinschaften', in H.-G. Haupt andD. Langewiesche (eds.), Nation und Religion in

Europa (Frankfurt a.M.: Campus, 2004), and 'Milieu, Teilmilieus und Netzwerke', with Urs Altermatt, in Urs Altermatt (ed.), Katholische Denk- und Lebenswelten (Fribourg: Academic Press, 2003). John Molony is Emeritus Professor of History and Visiting Fellow in the Australian

Christianity. Whatever else, the paradox of the incarnation and the inscrutable reality of the 'Lord of Being' cannot begin to be identified with the achievements of European civilisation. Hence it is no accident that both Schelling and Kierkegaard attracted such strong interest in the Katastrophenjahre after the

FirstWorldWar. Søren Kierkegaard (1813-55) is an odd figure for at least two reasons. First, he had virtually no influence on the nineteenth century. Intellectually, his legacy was reserved for the following century - especially through Heidegger and

Cambridge University Press, 2000). He also has research interests in European identity and especially the visual representation of Europe. John Wolffe is Professor of Religious History at the Open University. He is the author of The Protestant crusade in Great Britain, 1829-1860 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991),

God and Greater Britain: religion and national life in Britain and Ireland, 1843-1945 (London: Routledge, 1994) and Great deaths: grieving, religion and nationhood in Victorian and Edwardian Britain (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000). xvi

and resources they needed in their distant communities. Religion did not necessarily abolish class conflict. As the parish priest of San Miguel in El Salvador reported in 1878, 'there exists a deep division between 4 Maximiliano Salinas, 'La Iglesia chilena ante el surgimiento del orden neocolonial', in

HGIAL, vol. ix (1994), pp. 308-9. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 john lynch the top families and the common people, a division which produces hatred

have been preoccupied with what James Moore - following Leon Festinger - has called the 'cognitive dissonance'2 that developed between the 'Mosaic cosmogony' and the scientific study of origins - of the universe, of life and of humankind.

Harmonisation schemata of Genesis and geology Many of the scientistswho contributed to these developmentswere Christians, and Charles Gillispie long ago pointed out that the debate over 'Genesis and geology' in the period 1790-1850 was a matter not of religion versus science

Admittedly, it survived in some of the popular treatises in Germany and France, such as DieWunder der Urwelt (1853) by Carl GottfriedWilhelm Vollmer (1797- 1864) who wrote under the pseudonym W. F. A. Zimmermann. Far more trend-setting, however, among the popular science books was Alexander von

Humboldt's Kosmos (1845-62), which may well have been the scientific text that most contributed to the removal throughout Europe from scientific discourse of the language of natural theology. In none of its five volumes was the 31 Young, Darwin's metaphor, pp. 23-55.

interred in the abbey in 1882. Meanwhile the Church of England also remained closely linked to the royal family. This was an important association both in enabling the church to benefit from an upsurge in the popularity of the monarchy in the later years of Victoria's reign, and also in according it a wider United

Kingdom ceremonial role, as it participated in the 'invention of tradition' associated with such events.73 The tone was set in February 1872 by a thanksgiving service at St Paul's Cathedral in London to mark the recent recovery of the Prince of Wales from serious illness, an Anglican service, but one attended

force, with a party manifesto (the first in the Netherlands) in 1878,34 dedicated party newspapers in the Standaard and Heraut, and in 1879 the first modern political party in the country, the Anti-Revolutionary Party. Its platform was suffrage for the lower middle classes, and state funding for confessional education.

Kuyper's theology was orthodox Calvinist in its temper, and strongly against the elevation ofmankind andhumanreason favoured by the Enlightenment. His doctrine of 'sphere sovereignty'was a version of subsidiarity, holding that the various levels in society, like the family, the business, the church, the

tensions in American Protestantism developed into broad fissures. Along with the growing presence of Lutherans and other newer Protestant groups, the evangelicals who had dominated nineteenth-century society fell apart into quarrels among themselves. Self-conscious modernists, like Arthur Cushman

McGiffert (1861-1933) of Union Theological Seminary inNewYork and Shailer Mathews (1863-1941) at the University of Chicago, tried to adjust Christianity to newscience, neweconomic expansion, and newideals of human progress. For McGiffert, the apostle Paulwas a villainwho had undercut the simple teaching

with the Prussian Zeitgeist in Hegel, while the counter-cultural view of Christianity in Schelling and Kierkegaard insisted upon its autonomy, anticipating Barth, and the atheist possibilities of the tradition were made explicit in the writings of Feuerbach and Nietzsche.

Meanwhile a new historicism brought about a revolution in biblical criticism among Protestants, though this took a number of different positions according to the degree of radicalism of the scholar. Here German theology and philosophy, especially Hegel's, had a major influence upon scholarship.

great reverence' and insisted that 'man himself can never renounce his right to be treated according to his nature or to surrender himself to any form of slavery of the spirit'.20 With that principle, the church assumed the mandate to champion the oppressed and reject the pretensions of the oppressor.

Perhaps more importantly, it could demand that those subject to oppression were not merely entitled to protest, but were obliged by their very nature to do so. To that extent Leo spoke to, and on behalf of, the entire human race.

Nottingham (1841-4), St Mary's, Newcastle uponTyne (1842-4) and the largest, St George's, Southwark (1841-8, severely damaged in the SecondWorldWar). The construction of his Irish churches, notably St Mary's Cathedral, Killarney (1842-9), also suffered from a lack of funds, here accentuated by the Famine.

Pugin's success in proclaiming the potential restoration of the glories of a lost Catholic England went beyond his polemical books (the finest of which is the Glossary of ecclesiastical ornament and costume of 1844) and his completed churches. It was particularly evident in the 'Medieval Court' he organised at

status among Catholic reformers. Palestrina's pre-eminencewas given further impetus by the Italian musicologist and one-time choir member of the papal chapel Giuseppe Baini, who produced an historical study of the composer (1828). In F. S. Kandler's translation, published posthumously and edited by

R. G. Kiesewetter (who himself produced a study of the Netherlands composers), Baini's book was widely disseminated and contributed significantly to the extraordinary escalation of Palestrina's standing throughout Europe, not least through the popularity of his Stabat Mater and Missa Papae Marcelli as

'Christian America' caused by competing claims about what it meant for a nation to be Christianised was a different matter. As a demographic indication of broader change, it was during the 1860s, while Baptists, Presbyterians, Methodists and other Protestants were caught up in the civil strife, that the

Roman Catholic Church became the largest Christian denomination in the United States. Dilemmas of 'Christian America', 1865-1914 Significant changes in American Christianity arose directly from the CivilWar

Portugal is difficult. There are few statistical studies of religious observance such as those available for both countries after 1950. But the gloom and doom of nineteenth-century clerics failed to take into account the regional character of Spanish and Portuguese Catholicism. In Spain (Old Castile, Galicia,

Santander, Asturias,Navarra and the Basque Provinces) and in Portugal (north of the Tagus River), the church was able to rely on a dense network of small parishes intimately linked to the concerns of the peasantry.26 This religious world had little of the theological about it. It revolved around local

21 Romo Gamboa, Independencia constante de la Iglesia hispana, p. 329. 22 El Cat´olico (Madrid), 26 Feb. 1841. 23 Neto, O Estado, a Igreja, pp. 401-6. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

Spain and Portugal: the challenge to the church similar resistance, thereby frustrating a cherished dream of some bishops and laymen, the creation of a mass party similar to the Catholic parties of Belgium and Germany.

The pragmatism of the papacy and the clerical leadership which led to a workable, although grudging, accommodation with the liberal state did not extend to religion. In Spain and Portugal, bishops and priests viewed the impact of the liberal social and political order on religion as catastrophic. A

Spanish preacher declared in 1847: 'Faith nearly extinguished, charity frozen or deadened offers nothing more to our eyes than Christians without souls and without life. The times are obscured by clouds of vice and the dark mists of error.'24 In 1870, aPortuguese religious journal censured bishops and priests for

Socinianism-Unitarianismwas amuch more corrosive and dangerous force for orthodox Christianity because it argued from within the Christian tradition. Harnack's programme of dehellenising the dogmas of Christianity was a late product of Socinianism.

Spiritualism was a movement within the Reformation that had its roots in German mysticism. In contrast to Socinianismwhich envisaged the 'evidence' of Christianity as 'outward', i.e. visible proofs of the authenticity of its founder, Spiritualism sawthe 'evidence' of Christianity as 'inward'. Its greatest German

firstcommunion for childrenwho could recognise the sacrament. Pius created parishes and churches for areas of Rome of increasing population: more than most popes, hewas a bishop to the city, less a prince than a pastor, as in his class in catechesis in Christian doctrine on Sunday afternoons in the courtyard of

St Damasus. Pius dined informally with guests, forbade applause when he entered St Peter's, and refused to allow the faithful to kiss his foot. He wore his tiara at a rakish angle. He would not enrich his relatives. There was a grand simplicity

and Portugal's padroado in appointing to bishoprics, and in 1839, in In Supremo, he condemned the African slave trade. He pragmatically accepted the liberal Belgian constitution, but he made the papacy appear the main obstacle to Italian unity, an omen for the future.

The Italian Catholic revival included such major figures as the theologian Antonio Rosmini and the novelist Manzoni, and liberals like Count Cesare Balbo who sought an accommodation between the church and the spirit of the age. Thus the priest Vincenzo Gioberti, in his Moral and civil primacy of the

of the Byzantine rite ('Uniates'),who also had a metropolitan see and three eparchies. Besides these communities, there were also Jews, a large number of Catholics of the Armenian rite, and over 1.3 million Catholics of the Roman rite, resulting in an extremely diverse ethnic and religious mix in the population.

The Romanians were not satisfied with Law ix of 1868, despite the fact that it promised autonomy to the Romanian Orthodox Church. They wanted Transylvania to be separated from Hungary and incorporated into the Kingdom of Romania.

and poor relief to breaking point. 27 T. P. Bunting and G. S. Rowe, The life of Jabez Bunting (London: Longman, 1887), p. 472. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Christian social thought

The antislavery issue was important in Britain in a way in which it was not elsewhere in Protestant Europe. It was also important because it involved taking a stand against something not explicitly condemned in Scripture. Later in the century the disputes in the United States over the issue led some Christians

the average was only 1/3,000. In these conditions the cure of souls was a vain hope, and many nominal Catholics, especially those on the margin of society, were left without pastoral care for most of their lives. But the faithful were not entirely forgotten.

The church never lost its links with the popular sectors or became a captive of the elites, though the pattern of religious observance was unpredictable. There were places, especially in mestizo America, where churchgoing was regular, others where it was infrequent, others where it was once a year at

church which comprised the whole, or at least a majority, of the people, and which was governed by the people. On the other hand it was used in the same sense as a 'national church', i.e. it was one of the national characteristics to belong to a certain church,which expressed the history and spirit of the nation.

The concept of a national church became particularly strong in Denmark. The followers of Grundtvig used 'folk church' synonymously with 'national church'. In Grundtvig's paradigm of a universal history based on the seven letters in the book of Revelation, the Nordic 'folk church' was the sixth. For

political and religious. This chapter probes into the roots and the flowering of all three from the pontificate of Pius VII (1800-23) to that of Pius IX (1846-78). It explores the confrontation between the national Risorgimento and the Catholic Counter-Risorgimento - and the far-reaching consequences for both.

The conflict between the papacy and patriots in Italy had deep roots, as Lorenzo Valla in the fifteenth century and Niccol`o Machiavelli in the sixteenth both challenged the temporal power. Nationalist suspicion of Rome transcended the literati during the course of the Napoleonic wars, when patriots

mountains (1807-8), which iconises its mountain setting and renders landscape sacred, despite the absence of human figures or any sacred event. Friedrich found patrons in both Protestant and Catholic courts in Germany and in the Russian Orthodox court at St Petersburg.

The earlywork of the German Nazarene painters had a profound influence on the history of English painting in the nineteenth century. English artists working in Rome expressed a cautious admiration for the novelty of the frescos at the Casa Bartholdi and Casino Massimo, but it was Overbeck who was

expression of national identity. In the remainder of this chapter these various strands will be more systematically identified and explored, by considering the component nations of the United Kingdom in the period between 1850 and Ireland

The reforms of the 1830s proved sufficient to maintain the link between the Church of Ireland and the state for another three decades. Despite the failure of the 'Second Reformation' movement of the 1820s, these years saw further efforts by evangelicals to secure large-scale conversions among the nominally

constant theme in the writings of Spurgeon: 'we are men', he declared, 'not slaves'.11 So there was much less of a gender imbalance in the chapels than in the religious organisations of many other times and places. Men as well as women were attracted to sit in Nonconformist pews.

The success of the chapelswas also the result of educational effort.The chief method of providing Christian training for the young was through Sunday school, which normally had two sessions, morning and afternoon. Sunday schools, which at the start of the century were often designed to serve the

and this must now be remedied. At the beginning of the nineteenth century New Testament scholarship had recognised the so-called synoptic problem - the striking similarities between the first three Gospels - and had solved it by adopting the so-called Griesbach hypothesis, after J. J. Griesbach (1745-1812).

This supposed that Mark's Gospel was an abbreviation of Matthew (in fact a viewthatwent back at least to Augustine) but had also drawn on Luke. For the purposes of reconstructing the life of Jesus, the two primary sources were the 'eye-witness' Gospels of Matthewand John. As mentioned above, Strauss's Life

excesses of capitalism rather than to the system itself, but the reader is entitled to wonder what means were available, apart from the trade unions, then in their infancy, to civilise a system that often descended into heartless barbarism.

Throughout the encyclical, the misery of the poor, the disadvantaged and the oppressed is constantly before the reader. In a marked departure from previous popes and well aware that he was speaking to a wider audience, Leo regularly turned to the natural law when he pleaded that justice, combined

4 Colapietra, 'Il diario Brunelli', pp. 76-146. 5 Ubi Primum in Carlen (ed.), Papal pronouncements, p. 21. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Italy: the church and the Risorgimento

Ultramontanism, while placating the powers by removing Father Ventura, a disciple of Lamennais, from his teaching position. Metternich was perturbed by the death of Leo in February 1829, urging his successor to continue to collaborate with Austria.

the very numerous Jews in this area did not have the right to leave and settle in other regions of the empire. At the time of the Tsar Alexander I (1801-25) and his liberal politics towards the Catholics, there was even talk of reuniting the Polish-Lithuanian federation, with the Tsar as king.

Under Tsar Nicholas I after 1825, politics changed profoundly, with ever greater pressure to identify Orthodoxy with Russia and its empire; forced Russification and the struggle against Catholicism, identified with the Poles, was the rule to the beginning of the twentieth century.ThePolish insurrections

was primarily preaching, many others addressed social and political issues directly. The Salvation Army, founded in London by William and Catherine Booth in the 1860s, was one of the most successful. The Booths' daughter, Evangeline (1865-1950), eventually came to direct the work of the Army in the

United States,where she promoted the same range of activities that her parents had advanced in England - provision of food, shelter and medical assistance; vocational training, elementary schooling and internships in manufacturing and farming; visits to prisons, legal aid for the indigent and inexpensive coal

to the impending Italian intrusion, letting the world know that while they could not prevent the thief from coming, he entered by violence. Early in October, the occupiers held an election on whether the citizens of Rome and its environs wished union with the constitutional monarchy of

Victor Emmanuel. The vote overwhelmingly favoured inclusion in the Italian Kingdom. On 9 October 1870, Rome and its provinces were incorporated into Italy, while the pope was promised inviolability and the personal prerogatives of a sovereign. Pius withdrew into the Vatican, considering himself a prisoner

such marriages were to be raised in the religion of the father. This not only conflicted with the Catholic practice of raising all such children as Catholics but clearly favoured the immigrant Protestants. An uneasy peace held until 1836 when the new, Ultramontane bishop of Cologne, Clemens von Droste zu

Vischering, insisted on applying canonical norms strictly.The Prussian government demanded the bishop's resignation and, when he refused, it suspended him from office and forced him from the diocese. This 'Cologne Incident' galvanised Catholic opinion throughout Germany, fanned by the publication

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 john wolffe the Catholic minority in the North in which polarised religious identities have continued to dominate politics.

Wales During the first half of the nineteenth century Wales saw the most striking advances by evangelical voluntary religion in any part of the United Kingdom. Here the Church of England's general problem with inadequate and poorly

the papacy by aligning his state if not the church with the conservative powers in Europe, and above all Austria. Austrian intervention proved decisive in the suppression of the Italian revolution, but aggravated rather than mitigated nationalist resentment.

WhenGiovanni Maria MastaiFerretti assumed the chair ofPeter in June1846 as Pius IX, the Papal States remained on the verge of revolution. Little had been done in Rome to eliminate the discontent festering since the revolutionary upheaval of 1830-1. The major powers - England, France, Austria, Russia

in prayers, hymns, processions and the cries of Mart´ın Fierro, the voice of the rural underdog: 'vengan santos milagrosos, vengan todos en mi ayuda' ('Come down all you saints with your miracles, come to my aid').2 Rural priests were not highly regarded by the politicians and press of Buenos Aires.

Yet the church did not entirely abandon peons and their families. In Fraile Muerto an English observer described the priest as 'an Italian, and not a very clerical character, but pleasant and good natured, and having been educated as a doctor, did all he could for the bodies of his parishioners, and I trust

under a Committee of Public Safety which made the pope a prisoner. In November 1848, he fled by night in a closed carriage to Gaeta in the kingdom of Naples, carrying the Blessed Sacrament in a ciborium borne into exile by Pius VI. An elected constituent assembly in Rome in February 1849 declared

a Roman Republic, which was fired by Giuseppe Garibaldi and the visionary journalist Giuseppe Mazzini, for whom the republican 'Third Rome' would supersede the former Romes of the universal empire and papacy as symbolic of a regenerate humanity.

confronted a church aligned to the conservative order. Although Pius VII rejected the invitation of Tsar Alexander of Russia (1801-25) to join his 'Holy Alliance', he adhered tomuch of its conservative, antinationalist programme. In turn, the allied powers viewed the pope as a fellow victim of Napoleonic

aggression, returning most of his territory, with the exception of one part of Ferrara that was transferred to Austria, and Avignon and the Venaissan which were retained by Paris. Despite these favourable terms, in June 1815 Cardinal Ercole Consalvi, the papal secretary of state, issued a formal protest against

6 Carlen (ed.), The papal encyclicals, vol. i, pp. 221-4; Fremantle (ed.), The papal encyclicals, p. 123. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 frank coppa

and Prussia - had proposed a series of reforms, including the creation of a consultative assembly to provide advice on governmental matters. Their suggestions were ignored as Pope Gregory condemned liberal Catholicism and nationalism in his Mirari Vos of 1832,7 and later denounced the false idols

time.The greatestmonument to the dynamic of nineteenth-century voluntary religion was its worldwide profession in the years that followed. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Catholic revivalism in worship

and devotion mary heimann Over the course of the nineteenth century, there was a widespread change in the way in which religious commitment was expressed and apparently understood

against social injustice and Canaanite religious practices found their legal justification in Deuteronomy (D), which was written in the seventh century. These reforms closed the local sanctuaries and made Jerusalem the sole legitimate sanctuary. The destruction of Jerusalem by the Babylonians in 587 bc

and the subsequent exile of the Jews led to a concern for atoning sacrifices and the practice of ritual purity. Following the return from exile after 540 bc, the Priestly source (P) was composed to set out the requirements for ritual purity 24 A. Kuenen, The Pentateuch and book of Joshua critically examined, translated from the Dutch

are members of the apostolic congregations taking simple vows and whose canonical status as religious was conferred in 1990, as described above. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Church architecture and religious art

andrew sanders The architecture of two great ecclesiastical monuments of western Christendom can be seen as exemplifying the historicising trend in nineteenth-century art. The first, the Basilica of San Paolo fuori le Mura in Rome, rebuilt from

The Christian church could not have predicted the effects of the assaults of historical criticism and natural science upon the fabric of belief that would mark the century afterWaterloo. But in the midst of the protracted war with the vast power of France and cruel energy of Napoleon there was a great

articulation of artistic, philosophical and religious genius, perhaps unprecedented since the Renaissance, which has enriched and shaken the western mind and life. Germany was the centre of this visionary renewal. Much of this 19 Gore (ed.), Lux mundi, p. 99.

pence collections, and special 'devotions to the Pope'. Together with these changes in the general tone of Catholic preaching and hagiography came a dramatic rise in the provision and popularity of a whole range of voluntary extra-liturgical practices, known in the Catholic Church

as 'devotions', many of which had a distinctly medieval flavour. Among the most frequently practised devotions, those which had come to be seen as an inseparable part of Catholic piety by the end of the nineteenth century were Marian devotions such as the Rosary, the thrice-daily recitation of the

and Apollo in Nietszche the world of Schopenhauer as divided between will and representation. The Dionysian symbolises the irrational will that lies at the basis of all life. Art, according to Nietzsche, had the task of affirming an essentially pointless existence: only art (especially Wagner at this stage) can

attain any appropriate articulation of the irrational will beyond appearance. The momentous legacy of Socrates and Plato for the Greeks was their denial of the pessimism of pre-Socratic Hellenic culture and their replacement of this with the optimistic metaphysics of the rational and providential order of Being.

criticism. 44 Cook, 'Loisy'. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 john rogerson

been said that much of the substance of this was based upon Lagrange's early work.45 Another important factor during this periodwas the development of Assyriology, which not only contributed vastly to knowledge of the world of the

(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004) and The dominance of evangelicalism: the age of Spurgeon and Moody (Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press, 2005). His edited works include Protestant nonconformist texts: the nineteenth century (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2005). William J. Callahan is Emeritus Professor of History at the University ofToronto. His

book Church, politics and society in Spain, 1750-1874 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984) was awarded theWallace K. Ferguson Prize of the Canadian Historical Association. Other works by him include Honor, commerce, and industry in eighteenth-century Spain (Boston: Baker Library, Harvard Graduate School of Business Administration, 1972) and

itself,where despite the Penal Laws against the faith from the 1690s, four-fifths of the population had remained Catholic. The leading light of the revival was not a priest but the quintessential Irish Catholic layman, Daniel O'Connell (1775-1847), a utilitarian-minded lawyer, of Irish-speaking gentry stock, educated

by English Catholics and at the English bar, and called the Liberator by his people. O'Connell reacted against the failure of the Irish rising of 1798 and against the union of the parliaments and established Protestant churches of England and Ireland to espouse the cause of a non-violent constitutional

in several varieties only a later addition. When in the nineteenth century Protestant numbers in Upper Canada (later Ontario) caught up to the Catholics in Quebec, the resultwas a delicate negotiated balance. Canadians of all kinds, including residents in the Atlantic Maritime provinces, also remained

closer to French, English, Scottish and Irish church practices than their peers in the United States. Canada's most significant political developments from 1815 to 1914 were reactive: resisting American invasion and incorporation during the War of 1812, rejecting armed attempts in 1837 and 1838 to turn Upper

Portugal during the same period, various groups, including the Associac¸ao dos Livres-Pensadores and the Freemasons gathered in the Grande Oriente Lusitano Unido, as well as others, constituted 'an authentic anticlerical front' of considerable influence.37 The growing strength of republicanism with its

commitment to the separation of church and state also posed a clear danger to the consensus that had sustained the civil ecclesiastical modus vivendi for decades. In Spain, the growth of radical social movements, socialism, anarchism and

taking an 'option' to work among the Parisian poor in the 1830s. His students followed his example and, although Ozanam never developed any cohesive body of social teaching, his work lives on in the St Vincent de Paul Society and he would have accepted all that Rerum Novarum contained. Many new

communities of nuns in the Catholicworld,whether as teachers or nurses, gave their lives for the poor,while Edmund Rice, atWaterford, Ireland, founded the Christian Brothers to educate the male children of those numerous Catholics whose circumstances made their sons' education virtually impossible.

century a well-established and self-conscious place within the ancient Polish nation. The Lithuanians, Ukrainians and some of the Belorussians formed their own nations, led by intellectuals of peasant origin. The example of the Polish national movement played an important role in the formation of their

consciousness, but at the same time it awakened the fear of Polonisation, as in the case of the nobles of the former Respublica. Thus a social factor (the great Polish lords were proprietors of half the land on these territories before 1914) also decided their choice of their own national consciousness.

but its liturgical ambitions were undoubtedly innovative. Equally creative in its response to Puginian principles was Richard Upjohn's Trinity Church, New York (1839-46), which marked a significant shift in American Gothic Revival design, though with its plaster vault and minimal chancel it remained

conservative compared to the churches designed by Upjohn's contemporaries in England. Here the mid-century world of church architecture was to be dominated by three major figures: William Butterfield (1814-1900), George Edmund Street (1824-81) and John Loughborough Pearson (1817-97). Beside

Theology and the revolt against the Enlightenment the basis for Hegel's own more rigorous and sophisticated metaphysics in his Phenomenology of spirit and Logic. For Hegel philosophy and religion deal with the same object, God. Philosophy

considers this object conceptually (Begriff ) whereas religion grasps religious truths imaginatively (Vorstellung). Hegel agreed with the early Schleiermacher that the universe is the self-manifestation of God but there is also an important distinction between man and God in the dialectical process

Pius reconsidered his stance on constitutionalism following the outbreak of revolution in Palermo and Paris early in 1848, warning he could not violate his obligations as head of the universal church. Only when a special commission of ecclesiastics saw no theological hindrances to the introduction of

constitutionalism in the political realm did the pope proceed. Pressured by events, the pope also changed course on the question of the league, and in 1848 moved beyond the commercial league he had originally sanctioned to accept the political and national one earlier deemed inadmissible.21

weakened by social and political change, and there were major regional variations in churchgoing which had little reference to the new intellectual scepticism, and far more to do with politics and economics. In Spain, Portugal and Italy, a thoroughly Christianised north of small peasant farmers stood in

contrast to the latifundia of the partly dechristianised south. But urbanisation and industrialisation created the new problem of an irreligious working class, though here again there were common devout exceptions to the rule, as among British miners and fishermen. The shock of industrialism was first felt

by the churches in Britain and in most other Christian countries, with the exception, perhaps, of Germany. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Popular religion and irreligion in

countryside and town david m. thompson Christianity spread in the Roman empire as an urban religion, and the term 'pagan' originally meant a country-dweller. In the second millennium of the

that of a private society, and absolute state control over church schools. At the same time, the bill maintained the royal rights of patronage, including the 'right of placet'. Fortunately for the church, the government did not obtain a majority, and the new Protestant prime minister, K´alm´an Tisza, altered the

course that had been taken, as he needed the support of the Catholic clergy Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Catholic nationalism in Hungary and Poland against the left wing of his liberal party. Throughout his long period of office

authorised an expedition to Rome. Louis Napoleon claimed he sought to 24 ASV, Archivio Particolare Pio IX, Oggetti Vari, n. 415. 25 A. Rosmini, Della missione a Roma (Turin: Paravia, 1854), pp. 143-4; ASV, Archivio Particolare Pio IX, Francia, Particolari, n. 18; Segreteria di Stato Esteri [SSE], corrispondenza

da Gaeta e Portici, 1848-50, rubrica 248, fascicolo 2, sottofascicolo 4. 26 ASV, Archivio Particolare Pio IX, Particolare, n. 30. 27 Il Risorgimento, 23 November 1848. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

by a full range of problems, among which the antagonism of Protestants was prominent. Lyman Beecher (1775-1863), the tireless Congregational reformer, exemplified that antagonism in 1835 with a widely circulated tract, A plea for the west, that targeted the Roman Catholic Church as the greatest

danger to the expansion of both American freedom and true Christianity. The year before, a Boston mob had torched an Ursuline Convent school in Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 mark a. noll

warfare of science with theology (1896).7 New views of the Bible also upset inherited religious opinions. In the years 1881-3 Presbyterians introduced American readers to European critical Bible scholarship through an extensive debate in the Presbyterian Review. Within

decades, the relatively small differences reflected in this intra-Presbyterian debate had become chasms that divided most professional students of the Bible, who argued that Scripture should be interpreted as any other ancient text, from many people in the pews, who continued to trust in the Scriptures

which contributed to the Catholic revival, while new apparitions of the Virgin, to St Catherine Labour´e in Paris in 1830 and to children at La Salette in 1846, were given official encouragement. Our Lady confirmed to a peasant girl, St Bernadette, at Lourdes, in 1858, the dogma of the Immaculate Conception

defined by Pius in 1854, and the spread of Marian pietism went with what one Anglican convert, Frederick William Faber, called devotion to the pope: Pius declared Mary Immaculate, and the church declared him infallible. Kindly, handsome and witty, unlike his dour and ugly predecessor Gregory,

remained prominent in Baden and the Rhineland. Elsewhere it struggled to survive against the conservatives, who largely controlled clerical appointments and nominations of university theology professors. Rivalry within the Protestant fold, however, did not check the growing

desire to co-ordinate policies among the state churches. A first attempt in this direction had been made at the 1846 Eisenach Congress; it foundered in the face of the princes' refusal to cede any measure of their ecclesiastical prerogatives. More fruitfulwere the Evangelical Church Conferences,which from 1852

Frankfurt, ending the experiment in popular nation-building. None the less, Prussia continued to explore the possibilities of forming a kleindeutsch state with the other German princes, over Austria's stated objections. Only upon learning late in 1850 that Russia would support Austria should war break out

did FrederickWilliam back down. At the Bohemian townofOlm¨utz, he agreed to restore the German confederation as it had existed before the upheavals of 1848. Austria regained its pre-eminence within German Europe, Germany remained divided, and the politics of reaction returned.

nation-state.Political and confessional concerns spoke in favour of this arrangement. Smaller and medium-sized states (e.g. Baden, Hanover, Saxony)wanted to counterbalance Prussia's might. Catholics viewed Austria's inclusion as the best way to protect Catholic interests. Yet, since most of the Habsburg

empire's subjects were not ethnically German, many nationalists opposed incorporating all of Austria into Germany. The Austrian government itself resolved the Assembly's dilemma. When the Habsburgs returned to power in December, Prince Schwarzenberg announced that Austria would have

countered for little in the struggle to preserve religion in the schools and in the laws of marriage, a contradiction that always bewildered the hierarchy. In Colombia, unlike Mexico, religion was an agent of social cohesion and

enabled people of different social origins to interact in common endeavours, in charity hospitals and social welfare projects. The Jesuits sought a new constituency among urban workers by changing the old devotional associations into workers' mutual aid organisations. The church became a 'familiar' institution,

situation between the two types of nationalism in this area of Europe. The Catholic Church faces three confessional absolutisms In the Polish-Lithuanian federation, the Roman Catholic (Latin) Church

enjoyed quite exceptional freedom in this period of almost omnipresent confessional absolutism, and of state control of ecclesiastical structures and their functioning. The bishops were members of the senate, with an important position in matters decisive for the state. Because of the monarchy's weakness

based on the Editio Medicaea of 1614, approved by Rome in 1868. These editions, however, were effectively made redundant when Pius X sanctioned the Editio Vaticana (1905-23) prepared by Gu´eranger, Jausions and Pothier of the Benedictine Abbey at Solesmes. This religious foundation would henceforth

find itself at the vanguard of the plainchant revival, with such seminal though controversial publications as Pothier's Les m´elodies gr´egoriennes (1880) and Liber Usualis (1883). Haberl was encouraged by Liszt (who remained on the margins of the

Guild of St Luke) in Vienna in 1809 under the influence ofWilhelmWackenroder's Herzensergiessungen eines kunstliebenden Klosterbr¨uders. Wackenroder's short book contained anecdotes from the lives of fifteenth- and sixteenthcentury painters and insisted on the essentially spiritual nature of an art that

flourished in an age of faith. The group moved to the secularised monastery Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Church architecture and religious art of S. Isidoro in Rome in 1810, living communally and earning themselves the

and that the opening chapters of Genesis were not reliable history.44 Loisy was excommunicated in 1908 and Lagrange's work came under suspicion, and had to be modified accordingly. Five years after his death in 1938, the encyclical Divino Afflante Spiritu (1943) gave renewed official encouragement

for Catholic scholars to engage in historical-critical research on the Bible. It has 42 W. M. L. deWette, A critical and historical introduction to the canonical scriptures of the Old Testament, translated and enlarged by Theodore Parker, 2nd edn (Boston: Little, Brown, 1858). 43 S. A. Fries, Israels Historia (Uppsala, 1894). See Idestrom, From biblical theology to biblical

(1875-90) he therefore avoided anything that might have provoked a conflict with the Catholic Church. Using skilful tactics he ensured that parliamentary questions and petitions which might have disturbed the interdenominational peace disappeared from the agenda, and he even granted more protection

for religion by means of several new laws. The bishops were content with this tactic of letting sleeping dogs lie (quieta non movere), as they themselves were of a moderate liberal persuasion, and in any case they had no other option. However, despite the basic agreement between Tisza and the bishops,

in effect refused state support.34 For Chalmers and his supporters the church extension campaign was not merely an endeavour to gain additional resources, but a matter of sustaining the perceived historic identity of the Church of Scotland as the spiritual foundation

for the 'godly commonwealth' of the Scottish people.35 He responded to the government's rebuff by delivering in London a series of 'Lectures on the establishment and extension of national churches'. For Chalmers the central purpose of religious establishments was to preach the gospel to every human

that it is easy to overlook how successful they were in the England of the 1840s. One obvious point about popular religion (and indeed not only popular religion) is the significance of gender in religious observance. Women were

generally significantly more observant than men - the only possible exception Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Popular religion and irreligion in countryside and town to this is male practice in the most devout northern Spanish valleys. The

eighteenth century.60 Meanwhile substantial achievements were underway in terms of church extension: for example in part of the ironworking districts of the SouthWales valleys therewas an increase from 21 to 108 churches between the mid-nineteenth and the early twentieth centuries with a corresponding

growth in clergy numbers and of numbers of services.61 Similar expansion was apparent in other parts of the country, notably Carmarthenshire. By the end of the nineteenth century the Anglican churchwas again the largest single religious body inWales and 'had a real and increasing role in the spiritual lives

in 1900. The number of Jews was 3,145 in 1850 and 12,264 in 1900. Owing to migration within Switzerland and immigration in the wake of industrialisation, especially from Germany and Italy, the cantons of Zurich, Geneva and Basel - and especially the towns of the same name - experienced a significant

growth in the Catholic population. Whereas in 1850 therewere 6,690 Catholics living in the canton of Zurich, their number had increased to 40,402 by 1888 and 80,752 by 1900. More than 90 per cent of these were labourers, workmen and domestic servants.5 In contrast, in Solothurn, immigration from Berne

Denmark-Norway attendance at a church school became compulsory for everybody in the eighteenth century as a part of a state pietistic programme to make all subjects pious Christians, and as a preparation for a reintroduced confirmation (1736). In order to know the basic Christian truths the children

had to learn to read,which led to the beginning of public schooling. InSweden- Finland the households were responsible for the religious upbringing of children, and the ministers visited households regularly to hold examinations and ensure the members had the expected knowledge of the Christian truths. The

Baroque, and this only showed signs of change with Thomas Attwood, a Mozart pupil, and his classical anthems 'Turn thee again' (1817), 'Come, Holy Ghost' (1831) and 'Turn thy face frommysins' (1835), the latter verymuch influenced by Mozart's 'Ave verum';8 John Goss's anthems in abridged sonata style,

namely the dignified 'Ifwe believe that Jesus died' forWellington's state funeral (1852) and 'O Saviour of the world' (1869), also reveal classical thinking. The 'learned' contrapuntal style also enjoyed some currency among English ecclesiastical composers of this period, notably William Crotch, Samuel Wesley

Anglican High Churchmen who resented the weakening of the established character of the Church of England and sought ways of resisting a Whig government's reform of the church, then united to the even more Protestant Church of Ireland. The Oxford Movement's appeal, not to the official and

national character of the church as by law established, but to the God-given authority of the threefold Catholic ministerial order of bishop, priest and deacon, and to the tradition of the early church as well as to Scripture, led to the secession of some of the movement's leaders, like John Henry Newman,

The intellectual aristocracy of Vilnius now played an extremely important and sustained role in Polish high culture, but also in the culture of the other Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 gabriel adri ´anyi and jerzy kloczowski

nations born from the former federation. The closure of the university was a catastrophe, born of a new Russian strategy that was both anti-Polish and anti-western. Not until forty years later did new dynamic Polish university centres come

The power, the potential for consolation and the ready accessibility of In memoriam are witnessed in the fact that it is the poem most commonly quoted on the headstones of those who fell in the FirstWorldWar. The most innovative and lexically idiosyncratic religious poet of the English

nineteenth century isGerardManleyHopkins (1844-89).Hopkinswas received into the Roman Catholic Church in 1866 by J. H. Newman and entered the Jesuit novitiate in 1868. His first great poetic achievement, 'The wreck of the Deutschland' (which celebrates the piously heroic death of five Franciscan

Marcel Proust's translation of The Bible of Amiens into French in 1904. Ruskin's advocacy of Gothic forms in both the secular and the religious arts contrasts with the currency of classical, Italianate and, above all, Greek Revival styles in the opening years of the century.This is apparent not only in the reconstruction

of San Paolo fuori le Mura in Rome but also in four great publicly financed Catholic churches, each a celebration of restored or reconstituted monarchies. Both San Francesco di Paola inNaples (1817-32, by Pietro Bianchi) and the Gran Madre di Dio in Turin (1818-31, by Ferdinando Bonsignore) were inspired

was strongest. But another point needs to be made. In Roman Catholic countries the massive reduction in the numbers of male regular clergy as a result of the French Revolutionary era profoundly changed the balance of power in favour of the parochial clergy. When this is combined with the reduction

of the significance of many lay brotherhoods, it can be seen that there was a significant change in the way in which religion was perceived at the local level. The parish priest's loyalty to Rome immediately became much more important. Sperber's verdict on western Germany that 'the growing centrality,

there was continued radical pressure for appropriation of its alleged surplus revenues, no proposal was implemented, and in 1838 parliament passed an Act that took much of the sting out of popular opposition to tithes, by converting them to a levy on rents, payable by the landlords (whowere usually Protestant)

rather than by the predominantly Catholic tenants.32 Moreover the church has been perceived both by its contemporary advocates and by recent scholars as 29 Burns, The diocesan revival. 30 Brown, The national churches, pp. 208-9.

Although Enlightenment rationalism has tended to regard both religious ideas and earlier superstitious attitudes as outdated, the evidence does not suggest that superstitious ideas died very quickly. Stories of witches, fairies, spells, etc. were actually written down and printed in the nineteenth century,

rather than simply being told by one generation to the next. Does this mean that they are less or more significant? There is plenty of evidence that such stories were widely believed, and even that central figures in Christianity, particularly the saints,were often understood in similarways by many people.

Arnold argued for a radically expanded national church. Given that it was 'both wicked and impossible' 'to extinguish Dissent by persecution', the effort should be made to 'extinguish it by comprehension'.19 He believed that, with good will, all groups except Quakers, Roman Catholics and Unitarians could

reach sufficient agreement on the essentials of Christianity to join such a body, and that even these exceptions might gradually become reconciled to it.20 Underlying Arnold's vision was a strong English nationalism founded in a close identification between church, state and people.21 He believed that 'of

31 Gilbert, Religion and society, p. 130. 32 Akenson, The Church of Ireland, pp. 189-94. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 john wolffe

responding to the severe challenges it faced with a measure of spiritual revival and increased pastoral efficiency.33 Meanwhile the Church of Scotland had its own difficulties. In Edinburgh in 1833 Dissenters began a campaign of non-payment of the Annuity Tax, which

Harnack and the adherents of the Protestantenverein. In Baden, anticonservative protests triggered the elaboration of a new Protestant church constitution in 1861. But the main concern was the Catholic Church. In Austria, liberals campaigned to abrogate the 1855 concordat, which they felt not only blocked

social and cultural progress, but undercut Habsburg claims to lead Germany. Over the strenuous protests of Catholic groups, Baden passed a law in 1864 that made local school councils, and not the clergy (Protestant or Catholic), responsible for school oversight. Bavarian liberals also hoped to curtail the

the new church, as did the new Irish religious orders, especially the Christian Brothers and the Sisters of Mercy, which founded hospitals and schools. All Hallows alone had sent out 1,500 priests by 1902. The largest body of emigrants went to North America, predominantly to

the United States, in all between 512 and 6 million people from 1776, with perhaps 40 million present-day descendants. A substantial minority of these 4 Lee, The modernisation of Irish society.

theory that, as Edmund Burke said in 1792, 'in a Christian commonwealth the Church and the State are one and the same thing, being different integral parts of the same whole'.6 Above all national religious identity was perceived as embodied in the monarch, 'inwhom', according to a preacher on

the death of George III in 1820, 'was centered the well-being both of Church and State'.7 Itwas a patriotic consensus withwhich even Protestant Dissenters could identify, provided they themselves were accorded toleration and freedom of worship.8 In Ireland, on the other hand, such definition of state and

the colony in 1820, were largely lost to the church, whose growth dates from the appointment of an Irish Dominican, Patrick Raymond Griffith, as vicar apostolic of the Cape Colony in 1837. He had to establish his authority by deposing the churchwarden directors of the vicariate. A second vicariate in

the eastern Cape was created in 1847, and was administered by Irish bishops. Its great expansion came in the twentieth century. In Argentina, a unique Irish community was formed by Fr Anthony Fahy, and about 300,000 Argentinians claim Irish ancestry. Irish Catholics made up a large if varying proportion of

Abraham Lincoln, in his sublime second inaugural address of 1865, put the Civil War into perspective by quoting Matthew 18:7 and Psalm 19:9 and by noting that 'Both [sides] read the same Bible.' In 1881, American publication of the Revised Version, produced by noted biblical scholars from Britain, for

the first time provided a serious alternative to the KJV as 'America's Bible'. Throughout this period, a huge number of foreign-language editions of the Bible were also printed in the United States (for example, at least a hundred different German editions between 1860 and 1925). In 1898, two travelling salesmen,

regularly to church, joined exclusively Catholic societies, had their children educated in Catholic schools, and incorporated pious practices and set prayers into their daily routine. Catholic literature of the day, with its emphasis on the other-worldly, the importance of the saints, the centrality of penance and

the holiness of simplicity, gave Catholics a shared sense of values, just as a number of universalised Catholic shrines, saints, images, devotions and places of pilgrimage gave them common points of reference and a shared spiritual vocabulary. But for all the common ground between Catholics of different

occupation and particular regions. National solidarity played an extremely important role in these efforts. The enormous differences in the living conditions and regimes across the three zones, Russian, Prussian and Austrian, became more and more obvious

(they remain so even at the beginning of the twenty-first century) but, at the same time, the elites at least were very conscious of a national unity transcending political frontiers. The freedom of Galiciawas especially exploited to disseminate information about the persecutions and difficulties which Polish

World Christianities, c.1815-c.1914/edited by Sheridan Gilley and Brian Stanley. p. cm. - (The Cambridge history of Christianity; vol. 8) Includes bibliographical references and index. isbn 0 521-81456-1 (hardback)

1. Church history - 19th century. 2. Church history - 20th century. i. Gilley, Sheridan. ii. Stanley, Brian, 1953- iii. Title. iv. Series. br477.w87 2005 270.8 - dc22 2005008392 isbn-13 978-0-521-81456-0 hardback

creation), not 'Sch¨opfungsdichtung' (creation fiction) nor visionary prophecy, yet in accommodating the geological need for millions of years he interpreted the days of creation as periods.15 Variations on the 'day-age' theme were suggested by, among others, another 'biblical realist', the Dorpat professor of

11 G. Molloy, Geology and revelation, 2nd edn (London: Burns and Oates, 1873), p. 7. 12 J. A. Deluc, Lettres physiques et morales sur l'histoire de la terre et de l'homme, 5 vols. (The Hague: Detune, and Paris: Duchesne, 1779), vol. v, p. 636. 13 Rudwick, 'The shape and meaning of earth history', p. 313.

7 Graham, 'Chosen by God', p. 90; Wilson, 'Decline of female itinerant preachers', pp. 17-18. 8 Dodson, Engendering church, chs. 1-3. 9 Billington, '"Female labourers"'; Brekus, Strangers and pilgrims, pp. 134-6.

10 Brekus, Strangers and pilgrims, pp. 284-305. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 janice holmes and susan o'brien loss of impetus and a sense of existing privileges being taken away. Women

in counties Antrim and Down they were the largest single religious group.11 While they lacked the legal primacy accorded to the Church of Ireland they were therefore a major social and political influence. 9 Connolly, Religion and society, p. 3.

10 Brown, The national churches, pp. 22-31; Brown, 'The myth of the established church', pp. 51-63. 11 Connolly, Religion and society, pp. 3-4. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

16 A. P. Stanley, Lectures on the history of the Jewish church, 3 vols. (London: John Murray, 1st ser. 1863, 2nd ser. 1865, 3rd ser. 1876). 17 H. Ewald, The History of Israel (London: Longmans, Green and Co., 1867-86). 18 See Rogerson, Old Testament criticism, pp. 238-42.

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 History and the Bible the Old Testament's precedence of the law, de Wette's the precedence of the prophets. From a number of quarters support began to gather for the priority

Courtenay Press, 1984), The Mount Kembla disaster (South Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1992), Evangelical Christianity in Australia: Spirit, word and world (Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1996) and Firestorm of the Lord: the history of and prospects for revival in the church and the world (Carlisle: Paternoster, 2000).

Andrew Porter is Rhodes Professor of Imperial History at King's College in the University of London. He has written extensively on imperial issues from the mid-eighteenth to the mid-twentieth century. Books include The origins of the South AfricanWar (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1980),Victorian shipping, business and empire(Woodbridge: Boydell

opposed to a Republican, vision of the nation. The building of the massive votive church of the Sacr´e Coeur in Montmartre after the Paris Commune of 1871was - and still is - resented by many on the left as a provocation. Rightly or wrongly, the newforms of piety have been labelled together as 'Ultramontane

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Catholic Christianity in France, 1815-1905 piety' - a new, more brazen andmore militant manifestation of Catholicism thatwent hand in hand with the inexorable rise of Ultramontanism in the matter

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Switzerland and the Netherlands Calvinist, going to make up a multiple rather than a single shared national identity.43

At first glance it might seem that these different nationalisms were pulling in different directions. However, nationalism is seldom unified, but at best a forcewhich integrates very different sub-nationalisms. Nation-building efforts were creating a location for the various groups within the framework of the

Edited by SHERIDAN GILLEY Durham University and

BRIAN STANLEY University of Cambridge Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 cambridge university press

There was no question of implementing the nineteenth-century republican formula of 'a free church in a free state'. The Second Spanish Republic (1931-9) did not go this far, but it remained a prisoner of the regalist ghosts of the past.

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Latin America: the church and national independence john lynch

and Ukrainians, the clear role of Russification linked to the Orthodox Church. The situation of the Catholic Church was different in the Kingdom of Poland, with the Tsar as king, and in the territories of the federation directly

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 gabriel adri ´anyi and jerzy kloczowski annexed to the Russian empire. These western 'goubernias' for a long time retained a special status in the empire, including legal provisions; for example,

Another significant differencewas the broader influence in Canada of social Christianity as a response to the crises of industrialisation and urbanisation. Catholic Ultramontanecorporatism resistedanything labelled as socialism,but did encourage an intensely communal attitude towards public life. In English

Canada, traditions of Anglican conservatism, practical efforts by churchmen (and more often churchwomen) to meet the needs of immigrants, occasional Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 'Christian America' and 'Christian Canada'

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Theology and the revolt against the Enlightenment of the French Revolution as Terror.De Maistre is often seen as an anachronism: an Ultramontane Roman Catholic Savoyard critic of the French Revolution.6

De Maistre's grim vision of sin robbing the human will of real autonomy, demanding, by virtue of its very exigency, strict obedience to the divine representative, leads to an analysis of secularity. He delivers a critique of the terrifyingly destructive reality of secularism and liberalism - despite its claim

social role. The stagewas set for a renewal of hostilities with a republican state which, by that time,was willing to nail its colours to the mast of the id´ee la¨ıque, the realisation of a completely secular polity and society. Religion and politics: the rise of anticlericalism

Discontent with the clergy was hardly new in the 1870s. On the contrary, irrespective of relations between government and the church, conflicts between priests and their parishionerswere a hardy perennial of life in thecommunes of rural France. Le bon cur´e, the village priestwho lived harmoniously as the good

of Fribourg in 1889. From its beginnings, the state university had the function of an international Catholic centre, which became manifest not least in the conferences of the Union de Fribourg which played an important role in the formulation of the encyclical Rerum Novarum of Pope Leo XIII in

During the first forty years of the new Switzerland, the historian and publicist Philipp Anton Segesserwas the leader of conservative political Catholicism and its grouping in the Swiss parliament.22 This was the predecessor of the Christian-Democratic Party, one of the oldest Christian-Democratic parties in

as pious events: in Medell´ın in 1875 a procession marking a civil occasion included magistrates, lawyers, doctors and professional associations, and 'in front marched the Asociaci´on del Sagrado Coraz´on de Jes´us'.10 Religious fervour took other forms than piouswomen in black hurrying to early-morning mass.

Faith promoted works of charity and kept the richer families concerned with the needs of the poor and helpless; the faith fulfilled secular as well as spiritual expectations. Seats were full not only in churches but also in libraries, lecture rooms, and other cultural venues where people searched for a better life, and

'the day arrived when this people, who until then appeared Catholic, abandoned religious practices little by little'.29 In Lisbon and Oporto towards the end of the nineteenth century, workers 'lived totally at the margins of the church'.30

In spite of the loyalty of the northern peasantry to the church, clergy and activist laity faced daunting challenges. How they were to be met caused controversy and, at times, confusion among bishops, priests and laymen seeking to 'rechristianise' that part of the population that had become indifferent or even

not respond as rapidly as Methodists, Baptists and Disciples to the swiftly opening new frontier. But their strenuous efforts at melding old world churchly standards to new world sectarian realities paid off - over 2,000 churches by 1830, over 6,400 by 1860.

In the absence of formal church establishments, voluntary societies provided the most effective means to address problems requiring more than a local response. The most widely supported, like the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (1810) and the American Bible Society

sawthings differently.The pope had a responsibility to transfer full sovereignty to his successor, Metternichwarned, and should not barter any of it away. The Austrian minister predicted that if he continued pandering to the radicals and nationalists, he would be forced out of Rome.18

Initially Pius did not share the conservative fears, preferring reformto reaction. His optimism was not shared by his own secretary of state, Pasquale Gizzi, who, like Metternich, appreciated the danger that Italian nationalism posed to the Papal States and the papacy. Gizzi had reservations about both

Basler Mission (founded in 1815) became the most prominent. Controlled by an influential and tightly knit social elite, and with its own missionary seminary in Basel, it was especially oriented towards West Africa and south-west India.12

Liberal Protestant theology was influenced by the rational theology of the T¨ubingen School. One of the most renowned Protestant theologians in Switzerland was Alexandre Vinet in Lausanne, a vehement warrior for religious freedom and the separation of church and state. Under his influence,

sheridan gilley their generation, Lamennais, Lacordaire and the comte de Montalembert, visited Rome to persuade him of the value of a liberal Catholicism. Lamennais was politely received, but his liberalism was anathematised in the encyclical

Mirari Vos in 1832, and his apocalyptic tract Paroles d'un croyant (1834) bitterly satirised Gregory, who condemned the work in his encyclical Singulari Nos in 1834. Lamennais left the church, but his followers did not, and their contribution to the Catholic revival was largely responsible for the church's popularity

local elites at an alienwestern threat to their authority and culture, aswell as a Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Introduction European reluctance to adapt Christianity to wholly different ancient civilisations.

One area of general missionary failure was the Middle East, where the recovery of the Holy Land had an important place in Protestant ambitions. Neither Catholic nor Protestant missionaries managed to convert many Muslims or Jews. While Catholics strengthened their own eastern Uniate churches,

both in the striped or banded manner of Siena Cathedral: All Saints (1882) and the more sumptuous American church of St Paul in the Via Nazionale (1879). The apse of the latter is decorated with a particularly striking mosaic by Edward Burne-Jones. The first major church designed by John Loughborough

Pearson, the beautifully proportioned St Peter's, Vauxhall (1859-65), is, like Street's work, based on Early French models. What make it remarkable are its noble stone and brick vault and round apse. Pearson's skill as a designer of vaults marks all of his best churches. St Augustine's, Kilburn

david bebbington was dominated by ministerswhowere Scottish Presbyterians.18 TheChristianity of all these lands was remarkably similar to that of the homeland because the personnel were overwhelmingly ´emigr´es or their descendants.

The United States showed equivalent features for the same reason. The religious exceptionalism of America has been much exaggerated, for most of its denominations were drawn from Britain. Despite the federal ban on laws for the establishment of religion, two states, Connecticut and Massachusetts,

period for Christianity than most. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 p a r t i

∗ CHRISTIANITY AND MODERNITY Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

3 For a brief overview see Tucker and Liefeld, Daughters of the church, pp. 291-327. 4 Larson, Daughters of light, pp. 63-4. 5 Plant, '"Subjective testimonies"'. 6 Chilcote, JohnWesley and the women preachers.

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Women preachers and the new Orders Methodism hadmoved to prohibit it. Itwas only within the ambit of breakaway Methodist sects, like the Primitive Methodists (1812) and the Bible Christians

mayor and the local schoolmaster as figures willing to contest the authority of the priest and to assist with the drawing up of formal complaints to be laid before the minister. By the 1860s, in the context of a very different political 1 L.Veuillot, L'illusion lib´erale (Paris: Palm´e, 1866; reprinted privately, 1969).

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 james f. mCmillan and intellectual climate at the national level, the everyday clashes between the parti du maire and the parti du cur´e became increasingly politicised, and

37 Andr´es Gallego and Pazos, La Iglesia en la Espa˜na contempor´anea, vol. i, pp. 290-6; Catroga, 'O livre-pensamento contra a Igreja', p. 344. 38 Iamdudum: encyclical of Pope Pius X on the Law of Separation in Portugal, 24 May 1911 (www.thecatholiclibrary.org/Docs/Popes/257 Pius X/Encyclicals/iamdudum.html).

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 william j. callahan the publication of papal documents without the government's consent and by imposing restrictions on religious processions outside the church buildings.

the belief, largely inaccurate, that monks and friars stood in the front line of the movements to restore absolutism by working on behalf of Fernando VII's reactionary brother, Don Carlos, against the king's young daughter, Queen Isabella II (1833-68), who enjoyed liberal support.11 The movement known as

Carlism remained a nagging danger for liberal governments until the 1870s, but it was at its most threatening during the mid-1830s. In fact, disoriented and disorganised priests and religious were in no position to provide effective support to Carlism, but a fewdid so, thereby provoking reprisals. In 1836-7, the

Schelling. Both Socinianism and Spiritualism were products of the Reformation. Socinianism inherited the exclusively biblical concentration, Spiritualism the individualism of the Reformation. Yet both were quite unlike Protestant or

Catholic orthodoxy in that together they threatened much of the inherited fabric of belief. Socinianism, combined with Arianism, was intent upon dismantling the dogmas, and Spiritualism tended to corrode the historical foundations, of Christianity. The breezy paganism of Hume and Gibbon so often

churches of 'Gallicanism' or the avoidance of papal control. Yet devotions 24 Gilley, 'Vulgar piety and the Brompton Oratory'; O'Brien, 'Making Catholic spaces'; Gibson, Social history of French Catholicism, pp. 158-226. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

Catholic revivalism in worship and devotion long assumed by historians to have been 'Roman' often turn out, upon closer inspection, not only not to have been Italian, Italianate, promoted from the Vatican or in any other meaningful sense 'Roman' or 'Ultramontane', but

the individuality of the Nordic churches was further developed, although the division betweenWest- and East-Norden remained. 10 Eino Murtorinne, 'Den fennomanska r¨orelsen'. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

'Christian America' and 'Christian Canada' mark a. noll In the century from 1815 to 1914, the churches of North America experienced an

of hundreds of leaflets pro and contra. It also led Catholic leaders to cease cooperation with conservative Protestants, who defended the Prussian state's policies, and develop their own, confessional political programme. Similarly provocative and conducive to confessional conscience-raisingwas the Bavarian

'Genuflection Edict' of 1838, by which every soldier, regardless of denomination, had to kneel when the Holy Sacrament passed during a religious procession. Protestants now railed against this affront to their religious sensibilities; nevertheless, seven years passed before Ludwig I rescinded the order.

the unity of the human race, to which RudolphWagner added his conviction that there is a life after death, and that humans differ from animals in that they have a soul - a direct gift from God. Controversy over the issue flared up in Germany in the context of the socalled

'Materialismusstreit', engendered by attempts to put science before the cartof materialistandpositivist philosophy.The soul hasnoindependent reality from the brain - it was famously asserted - and is as much its product as are the various bodily fluids of other organs. In 1854 the Versammlung deutscher

the Great Exhibition in 1851, a space crammed with examples of his church plate, textiles, sculpture and furniture and dominated by the tabernacle he designed for the church at Ramsgate (now in Southwark Cathedral). In his autobiography George Gilbert Scott (1811-78) noted that he had been

'awaked' from his 'slumbers by the thunder of Pugin's writings'. Scott, like many of his English contemporaries, had been trained in the use of Classical forms and had merely dabbled with the Gothic. Pugin's 'thunder' alerted a generation to a church architecture drawing directly from medieval forms.

in those communities which were already technically Catholic. It was to these nominally Catholic communities, often held in suspicion by the more rigidly Ultramontane clergy who had been trained in Italy or France to 'missionise' to the infidel, that the sense of a grand mission to

'convert the heathen' and 'restore' Catholicism to its full Tridentine glory was born. The Italian Passionist Fr Dominic Barberi may have dreamed and prayed for the 'conversion' of Protestant Britain, home of what was then the greatest European economic power and the centre of a vast empire; but,

In Norway the concept of a 'state church' was used to describe the state's government of the church, and the privileged position of the Church of Norway. The alternative was usually not a free church, but ecclesiastical selfdetermination within the boundaries of a state church. Yet the concept of a

'folk church' never had the same importance as in Denmark, and was often used synonymously with state church. The idea of a national church was, however, rather weak in Norway during the nineteenth century. The reason was tension and conflict between confessional

Irish-American bishop, John Carroll (consecrated 1790; archbishop 1808-15), was Baltimore, originally founded as a colony by English Catholics. The huge post-Famine Irish Catholic populations of the great eastern cities like New York, which had more than 200,000 Irish-born by 1860, and in the Midwest,

Chicago, acquired powerful prelates like John Hughes of New York (bishop 1838-50; archbishop 1850-64), who were the architects of massive building programmes of new churches, presbyteries and parochial schools, the last not funded by the state, a cause of lasting grievance, for neighbourhoods in

1 Brown, Thomas Chalmers, pp. 93-4. 2 Ibid., pp. 73-84. 3 Ibid., p. 95; Roxborogh, Thomas Chalmers, pp. 67-8. 4 T. Chalmers, A sermon delivered in the Tron Church Glasgow, on . . . November 19, 1817

(Glasgow, 1817), p. 31. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 john wolffe identification with the people as a whole. In Ireland, they faced the different

University of Tennessee at Chattanooga. He has published articles on modern European religious and cultural history in Central European History, Geschichte und Gesellschaft and the Journal of Urban History, and contributed to: the Blackwell companion to nineteenth-century Europe; Protestants, Catholics, and Jews in Germany, 1800-1914, ed. Helmut Walser Smith

(NewYork: Berg, 2001); and Religi¨ose Vergemeinschaftung in der Moderne, ed. LucianH¨olscher (G¨ottingen: Wallstein, 2005). He is currently completing a monograph on Protestantism and urban religious culture in late nineteenth-century Strasbourg. Robert J. Taft is Professor Emeritus of Oriental Liturgy at the Pontifical Oriental

douglas hedley The T¨ubingen School of Johann Sebastian Drey (1777-1853) and Johann Adam M¨ohler (1796-1838) represents a particularly rich vein of Catholic thought in the nineteenth century. In particular they exploited the Idealistic

(and Schleiermacher's) emphasis upon the importance of the social dimension of life and thought to apologetic effect for Catholicism in opposition to Protestantism, and applied this principle to an understanding of church history.M¨ohler and Drey both sawCatholic dogma in organic terms, and drew

Bonn and active supporter of the Old Catholics Franz Heinrich Reusch (1825-1900), and the Italian scientist-theologian and Jesuit Giambattista Pianciani (1784-1862). 7 J. W. Draper, History of the conflict between religion and science (London: Henry S. King, 1875), pp. vi, xi.

8 A. D. White, A history of the warfare of science with theology in Christendom, 2 vols. (New York: Dover republication, 1960), vol. i, pp. viii-ix. 9 Russell, Religion and science, p. 7. 10 Brooke, Science and religion; Lindberg and Numbers, God and nature andWhen science and

the nineteenth century, some individual conservative Protestant intellectuals, such as the Basel historian Jacob Burckhardt, remained prominent. Most of the members of the Protestant wing of conservatism now supported the liberal party (Freisinnig-Demokratische Partei), which had become more moderate.

AfterWorldWar I, some of the Berne conservatives joined the newly founded agrarian Bauern-, Gewerbe- and B¨urgerpartei.14 The Catholic milieu The confessionalisation of politics and the politicisation of religionwere intensified

eye trained to observe natural detail by Ruskin. His linguistic daring and his radically distinct use of rhythm variously express an intensity of wonder and an agony of spiritual discomposure which lesser poets might have considered to be inexpressible.

American Christian poetry in the nineteenth century has little to match the doctrinal definition and the European, Catholic passion of Hopkins. If anything, the spirit of that poetry was defined by the individualist spirit of Protestant NewEngland but itwas also reflective of the insistently democratic

in light of the fact that trade unions were already a widely accepted 20 Ibid., p. 189. 21 Ibid., pp. 171-2, 179, 188. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

Christian social thought element of working-class organisation, even if individual capitalists and some governments opposed them.22 A more serious problem arose with the question of a just wage. In his first

charismatic phenomena marked the formation of new churches such as the Catholic Apostolic Church and the so-called Plymouth or Christian Brethren.2 These developments had the effect of creating an atmosphere that was hostile 1 A. Clarke, The Holy Bible with a commentary and critical notes, vol. v (London, 1825) on

Daniel 7:25. A similar calculation could be made on the basis of Daniel 12:6-7. At Daniel 12:11, a period of 1,290 days (i.e. years) is mentioned from the time that the 'abomination that makes desolate' is set up. Clarke considered the possibility that the beginning of Islam in ad 612 was meant.

rebellion. While Australia received only 5 per cent of the Irish emigration, these constituted a hefty 25 per cent of the population in 1861, comprising the only significant white minority in an otherwise overwhelmingly British and Protestant people. Conflict between Catholicism, Protestantism and the

Enlightenment has been identified by the Australian historian Manning Clark as the most enduring theme of Australian history.6 The first Catholic bishop, John Bede Polding (vicar apostolic 1835; archbishop and primate 1842-77), was an English Benedictine, who dreamed of creating a vast new diocese for his

of Oklahoma Press, 1998) and Latin America between colony and nation (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2001). James F. McMillan is Richard Pares Professor of History at the University of Edinburgh. He is the author of many articles and chapters on the religious history of modern

France, with a focus particularly on the French culture wars, political Catholicism and xii Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 List of contributors

in marked contrast to the style galant and the imported, florid style of opera. Perhaps the most fertile synthesis of late classical liturgical styles was the symphonic mass - works for four-part choir, orchestra and organ continuo - most prevalent in Catholic Austria and itswealthy monastical tradition. Joseph

Haydn's last six masses, composed for the court at Esterh´azy, are often cited as the most typical examples of the genre, but there was considerable industry throughout the empire with F. X. Brixi in Bohemia (Prague) and K. V. Wratny in Slovenia (Ljubljana and Gorizia) as authors of many works.

is none which seems to have taken such a firm hold of the public mind in (1780-1862) at Montpellier; the Lutheran zoologist Johann Andreas Wagner (1797-1861) at Munich; the Congregationalist president of Amherst College, Edward Hitchcock (1793- 1864); Hitchcock's teacher Benjamin Silliman (1816-85), Professor of Chemistry and Natural

History at Yale University; the latter's pupil and Yale colleague, the geologist James Dwight Dana (1813-95); and the Calvinist geographer at Princeton, Arnold Guyot (1807- 84). Among the theologians were such Catholics as the later archbishop ofWestminster Nicholas Patrick StephenWiseman (1802-65), the Professor of Old Testament Studies at

through evangelism and Christian socialwelfare.The regenerate Christians in the German 'folk church' were to carry on missionary work among the unregenerate, in order that the national people and the true church should ultimately become identical bodies.

In addition to these two concepts of 'folk church', the Nordic 'folk church' had similar ambiguity to the concepts of 'people' and 'nation'. The term was used both in a 'democratic' and in an 'ethnic cultural' sense, and these were often mixed together. On the one hand 'folk church' described an inclusive

associated with what Joseph Lee has called the modernisation of Irish society, through the Church's provision of popular as well as middle-class education, assisted by the state, though not without controversy, with an improving if still modest standard of living to sustain a more orderly and stable life.4

In fact, as Desmond Keenan has suggested, the 'Devotional Revolution' needs a longer timescale: Ireland had its full complement of dioceses and parishes in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, with hard-working archbishops like Troy and Murray in Dublin before Cullen, in what was a

and the maintenance of birth, marriage and death recordswould devolve to the state.The constitution, however, did notmakeall religious organisations equal: only recognised churches would enjoy complete freedom of religious assembly.

In the meantime, the parliamentarians struggled to set Germany's territorial boundaries. As late as December 1848, a considerable majority favoured the so-called 'greater Germany' (großdeutsch) approach. This meant that all the Bund's existing members, including Austria, would be part of the new

church, state and society. These developments and their aftermath will first be examined. The remainder of the chapter will then provide a survey of continuing potent interactions between religious and national identities in the various countries of the United Kingdom.

In the spring of 1828 parliament somewhat unexpectedly voted to repeal the Test and Corporation Acts that had hitherto theoretically excluded Protestant Dissenters from sitting in parliament or holding other civil office. At one level this decision looked like an uncontroversial adjustment of a constitutional

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 sheridan gilley both persecuted and tried to convert the ancient Christian communities of Mar-Thomas in founding their own. Other old Catholic mission fields were

Indochina, acquired in the nineteenth century by France; Canada, where the Quebecois renewed an older model of an integrally Catholic society; China, where Catholicism remained despite savage attempts to suppress it; and most remarkably Japan, where in 1865 a small Catholic Church was found to have

in Great Britain, and in both England and Scotland the delay in the provision of new places of worship, especially by the established Anglican and Presbyterian churches, left many people unchurched. The strains of adaptation to Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

Introduction the population explosion, which the fast-expanding non-established Nonconformist churches were at first better able to provide, led to the secession after 1800 of most of the population ofWales to various forms of voluntarist Nonconformist

responded to the cries for a constitution by warning that his subjects should not make requests which he could not, ought not and did not mean to grant. He was equally adamant about creating a civic guard. Finally, he resisted the call to champion the liberation of the peninsula, considering the creation of an

Italian league presided over by the pope a utopian scheme. None the less, he found it hard to resist the popular clamour and eventually persuaded Gizzi to authorise the controversial guard, but the cardinal, fearing the consequences, resigned a few days later.

The growth of voluntary religion independent Christian witness: French Protestants had persevered in adversity since the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685, Dutch Dissenters had enjoyed religious toleration for longer than their English counterparts and in

Italy the Waldensians could claim a lineage extending back before the Reformation. But much of the religion that flowed in separate channels was novel, the result of the Evangelical Revival. Its expression inwestern Europe, usually called the R´eveil, was delayed until the early years of the nineteenth century.

than Latin; the incarnation rather than the atonement was its living centre. Wordsworth's poetry, with its emphasis upon the divine presence and religious experience, helped to reinforce Coleridge's theology of incarnation and sanctification.

J. S. Mill said that 'an enlightened Radical or Liberal' should 'rejoice over such a Conservative as Coleridge'.11 Coleridge, certainly, had a profound command of German and a wide and detailed knowledge of his German contemporaries. With respect to his theology, Mill observed that the 'new Oxford

Montmartre in 1871. In devoutly Catholic Belgium, with its complex medieval heritage and its tendency to religious conservatism, Pugin's polemics found a ready audience (a French translation of True principles was published in Bruges in 1850). When

Jean-Baptiste Malou (1806-86) was consecrated bishop of Bruges in 1849 he wore vestments designed by Pugin himself and the bishop later commissioned Pugin's son, Edward, to build him a country retreat. Edward Pugin was also responsible for the design of the manor house at Loppem, built for the prominent

the prophets. Similar conclusions were being reached by two students of the Alsatian Edouard Reuss, Karl Heinrich Graf (in 1866) and August Kayser (in 1874),25 and the way was being prepared for the publication of two classic versions of what was to become known as the Graf-Wellhausen hypothesis,

JuliusWellhausen's History of Israel (1878) andWilliam Robertson Smith's The Old Testament in the Jewish church (1881).26 The so-called Graf-Wellhausen hypothesis linked a documentary theory of the composition of the Pentateuch with a reconstruction of the history of

rational content. Both in his neo-Spinozism and in his rational interpretation of the dogmas of Christianity, Lessing was both a harbinger of and a decisive formative influence upon nineteenth-century German theology in its Hegelian form.

Kant is also a vital figure. He attacked rationalistic-scholastic arguments for God's existence and the immortality of the soul in the form of his critique of rational psychology and cosmology in the Critique of pure reason but rebuilt rational theology upon the basis of his moral theology. The Romantics recognised

Novarum speaks of democracies when it speaks of the state. This opening to a positive relationship between the church and the democratic state made possible the use of terminology such as Christian Democracywhich, a decade after Rerum Novarum, had brought about a strong reaction in parts of Europe.

Leo was forced to issue his Graves de Communi Re in 1901 in which he said that there were two objections to the use of the title 'Christian Democracy'. It seemed, first, to disparage other methods of political administration and, second, to belittle religion by restricting its scope to the care of the poor. The

condemned 'progress, liberalism and modern civilisation' as among the most pernicious 'errors of the day'; just as 'Science' was beginning to be invoked by liberals as the highest possible authority, a series of claimed apparitions of the Virgin Mary - the most famous of which occurred at La Salette in 1846 and at

Lourdes in 1858 - proclaimed the message that the 'materialist' spirit of the age was fundamentally misguided; just when the papacy was finally stripped of its temporal power in 1870, a defiant Pius IX declared papal infallibility to be a doctrine to be held by the whole church. Small wonder that the English

democratic reforms in state and church.Astudent demonstration in 1817 at the Wartburg near Eisenach,where Luther had translated theNewTestament into German in 1521,was looked on unfavourably by the authorities in Prussia. The assassination of the playwrightAugustKotzebue by a theological student,Karl

Ludwig Sand, in March 1819 on suspicion of lack of patriotism led to a closing of the ranks by the German stateswhich had formed a German Confederation in 1815. A meeting in August 1819 led to the issuing of the Carlsbad decrees which imposed restrictions upon universities and their teachers.8 This political

a revival of Fr Mathew's pioneering work in the 1840s. His mediation in the London Dock Strike of 1889was assisted by his friendships with leading trades unionists, aswell as the support of the Irish Catholics among the dockworkers themselves, earning himself an appearance on a trade union banner in the first

May Day demonstration of 1890. Manning's strategy, to place the church at the headship of popular opinion in England as in Ireland, was also intended to distance his flock from the appeal of secular socialism. His Hibernophile viewswere abandoned by his successor, HerbertVaughan, archbishop ofWestminster

venture in the strategy of trying to co-opt social trendswas the creation by the Wesleyans, from the 1880s, of central halls that provided vast amphitheatres for star preachers and good music together with welfare facilities staffed by trainednursesandother professionals. Associated with the Manchester Central

Mission, for example,were a Men'sHomeand LabourYard, aWomen'sHome, a Maternity Home and Hospital and a Cripples' Guild. It also held Popular Saturday Evening Concerts, graced by paid artistes.21 Some of the preachers at the central halls became exponents of the social gospel, the response of

a profound theological dimension of Kant's thoughtwhich has generally been neglected since, and made it the key to his whole enterprise. The fact that Kant became a very important figure at the end of the nineteenth century for theologians like Ritschl and Harnack (and indirectly for the Catholic

Modernists) is a testimony to his enduring legacy throughout the nineteenth century. If Lessing bequeathed an interest in understanding the philosophical and spiritual meaning of the Christian doctrines in a properly critical and historical

The Civil War also affected the way in which the West was incorporated into national religious life. Protestants soon found that the influence they had exerted east of the Mississippi would not extendmuch beyond the Mississippi, where a large Hispanic Catholic population already existed in the Southwest,

Mormon settlements had spread over Utah and Idaho, Indian reservations Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 'Christian America' and 'Christian Canada' (with a mixture of indigenous and Christian faiths) were in place, immigrants

translated and published volume i of Kuenen's Historisch-kritisch onderzoek in 1865.24 Colenso convinced Kuenen that what was called the Book of Origins (roughly what has come to be known as the Priestly source or document, and containing narratives and the Mosaic legislation in Exodus, Leviticus and

Numbers) was post-exilic, a view that Colenso later partly embraced himself as far as the sacrificial and priestly regulations were concerned, and which confirmed his antagonism to the high church ritualists whom he opposed in South Africa and Britain. This post-exilic dating decisively placed the law after

the edict on the Consulta di Stato.19 At the end of 1847, Pius introduced a measure of ministerial responsibility while granting laymen access to several ministerial posts. However, he had reservations about granting liberty of conscience to all inhabitants of the

Papal States and balked at the laicisation of the administration. 'I have done enough', he exclaimed, 'I will do no more.'20 It was easier said than done. He 14 ASR, FFA, busta 3. 15 Coppa, 'Realpolitik and conviction', p. 582.

church's educational privileges, but the reforms were ultimately blocked by the parliament's upper house. The confessional name-calling that accompanied these disputes also spilled over into discussions of the German question, which was reinvigorated by

Piedmont's defeat of Austria and the declaration of an Italian nation-state in 1859. Liberal groups like the German National Association (Nationalverein) advanced their kleindeutsch programmeby asserting thatAustria's enthralment to Catholicism made it incapable of uniting,much less leading Germany. Similarly,

realised that Vienna's call for a return to the status quowould be unacceptable in Paris.44 The Second War of Italian Liberation, seizure of papal territory, and the legislation of the Turin government hardened the pope's heart against the

Piedmontese. In November 1859 the government approved the Casati education law, soon extended to the Kingdom of Italy, which stipulated that the ministry of public education would supervise all schools - including religious ones. Following the papal lead, the bishops protested against the laicisation of

himself to the hands of God, certain that He would ultimately resolve matters in favour of the faithful.56 For his part, he saw the need to strengthen Catholic ideology and safeguard the pontifical magistracy,whichwas threatened by the revisionist, heretical and liberal-national currents which had overtaken Italy.

Pius openly condemned whatever and whomever he deemed in error, regardless of rank, popularity or power. He perceived himself the agent of truth and justice, which had been outraged and offended. His assertion that 52 Carlen (ed.), The papal encyclicals, vol. i, pp. 393-7.

of a country inhabited by the Catholic masses, Romantic ideas, embodied especially in great literature, remained very popular in the wider ranks of Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Catholic nationalism in Hungary and Poland

Polish society among the young, and would return again at the beginning of the twentieth century. Fromthe point of viewof religious history, an importantphenomenonat the endof the nineteenth centurywas the formationof a Catholic intelligentsia that

church in Paris.10 Historians of Australian Catholicism have echoed the refrain in their presentations of thecommunity as having abandonedmore ecumenical traditions in order to become, in the infamous words of the English convert Henry Manning, 'more Roman than Rome' and 'more ultramontane than the

Pope himself',11 while historians of American Catholicism remain divided over the extent to which distinctively American Catholic features were replaced by 'Roman' ones.12 However compelling arguments for an 'Ultramontane' triumph over 'Liberal

in the perceived identity of the two groups, whereas in the former there were often subtle social differences between the various Nonconformist chapels - farmers and their labourers, for example, or farmers and artisans. The presence of a Roman Catholic church immediately made the difference between

Protestant and Roman Catholic important. A survey of (Protestant) parishes in Germany in 1862 showed that very few had populations of more than 3,000: mostwere between 1,000 and 2,000 in size, and the largest parishes were in Prussia. However, the German population

but the tradition of being territorial churches was carried on into the nineteenth century with each nation's confession of faith defined in the new constitutions. Revivalism and nationalism

Religious, national and social revivalism was a characteristic feature of the Nordic nations in the nineteenth century. Revivalist movements played an important role in the transformation of these societies into modern societies. Religious revivalism was generally the predominant strain, with the

by the Pantheon. Two distinguished Parisian churches, built after the fall of Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Church architecture and religious art Napoleon, have more original plans: La Madeleine completed in the formof a

Roman temple between 1836 and 1845 by Jean-Jacques Huv´e, and the smaller but exquisite Chapelle Expiatoire (1815-26), designed in memory of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette by Pierre-Franc¸ois-L´eonard Fontaine. Two further suburban churches in Paris, both basilican in form, deserve mention: the richly

soon a growing number of Americans, particularly Jews, were not connected to Christianity in any form. Protestants of the older sort continued to promote a full circle of activity, but a United States where Protestants enjoyed universal supremacy was steadily passing away.

Sharp intellectual challenges worked to the same end. The biggest was the growing confidence in science, exemplified by the great reputation of Charles Darwin's On the origin of species (1859). The problem was not evolution as such, since many traditional Christians held that God may have used evolutionary

Romantic novel Frankenstein the monster picks up Milton's Paradise lost and reads it as the literal depiction of a cruel deity tormenting humanity.3 Such challengeswere often the result of radicalmovements within Christianity. The two strands which were particularly significant for the nineteenth century are

Socinianism and Spiritualism. Socinianism is rooted in the late Italian Renaissance and in particular the Sienese theologian Faustus Socinus. Arianism ismuch older as a heresy, being essentially a subordinationist account of the Trinity. Both Socinianism and

and counter political Catholicism's rising influence. In the 1890s, other ultranationalist organisations, including the Agrarian, Colonial and Navy Leagues, took up this cause, openly opposing efforts to repeal the anti-Jesuit laws and vigorously protesting against decisions like the 1901 appointment of Martin

Spahn, the son of a major CentreParty official, to the University of Strasbourg's history faculty. Still, many Germans bemoaned the nation's confessional divisions. In the final decades of the century, men like Paul de Lagarde, Julius Langbehn and

Europe] (Cracow: Znak, 2004) and Historia Europy ´Srodkowo-Wschodniej [A history of East- Central Europe] (Paris: PUF 2004). John Lynch is Emeritus Professor of Latin American History in the University of London. He is the author of numerous works on Spain and Latin America, including Bourbon

Spain 1700-1808 (Oxford: Blackwell, 1989), Argentine dictator: Juan Manuel de Rosas 1829- 185 2 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981), The Spanish American revolutions 1808-1826 (New York: Norton, 1986), Caudillos in Spanish America 1800-1850 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992), Massacre in the Pampas, 1872: Britain and Argentina in the age of migration (Norman: University

far better endowed Church of England embarked on a campaign of church building following the Church Building Act of 1818 in celebration of the end of the Napoleonic wars and in response to the growing urban population. In London neo-Greek forms predominated (e.g. the 'Waterloo' churches:

St Matthew's, Brixton (1822-4, byC. F. Porden), St Mark's,Kennington (1822-4, by D. R. Roper), St Luke's,West Norwood (1822-5, by Francis Bedford) and St John's,Waterloo (1823-4, also by Bedford)). None is particularly distinguished. The finest London church of this period is St Pancras parish church (1819-22),

he was not as wrong as they claimed. He was a revolutionary about means, a conservative as to ends; and his remoulding of the papacy determined its character for half a century. Of the seven popes of this period, four - Pius VII, Pius IX, Leo XIII and

St Pius X - have claims to greatness. Their choices alienated many Catholics, but they also ushered a growing and thriving church into a new age. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Theology and the revolt against the

radicalism as with the Methodist minister J. S.Woodsworth (1874-1941) and a general Protestant acceptance of the Social Gospel prepared the ground for different varieties of religiously inspired social concern that flourished in the early and mid-twentieth century.

The Canadian willingness to modify religious individualism by communal thinking, along with the practical difficulties of maintaining competitive Protestant denominations in the lightly populatedWest, were factors inmoving towards church union, which was proposed by various Methodists, Presbyterians

hand with the goal of trying to effect a monarchist restoration. By 1879, when republicans finally emerged in undisputed control of their own creation, the Third Republic, they were ready to reopen a legislative culture war to bring the church to heel.

The French culture war, 1879-1905 For moderate republicans such as Jules Ferry who were now the masters of the French state, the key to implementation of the id´ee la¨ıque was education. A law of 1879, aimed primarily at the Jesuits, banned unauthorised religious

7 Kselman, 'The dechristianisation of death in modern France', p. 156. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Italy: the church and the Risorgimento frank coppa

The Risorgimento, culminating in the creation of the Italian Kingdom and the collapse of the temporal power, sparked a papal Counter-Risorgimento. The clash between Italian nationalism and the Catholic Church from the restoration of 1815 to the seizure of Rome in 1870 was threefold: ideological,

convert to Catholicism John Henry, later Cardinal, Newman, felt that 'It is so ordered on high that in our day Holy Church should present just that aspect to my countrymen which is most consonant with their ingrained prejudices against her, most unpromising for their conversion.'3

The changes which overtook Catholicism from about the middle of the nineteenth century are often explained as the last, reactionary gasp of a church which had been forced onto the defensive since at least as early as the French Revolution, and arguably since the Protestant Reformation of the sixteenth

doctrine; and as even the most irrepressible enthusiasts for the newly emotive style of piety - among them the Brompton Oratorian F.W. Faber - conceded, taste in devotion was idiosyncratic, the 'Holy Ghost', as he put it, leading 'different souls' to 'different devotions' and giving 'various lights upon them'.17

The charitable requirement to show devotional tolerance for all varieties of Catholic taste, 'low' as well as 'high', was also conceded on the other side of the divide, those who favoured the 'Gallican' or 'liberal' cause when it came to questions of papal authority, and who may have felt unable to respond to

resist any surrender of his kingship. The victory of France over Austria in 1859 brought about the Piedmontese invasion of the Papal States and the union, in 1861, of most of Italy, including the Papal States outside the Patrimony of St Peter, under the anticlerical government of King Victor Emmanuel II.

The city of Rome was protected by Napoleon III until 1870, who was under pressure from French Catholics, but the pope's predicament had an enormous impact on Ultramontane Europeans, some of whom volunteered to fight for him. He was encouraged by the mystical and visionary elements in Romanticism

(1812-84). Abadie, who had drastically restored the cathedral of Saint-Front at P´erigueux, went on to evolve an eclectic combination of the Romanesque and Byzantine styles which determined the domes of the basilica of the Sacr´e-Coeur at Montmartre (1876-1919), a distinctive feature of the Paris skyline.

The construction of the basilica was intended to be an act of national Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Church architecture and religious art expiation for the ungodly insurrection of the Communards begun at

extensively in the Ulster Revival of 1859, an event marked by vast outdoor gatherings, physical phenomena such as prostrations and large numbers of converts. Down to 1869 the Church of Ireland was united with the Church of England, but in that year disestablishment turned it into a voluntary communion.

The growing co-operation of its evangelical wing with Presbyterians, Methodists and others was reinforced when, in 1886, the proposal of Home Rule seemed to raise the spectre of Rome Rule. Protestant resistance forged a defensive solidarity thatwas to mark Ulster religion throughout the twentieth

Another obstacle was that the cultural unit called the nation was defined in different ways. The definitions combined language, history, culture, religion and ethnicity in all kinds of permutations. Such was the case in nineteenthcentury Scandinavia.

The nation is first of all an imagined community,2 but it is not an invented community. It is based on historical raw material, which the intellectual elite shapes to form the concept of the nation. The nation as an imagined community means that it depends on people's consciousness of belonging to a

respective political might of Protestant Prussia and Catholic Austria. Yet parity also restricted full citizenship to German Christians. Forwhile states could not use religion to discriminate among Christians, they could use religious beliefs to deny non-Christians (e.g. Jews) civil and political rights.2

The other major ecclesiastical questions found resolution on a state-by-state basis.With respect to Catholicism, two tasks remained: delineating diocesan boundaries and fixing the relations between church and state. The settlement of the first issue itself broke new ground: as far as possible diocesan boundaries

to define Christianity from without. This means that Christianity has no need to try to justify itself according to secular lights. Schleiermacher might well be seen as a forerunner of Karl Barth in his emphasis upon the autonomy of Christianity.

The theocratic and apocalyptic vision of Joseph de Maistre (1753-1821) was very important for the Romantic revolt against the claims of the Enlightenment. 5 His view of the autonomy of Christianity is marked by the experience 5 Lebrun, Joseph de Maistre.

as the absolute religion depicts the finite estrangement from and ultimate reconciliation to God. Hegel's rehabilitation of the doctrines of the Trinity and redemptionare partof a bold attempt toemploythe doctrines in a philosophical sense.

This contrast between the levels of Vorstellung (imagination) and Begriff (concept) can be construed in two radically differentways. First, the traditional Christian imagery of doctrinal formulations - 'Father' and 'Son', 'sacrifice', etc. - can be seen as validated by its translation into the conceptual. Hegel can

and in many Ontario towns the churches and a wide range of voluntary societies were creating a strong Protestant culture. By 1900, up to half of Toronto's population was in church every Sunday, and Ontario's smaller towns and rural areas often witnessed even more faithful religious practice.

This degree of Christianisation fell well below the levels in Quebec, where mass attendancewas often as high as 90 per cent, but itwas considerably more than in the United States. By the last third of the century, Canada West was also opening to settlement.

Six and Lemire, others laymen like Georges Fonsegrive, founder of the influential journal La Quinzaine in 1894, and Marc Sangnier, founder of Le Sillon (the Furrow) in 1899 - who concerned themselves above all with the plight of the industrial working class.

Though Rome soon grew alarmed at the divergent tendencies which marked the second Christian Democracy and forbade social Catholics to engage directly in political action in the encyclical Graves de Communi of 1901, both the Ralliement and social Catholicism helped to prepare the ground for

resented existing economic regulations, censorship, and the enduring restrictions on political activity. Peasants were suffering from a series of bad harvests and rising indebtedness. These tensions exploded in 1848 as word spread of the latest Parisian uprisings. In March, rural revolts shook Baden, Hesse and

Thuringia. Popular unrest forced Frederick William from Berlin and Metternich from Vienna. Then in May, representatives from across German Europe assembled at St Paul's Church in Frankfurt amMain to give birth to a German nation.

divided between the three main party groupings of high church/ritualist, broad church/liberal and evangelical. The intensity of church party rivalries reflected a state ofmindinwhich therewas a struggle for the essential character of the church, which was a matter of national as well as theological identity.

Thus for High Churchmen, increasingly influenced by the OxfordMovement, there was a necessity to assert the Catholic (though not Roman) character of church and nation through highly visible liturgy and architecture and church furnishings that maintained a continuity with the supposed religious culture of

chapels, there were also places such as market towns and new settlementswhere dispersed landownership made it possible for Nonconformists to find the sites they needed. In urban industrial areas, furthermore, patronage from above could as often be an asset to Nonconformity as a disadvantage.

Thus in the textile region of Lancashire around the middle of the century, cotton masters were as likely to be Nonconformists as Anglicans. Businessmen were often known for encouraging their workers to attend chapel. So evangelical Nonconformity was helped to become rooted in town as well as

founded on a contradiction, claiming to guarantee freedom of worship, while keeping religion under state regulation, by insisting that the church transform herself through the lay 'associations cultuelles', bypassing pope and bishops and clergy. The application of the Law was to lie with the civil Conseil d'Etat.

Thus the church was to have the worst of worlds, losing state support while Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 The papacy remaining under state control. Although the Law was compatible with the

nationalist rivalries threatened to dissolve the empire, themore Emperor Franz Joseph turned to religion to inspire patriotism based on loyalty to the crown. This explains both his recognition of the pro-dynasty Christian Socials and his prominent participation in the activities of the Eucharistic Congress, which

Vienna hosted in 1912. In fact, Austrian and German Catholic efforts to downplay the confessional dimension of citizenshipwere astonishingly consonant with Bismarck's own efforts to found the German empire on a secular basis. He intentionally

In February 1856, when the congress ending the Crimean War convened, Pius implored Napoleon's protection for the church, asking the French to prevent the congress from addressing papal affairs.39 His intentions were thwarted by Cavour. In April, after the terms of peace had been settled,

Waleski, at Napoleon's bidding, proposed discussing problems that might disturb the peace. Cavour addressed the powers and the tribunal of public opinion, denouncing the irregular state of affairs in the Papal States, and suggesting that its problems burdened the entire peninsula. Pius was exasperated

efforts the Anglican churchwas unable to overcome the perception that itwas an alien institution. Disestablishment, though, was resisted until legislation was passed in 1914, with implementation delayed until 1920 as a consequence of the First World War. The effect of disestablishment was to strengthen the

Welsh identity of the church, by making it the 'Church in Wales', a separate ecclesiastical province with its own archbishop. The interwar years were to see a continuation of a steady upward trend in communicant numbers that had begun in the late nineteenth century.

last decades of the nineteenth century were a new age for religious orders in Argentina, many of them dedicated not only to the contemplative life but also to welfare and education, and they helped to fill a gap in the social provisions of the republic, providing charitable agencies of a traditional kind. Religion

acquired a political edge as Catholic action took the gospel outside the church and the cloister, and a vigorous clerical movement disputed for public space, a beneficiary of the liberal state as well as its leading critic. Between1880and1914, inanage ofmassimmigrationandeconomicgrowth,

exception of Iceland,where national revivalism functionally replaced religious revivalism.7 Religious revivalism, a phenomenon not easy to classify, occurred not only in the Nordic region, but also in most of the Protestant world in the eighteenth

and nineteenth centuries. However, it made an even larger impact on the Nordic societies, especially in Norway and Finland, than in the rest of 7 Peturson, 'V¨ackelser p˚a Island'. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

the attacks on Catholicism, which now appeared as unrepentant foe of both Protestantism and the nation-state. So strong was the ecclesiastical and conservative investment in the idea of the Protestant empire that Protestants became alarmed at Catholic efforts

at reconciliation with the German national state, particularly the repeal of major elements of Kulturkampf legislation. Thus in 1887 Willibald Beyschlag organised the 'Protestant League for the Defence of German-Protestant Interests' (Evangelischer Bund) to prevent further appeasement of Catholic interests

of 'modern civilisation'.8 Gregory resisted even technical innovations such as the railways, provoking resentment throughout his state. In 1837, Viterbo was stricken, while in 1843 and 1844 the Legations exploded.9 Moderates believed revolution imminent and considered reform the antidote to an impending

catastrophe.10 The new pope appreciated the need for change. As bishop of Imola (1832- 46), he had explored the prospect of conciliation between Catholicism and liberal-national principles. Although far from a revolutionary, Mastai proved

10 Ibid., pp. 170-6. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 john molony and david m. thompson The church had a long tradition to call on regarding the social question that

dated back to Aquinas, who had touched on the issue of labour and wages in the thirteenth century. Others followed Aquinas, and in the seventeenth century the Spanish theologians Il Corduba, Vasquez and De Lugo held that a just wagemust contain an element that provided for the family of the worker.

was most struck by the indirect influence of the churches, and he thought he knew why such influence was possible: 'On my arrival in the United States it was the religious aspect of the country that first struck my eye . . . Among us, I had seen the spirit of religion and the spirit of freedom almost always move

in contrary directions. Here I found them united intimately with one another: they reigned together on the same soil.'4 The unravelling of 'Christian America', 1844-1865 Therewere complications as revivalistic Protestants set about winning the new

highly visible. The new congregations between them ran or provided staffing for a wide range of institutions, many within the Catholic sub-culture itself, some for the wider community and a growing number within a missionary setting. Across every country where sisters were active the same mix of works

in education, health care and social work - with differing emphases and local variations in type - was to be found. Very often congregations specialised in one activity, but rarely to the exclusion of all others. Education embraced not only state elementary schools, and private day and boarding schools, but also

reading. Sheridan Gilley is an Emeritus Reader in Theology, Durham University. He is the author of Newman and His Age (republished, 2003) and of numerous articles on modern religious history. He

is co-editor, with Roger Swift, of The Irish in the Victorian City (1985), The Irish in Britain 181 5 -1939 (1989) and The Irish in Victorian Britain (1999), and withW. J. Sheils, of A History of Religion in Britain (1994).

david bebbington 5 · Catholic revivalism in worship and devotion 70 mary heimann 6 · Women preachers and the new Orders 84

janice holmes and susan o'brien 7 · Church architecture and religious art 103 andrew sanders 8 · Musical trends and the western church: a collision of the

by far the largest Nonconformist body, serving 5.5 per cent of the population in 1851.3 Like Wesley, its leaders were reluctant to align with Nonconformity against the Church of England, but since 1795Wesleyan Methodism had been autonomous. TheWesleyans met in weekly classes to discuss the progress of

members in the spiritual life; congregations, called 'societies', were served by travelling preachers who changed every two or three years at the direction of Conference; and the affairs of the connexion were watched over by a small group of permanent officials, chief among whom until the early 1850s was the

4 See Mongr´edien, French music, pp. 162-87. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Musical trends and the western church which he attempted to demonstrate how modern harmonic practices and the

modality of plainchant could be reconciled; the two men also collaborated in La Maˆıtrise, a periodical devoted to higher standards of musical performance in sacred worship, though it only endured for four years between 1857 and 1861. Though a competent composer himself, Niedermeyer was more influential

orders from teaching in secondary schools. Legislation in 1881 and 1882 made primary education free, compulsory and non-denominational for both sexes. Religious instructionnowhad to be provided outside of the classroom for those children whose parents wanted it and its place in the curriculum was taken by

new classes on 'moral and civic education'. A further law of 1886 provided for the progressive laicisation of the teaching profession itself: around half of the nuns and brothers who taught in the nation's primary schools were removed by the early 1890s.

and the expanding role of women in religious life. Part ii surveys the diverse and complex relationships between the churches and nationalism, resulting in fundamental changes to the connections between church and state. Part iii examines the varied fortunes

of Christianity as it expanded its historic bases in Asia and Africa, established itself for the first time in Australasia, and responded to the challenges and opportunities of the European colonial era. Each chapter has a full bibliography providing guidance on further

In Finland an ecstatic revival movement started in Savoj¨arvi in 1796, and a few years later the well-known Paavo Ruotsalainen (1777-1852) became its undisputed leader. Although in Sweden and Finland we find religious revivalism in connection with some ministers like Henrik Schartau (1757-1825), canon

of Lund cathedral, it is striking that its leaders often had no education and no formal position in the localcommunity. Compared with an earlier pietism, this new religious revivalism was dominated primarily by the laity and expressed a new self-confidence. Furthermore, it represented a challenge to traditional

van Caloen family, who employed Bishop Malou's nephew, Jean-Baptiste Bethune (1821-94), as an aesthetic adviser and designer ofmany of the buildings that they patronised. Bethune, a devout disciple of the elder Pugin, exercised a lasting influence on the Gothic Revival in Belgium. Despite a steady campaign

of church building and church restoration, Belgium produced no ecclesiastical architect of the first rank. In this it differed from the predominantly Protestant Netherlands. Here, with the advent of full religious toleration in the early nineteenth century and the restoration of the Catholic hierarchy in 1853, the

Dyce's atmospheric depictions of landscape that give many of his later religious paintings their distinctive quality. This is especially true of St John leading the Blessed Virgin Mary (1844-60), of the haunting Gethsemane (c. 1853) and of Christ and the woman of Samaria (1860). Dyce's dramatic Joash shooting the arrow

of deliverance (1844), a success when it was shown at the Royal Academy in London,was purchased by a German collector and is nowin the Kunsthalle in Hamburg. The influence of the Nazarenes was also a significant element in the early

executed. For Catholics throughout Canada, Riel became a symbol of overweening Protestantism and for many in Quebec a symbol of English cultural imperialism. The practical political issue spotlighted by debate over Rielwas the funding

of provincial schools. Wilfrid Laurier, a Quebec leader of the Liberal Party, became Canada's first Catholic prime minister in 1896, in part because of his ability to defuse that issue. The compromise was to grant public money for minority Protestant (and English) schools in Quebec, to fund Catholic schools

the periodical Der Monismus, the Kepler Union countered with UnsereWelt, and when Haeckel built his monist temple, thePhyleticMuseumin Jena, theKepler Union established its Museum for Popular Science. Organisational initiatives were matched, blow for blow, and the Catholics followed suit with the founding

of the Albert Union (1912-13) and its periodical Die Sch¨opfung. Many local branches were established, linking the religion-science discourse to a range of national, provincial and local issues.54 Such situated studies help show the extent to which the cognitive dissonance was part of institutional power politics,

centralised international type, as can be seen from the proliferation of new diocesan congregations sponsored by bishops that occurred in the nineteenth century, the refounding and revitalisation of the Daughters of Charity as an international lay institute after the Revolution, and the impressive expansion

of the Irish Mercy order via the founding of autonomous houses with no central government. However, the trendwas increasingly towards the newtype of congregation - and with good reason. Its significance for the position, authority, missionary freedom, unity and growth of women's active congregations

Catholic nationalism. He found a peasant following, the first of its type as a mass democratic body, in his Catholic Association of 1823, which drew its income from a monthly penny rent. O'Connell achieved his first principal aim, the Catholic Relief Act of 1829, which admitted Catholics to the parliament

of the United Kingdom. He was less successful in his Repeal Association of Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Catholicism, Ireland and the Irish diaspora 1840, which sought to end the union of the parliaments, but by the time of

church. Painting As with architecture, religious painting remained firmly in the neo-Classical tradition in the early nineteenth century. In Catholic Europe the influence

of the academies of Rome remained paramount, giving a conservative artistic focus to the religious revival of the post-Napoleonic years. While Italian religious painterswho remained loyal to neo-Classical principles, such asTommaso Minardi (1787-1871) and Luigi Mussini (1813-88), have largely been wiped

forth in the Book of Genesis, posed particular problems for a literal Bible-based religion, although here the Christian reaction was a great deal more nuanced and complicated than is sometimes understood. Among Catholics, therewere smaller liberal Catholic and later modernist movements to meet the criticism

of the age. This in turn, with the wider attacks upon the churches, also produced a reaction. Both Roman Catholicism and evangelical Protestantism proved resistant to the new liberalism. Yet even in its rural heartland, Christianity was sometimes

'Tolpuddle martyrs', six men sentenced to transportation in 1834 for forming a branch of the Grand National Consolidated Trade Union in Dorset, included five Primitive Methodists, three ofthemlocal preachers, yet theynever received any kind of official church backing for their action. Nevertheless, the secretary

of the union, George Romaine, who was not prosecuted, was owner of one of the local chapels and also a local preacher.28 The new fact of the nineteenth century was industrialisation, though even in England many places were not significantly affected until after 1850. In particular

should not be underestimated, as it was not by Sophie Barat, founder of the Religious of the Society of the Sacred Heart in France, when she explained to Pope Leo XII why she was requesting pontifical status: 'The Society desires to spread devotion to the Sacred Heart over the whole earth and to set everyone

on fire with divine love', she wrote. 'But since our Institute embraces various countries where our Society can do good, it is indispensable that we have a uniformrule in the places to which we shall be called, and this uniformity can only result from the will and approbation of your Holiness.' When the approbation

for the other two parties.67 These tensions came to a head in a series of celebrated legal actions around the middle of the century. In 1848, the bishop of Exeter, Henry Phillpotts, refused to institute an evangelical clergyman, George Gorham, to a parish

on the grounds that he held unsound doctrine in not teaching the unconditional regeneration of a baptised infant, a theological issue at the heart of differences between evangelicals and High Churchmen. Gorham pursued the bishop through the courts, and in 1850 secured judgement in his favour

citizensfromtheir proper obedience to the state. In 1852 thrice-presidentTom´as Cipriano de Mosquera addressed Pope Pius IX directly, arguing that liberals too were Catholics and that churchmen who intervened in political issues perverted a divine institution in the interests of one political party. The hierarchy,

on the other hand, maintained a right of resistance to liberal measures when they attacked the God-given rights of the church. Both sides overstepped the limits of their competence, liberals requiring priests to obtain an official permit to performreligious services (1861), churchmen scattering excommunications

rule, while the reminder of the island formed the Irish Free State. This step, however, while inevitable in the circumstances of the early twentieth century, left an enduring legacy of confrontation between the Protestant majority and 52 Hempton, Religion and political culture, pp. 103-6; Hempton and Hill, Evangelical Protestantism,

p. 106. 53 Hempton, Religion and political culture, pp. 106-13. 54 McBride, The siege of Derry, pp. 66-9. 55 Stewart, The Ulster crisis, pp. 62-6.

staged demonstrations to protest against the arrest of clergy and auctions of church property. They collected money to cover for the funds withheld by the state, helped loyal priests escape to non-Prussian territories, and even organised an underground church. The persecutions also galvanised the Catholics

politically, which translated into massive support for the pro-Catholic Centre Party. But the Kulturkampf also foundered because conservative politicians and the Protestant churches refused to endorse it. Indeed, the school inspection laws and the 1873 law that transferred their traditional registration of

times. But the majority of the bishops came from the same middle ranks of society that supplied the priests, from traditional Catholic families in Mexico and Peru, from immigrant families in modern Argentina. They made their way in the church through their superior qualifications, moral character and

powers of Christian leadership, rather than through social or political interests. Where the state retained an element of patronage, as in Argentina, episcopal appointments tended to be the results of compromise between the government and Rome and to produce a conventional hierarchy unlikely to disturb

in 1900 there were some 31,000 women religious and some 6,000 priests, regular and secular; in the United States by 1900, 40,000 women religious and about 10,000 diocesan priests. 32 Langlois, Le catholicisme au f´eminine, pp. 273 and 611-25;O'Brien, 'Religious life forwomen',

pp. 115-18. 33 Wittberg, The rise and decline of Catholic religious orders. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 janice holmes and susan o'brien

9 Neto, O Estado, a Igreja, p. 55; Almeida, Hist´oria da Igreja, vol. iii, p. 14. 10 Revuelta Gonz´alez, La exclaustraci´on, pp. 207-21. 11 Revuelta Gonz´alez, La exclaustraci´on, p. 132, maintains that, although sympathetic to Carlism, 'the great majority' of religious were 'resigned and silent' when it came to

practical support for the movement. 12 Callahan, Church, politics and society in Spain, p. 165. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 william j. callahan

wayfarers. From these exertions there were spectacular results. In 1776, Asbury was assisted by twenty-four itinerants; at his death in 1816 there were 695; that number by 1844 had risen to 4,479 (with another 8,101 Methodists settled as

preachers in localities). By comparison, the active duty roster of the United States army in 1844 numbered only 8,730. At the outbreak of the CivilWar in 1861, there were almost 20,000 Methodist churches and over 1.7 million full members; about a third of American church adherents were Methodists.2

reserved for the most solemn days of the liturgical calendar, but became a weekly, or even daily, habit for those who aspired to holiness. New hagiographies began to stress, rather than to apologise for, wonders and miracles surrounding the saints' lives; the contemplative orders once again came to be

presented as the vanguard of the spiritually advanced; and the clergy, long held in suspicion, came to be widely praised for their perceived self-sacrifice and holiness. Even the papacy, personified in the 'Prisoner in the Vatican' - Pius IX (Pio Nono) - became the object of empathetic prayers, rousing hymns, Peter's

the landed interest. Mill was correct to point out that Coleridge saw the ratio essendi of the church as the cultivation of the nation and its particular communities, rather than the 'performance of religious ceremonies'. The 'bitter error' for Coleridge of the Church of England was its clinging to power and

privilege rather than cultivating the people.14 Education, rather than the apostolic succession or the sacraments, is the key to Coleridge's doctrine of the church. The question of the harmony, or at least continuity, between Christianity

affirmed the social emphasis. From 1884 he was a canon ofWestminster, and preached the 'social gospel' instead of a disproportionate emphasis on the individual.30 In 1889 he became president of the new Christian Social Union (CSU) in the Church of England: other key figures were Charles Gore, a former

pupil ofWestcott at Harrow, and later bishop ofWorcester, Birmingham and Oxford, and Henry Scott Holland. The CSU involved a large number of Anglican clergy. More radical was the Guild of St Matthew, formed in 1883 by Stewart Headlam; it was smaller, with a higher proportion of lay members,

and tension because it appeared to compromise the spiritual integrity of the church. The Church of Scotland lacked any presence in parliament other than the voices of individual Scottish MPs and peers, who were in a small minority relative to their English and Anglican counterparts. Its organisation was presbyterian

rather than episcopal, and its doctrinal standards, unlike those of the Church of England, were unambiguously Reformed. It also differed from the Church of England in having retained a national representative body, the General Assembly, but without effective legal powers. At the local level, however,

attendance. In fact the greatest enthusiasts for reform came from the Ecclesiologists, who believed in a return to plainchant, the 'motet' style, new works composed in a sixteenth- and seventeenth-century manner and the general avoidance of contemporary church music. Examples of this more polemic

reaction could be seen at Margaret Chapel (later All Saints, Margaret Street) and St Mark's College, Chelsea under Thomas Helmore.7 For most parishes and collegiate institutions with musical aspirations (and latterly cathedrals), there was much less enthusiasm for chant and 'old' music; rather there was a

1875-91), vol. i, pp. 267-8. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 frank coppa Announcing his obligation to protect the Faith, he accorded the constitutional

regime in Naples de facto recognition.2 Metternich urged Rome to condemn the carbonari, considering it complementary to Austria's military intervention against the Neapolitan revolution. The pope and his secretary of state insisted that spiritual strictureswere reserved for those societies manifestly opposed to

Anglicans, increasingly Calvinistic Baptists and significant numbers of active Catholics (especially the Acadians of New Brunswick). The ministerial and educational labours of Thomas McCulloch (1776-1843), founder of Nova Scotia's Pictou Academy, helped define what historians have called the

region's 'evangelical creed'. But a stagnating economy, the slowing of immigration and a sense of regional isolation soon settled in over the provinces as well. In this setting, well-disciplined and socially influential churches provided the critical structure for Maritime life and a strong anchor for Maritime

the secular state in 1816, streamlining the church, making it at least in part a department of state for carrying out the policies of the king and his government. Within the church itself, the traditional Presbyterian organisation was replaced by a top-down corporate structure where the Synod ran the

regional church assemblies (classes), while they in turn were in charge of the local congregations. It left a structure very unlike the Calvinist church of the seventeenth century. From the 1840s onwards the governments were led by the 'doctrinaire' liberals under Johan Rudolf Thorbecke (1798-1872), true

Towards the end of the nineteenth century, in the atmosphere of the strengthening and radicalisation of national movements, a strand of aggressive nationalism developed. In its programme, which soon became popular, a new peasant-based ethnic society of 'true Poles' invented a new Poland, by

rejecting all the weaknesses of the former nobility. All the defects and disasters of Poland were attributed to the tolerance of the nobility, their utopian ideas of the brotherhood of peoples and their relations with the powerful and dangerous Jews.

extent of difference between men and women varied greatly between and within countries. The nineteenth century was particularly significant for the development ofwomen's religious orders - not only in Roman Catholic countries, but in the Church of England and the Lutheran churches. In part itmay be

related to different patterns of population balance and changes in the family as a result of increased women's employment. It is also seen in the development of nursing as a career, and ultimately in the development of women doctors and teachers. The latter two occupations became the entry point for women

Whereas religion is essentially active for Kant, it is basically passive for Schleiermacher. Schleiermacherwas at the centreof the early phase of GermanRomanticism and one could argue that his early avowal of the autonomy of the Christian

religion itself and its irreducibility to some other domain is reinforced by his later definition of theology in The Christian faith as the descriptive explication of Christian piety in the self-conscious historical community. Such a view of theology is designed to ward off the Enlightenment or any Hegelian attempt

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Catholic nationalism in Hungary and Poland Brothers of Charity and Franciscans, the Jesuits in particular recorded an upturn, and in 1900 the Hungarian Jesuit province was established.Women's

religious orders grew rapidly: whereas in 1877 there had been eighty-two religious communities in Hungary, with a total of 993 nuns, by 1917 the number of convents had risen to 463, and there were 7,060 nuns. Although church activitywas restricted during the period of neo-absolutism

who was more prepared to preach loyalty to both Jesus and Marx. In 1896 he formed a Nationalsozialer Verein, seeking to combine social reform at home with an aggressive nationalist foreign policy; but he dissolved it in 1903, feeling that the Social Democrats were prepared to work for reform rather than

revolution. In Denmark Bishop H. L. Martensen in The Christian ethic (1871-8) noted that liberalism and free competition had brought misery to many as well as wealth to some, and whilst rejecting revolutionary socialism proposed 'an

national identitywas not valid for thewhole nation, but along with otherswas an essential part of the maturing of Dutch nationalism around 1900.41 The Catholics followed a similar though separate path. Their revival or emancipation allowed a whole process of identity reconstruction and selfawarenesswhich

sawthem take their place, after centuries of subjection, alongside the orthodox Calvinists, as an equal part of the nation.Thus Catholics also created a national identity for themselves,42 for example in their architecture, in their revived processions, and in their participation in debates like those

nowhere more obviously than at the creation of the Canadian confederation in 1867. Following the suggestion of a Methodist politician, Leonard Tilley of New Brunswick, Canada became a 'Dominion' rather than a 'Kingdom', in direct application of Psalm 72:8 - 'He shall have dominion also from sea to

sea.' But if there was much in common between the histories of Christianity in the United States and Canada, there was also much that differed. Most importantly, Roman Catholicism was the first Christian presence and Protestantism

Babylon in the eighteenth century and some of his laws resembled those in Exodus 21-23. The discovery of extra-biblical material similar to material contained in the Bible had the effect of shifting attention away from the documentary

sources that had been identified with so much scholarly effort during the nineteenth century, to what lay behind them. This, in turn, focused attention upon the social milieux in which the basic units that underlay the biblical tradition had their origin. On the Old Testament side pioneering work was

23 Walker, Pulling the devil's kingdom down, pp. 22-31. 24 Tucker and Liefeld, Daughters of the church, p. 441. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 B: New religious Orders for women

susan o'brien In 1794 19-year-old Marie-Claudine Th´evenet accompanied her two brothers as they, and a procession of other young men, made theirway to the scrubland of 'Les Brotteaux' in Lyons to be executed by the Revolutionary Tribunal of

United Kingdom as a whole. The four Welsh dioceses were fully part of the Church of England, and as a corollary of the Union of the Dublin and Westminster parliaments implemented on 1 January 1801, the Church of England and the Church of Ireland were brought into closer association. Convocation,

the church's own assembly, had been suspended since the early eighteenth century, and parliament legislated for the church alongside its other more secular business. The church's interest in parliament was represented by the presence in the Lords of all the English and Welsh bishops and four elected

18 See above, pp. 53-69. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 david m. thompson number of small landowners and rarely foundwhen the land belonged mainly

to a single landowner.19 Moreover, the religious dynamics of a place were different when there were three or more places of worship, rather than simply the parish church and a Nonconformist chapel. In the latter the difference between the Church of England and Nonconformitywas likely to be foremost

structures as hierarchies for carrying out state reforms and programmes, for example in education. Much of the history of religion in nineteenth-century Europe can be construed as the response of the churches to such attempts at change: the way in which the Dutch in particular dealt with the challenge is

what gave their experience its unique, national qualities. In theology, the infiltration of rationalism into the Dutch Reformed Church came about through amovement known as 'Supranaturalism', based on a tolerant compromise between the demands of a questing and rational intellectual

nationalism in Norway during the 19th century (KULTs skriftserie, 1996), and 'Religious identity and Nordic identity' in Øystein Sørensen and Bo Str˚ath (eds.), The cultural construction of Norden (Oslo: Scandinavian University Press, 1997). Michael Wintle is Professor of European History at the Universiteit van Amsterdam,

where he directs the degree programmes in European Studies. Prior to 2002, he held a chair of European History at the University of Hull, UK, where he had taught since 1980. He has published widely on the modern history of the Netherlands, including Pillars of piety (Hull: Hull University Press, 1985) and An economic and social history of the Netherlands (Cambridge:

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 jeremy dibble revival of interest in Britain's Tudor heritage but also encouraged contemporaries such as Stanford, CharlesWood and Holst to write contemporary Latin

works in an archaic style. While many in the Catholic Church welcomed the Cecilians' historicising reforms, there was significant opposition from many quarters to the conservative restraints implied by the movement's search for a 'pure' ecclesiastical

a few exceptions the religious faith of the founding fathers was far closer to the fashionable Deism of the Age of Enlightenment than to the white heat of revival. Into this parlous situation burst evangelical renewal. The Christianity that prevailed was best exemplified by Francis Asbury

(1745-1816), whom John Wesley in 1771 dispatched to America to help plant Methodism in the newworld. As Asbury travelled annually through the United 1 Schaff, America, p. 76. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

It long remained a semi-ruin, but was restored as a Schinkel museum in 1987. What is left of the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Ged¨achtniskirche, built as a memorial to the first kaiser in the years 1891-5, has been retained as a prominent ruin in the Kurf¨urstendamm. It was built to the designs of Franz Heinrich Schwechten

(1841-1924) as an elaborate celebration of the Hohenzollern dynasty and of their defence of Protestantism. It once boasted a prominent west tower in the late Romanesque style which was the highest structure in or near Berlin. Following its partial destruction in 1943, and the division of the capital, the ruins

Lion of the Fold of Judah'. The rise of the Home Rule movement in the 1870s, led from 1880 by a Protestant landowner, Charles Stewart Parnell (1846- 91), accompanied the appointment of nationalist clerics like William Walsh, archbishop of Dublin (1885-1921) and Thomas Croke, archbishop of Cashel

(1875-1902),who supported the revival of Irish sport, language and culture and the LandWar for the rights of tenant farmers. Even the falling out ofWalsh and Croke with Parnell in 1890 over his adultery, essentially out of embarrassment over the indignation of British Nonconformists, did not fundamentally disturb

and the use of the Bible today. They include Myth in Old Testament interpretation (Berlin: De Gruyter, 1974), Anthropology and the Old Testament (Oxford: Blackwell, 1978), Old Testament criticism in the nineteenth century: England and Germany (London: SPCK, 1984) and The Bible and criticism in Victorian Britain: profiles of F. D. Maurice andWilliam Robertson Smith

(Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1995). Nicolaas A. Rupke is Professor of the History of Science and Director of the Institut f¨ur Wissenschaftsgeschichte, University of G¨ottingen. The topic of religion and the sciences figures prominently in his books The great chain of history (Oxford: Clarendon

24 The level of migration from Holland was more like Denmark and Sweden than Germany, Scotland, Ireland and Norway; and it was not religiously skewed.25 Scandinavia illustrates population growth without significant urbanisation

- at least in the nineteenth century. In 1800 Stockholm's population was 75,000 (by comparison with 960,000 in London, 600,000 in Paris or 104,000 in Copenhagen) and only two other towns in Sweden had a population of 10,000. By 1900 the population of Stockholm was 300,000 and Gothenburg

and suspicion, not only from the Hindu elite, but also from native 'Thomas' Christians, the East India Company and rival, Protestant missionary organisations. Although there were renowned instances in which whole villages 9 Bossy, The English Catholic community, pp. 297, 364-5.

10 Cholvy and Hilaire, Histoire religieuse; Gibson, Social history of French Catholicism, pp. 154-6. 11 Cited in Altholz, The Liberal Catholic movement in England, p. 212. On the Australian case, see Molony, The Roman mould of the Australian Catholic Church. 12 See e.g. 'An American Church' in Morris, American Catholic, pp. 134-5, and Taves, The

as the divinely inspired and divinely preservedWord of God. In popular venues, Protestants found their most notable champion in Dwight Lyman Moody (1837-99), a native New Englander transplanted to Chicago, where during the CivilWar he was active in the work of the Young

7 For a fuller discussion see chapter 11 above. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 mark a. noll Men's Christian Association (YMCA). Later he teamed up with the musician

to conduct funerals in parish churchyards.71 There was still potential for Nonconformists to protest about perceived Anglican privilege, as notably 69 Machin, Politics and the churches, pp. 255-6. 70 Bentley, Ritualism and politics.

71 Marsh, The Victorian church, pp. 72-81, 137, 256-63. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 The religious identities of the United Kingdom in their resistance to the 1902 Education Act, but the occasions for such conflict

In western and southern Africa, too, although numerous Catholic missionary societies - among them the Society for African Missions, the Holy Ghost Fathers, the Verona Fathers and the White Fathers - were sent out under the pontificate of Gregory XVI (1831-46) for the specific purpose of 'converting'

Africa, they appeared largely unable to compete with native religions, so that Catholic communities could scarcely be said to have existed in most parts of Africa until well after the First World War. Only in East Africa, despite the fierce competition which Catholic missionaries faced from Islamic, Anglican

chaos of early Pentecostalism eventually arose several major denominations, including the Church of God in Christ, organised by C. H. Mason (1866-1961), which served a mostly black constituency, and the Assemblies of God, which was established in 1914 to serve mostly white churches.

Also responding to the shifting contours of a rapidly changing Americawere Roman Catholics, especially in what came to be known as the 'Americanist' controversy. The flash pointwas the publication in 1897 of a French translation of a biography of Isaac Hecker (1819-88), an adult convert who had founded

of Bathurst (1865-85), were militantly nationalist prelates who combined the loyalties to faith and fatherland in a manner exploited by the greatest of the Irish bishops of Australia, Daniel Mannix of Melbourne (born 1864; coadjutorarchbishop of Melbourne 1912; archbishop 1917-63), to oppose conscription in

Australia during the FirstWorldWar, and rally the Irish by birth or descent in Britain in 1920 after his arrest on the high seas by an English destroyer. In New Zealand, in which the church was founded by a French missionary bishop, the Irish formed only about 14 per cent of the population. In both

1859. Alongside this powerful spiritual dimension, Ulster Protestantism developed during the nineteenth century a strong communal culture expressed in the Orange Order, with its lodge structure and colourful parades. A sense of militant sectarianism was reinforced by extensive Catholic migration into

Belfast, transformed in this period from a small predominantly Protestant 49 Ibid. 50 Bell, Disestablishment, pp. 76-8. 51 Quoted in Bell, Disestablishment, p. 158.

problems, and was partly responsible for some of the civil unrest in the 1830s. In South Africa the abolition of slavery was one of the reasons for the Great Trek in 1836, when a number of Boer farmers left the Cape Colony and founded two new states - the Transvaal and the Orange Free State.

Britain secured a commitment from the other European powers to abolish the slave trade at the Congress of Vienna in 1815, but slavery was abolished in the French colonies only in 1848 and not in the Dutch colonies until the 1860s.

enrolled a millionmembers,while in Spain, the Association ofThreeMarys and 31 Callahan, The Catholic Church in Spain, p. 190; Neto, O Estado, a Igreja, pp. 313-14. 32 Teller´ıa, Un instituto misionero, p. 436. 33 Neto, O Estado, a Igreja, p. 316, cited in Callahan, The Catholic Church in Spain, p. 260.

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 william j. callahan Saint John, committed to the eucharistic devotion, had enlisted 2 million.34 These membership figures show that the church was successful in recasting

Jesuits, Trappists, Benedictines and Dominicans, there appeared a crop of new foundations for men such as the Oblates of Mary Immaculate, founded by Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Catholic Christianity in France, 1815-1905

Eug`ene Mazenod in 1815, and the Assumptionists, founded by Emmanuel d'Alzon in 1845. The reconstitution of the French clerical cohorts was only one manifestation of a Europe-wide Catholic Revival which owed much to the change

became a hero on account of his vitriolic broadsides against the enemies of religion. What appealed to them most was Veuillot's strenuous defence of the idea of France as an overwhelmingly Catholic country in the face of the efforts of secular liberals to represent France as the heir of the French Revolution.

For Veuillot - as indeed for the adepts of the revolutionary tradition - the Revolution was not over, and France was a battleground between the champions of the eldest daughter of the church and the apologists for a secular world in which the church would be entitled to no say in public life. In this conflict

of the peace-loving Jesus. Mathews's The faith of modernism (1924) summarised what he had been teaching for many years about the need to move beyond immature supernaturalism in order to secure the morality necessary for peace in the modern world.

Fundamentalists offered the counterpart to modernists.Afewwere intellectuals, like J. Gresham Machen (1881-1937), whose major polemic, Christianity and liberalism (1923), defined the religion of McGiffert and Mathews as antithetical to the genuine article. More typical were popular presentations like

voted en bloc for most of the liberal proposals concerning religion in the 'Basic Rights of the German People' (Grundrechte), even though Catholics never endorsed the liberals' sense of what 'religious liberty' meant. As approved in January 1849 and incorporated into the Imperial Constitution that March, the

Grundrechte guaranteed Germans freedom of belief and conscience. It also separated church and state to an important degree. Religious institutions would organise their affairs without state interference. Conversely, churches would lose their status as state institutions.Theywould forfeit their educational privileges,

of renewal of institutions at the regional and local level, which was already well under way by the 1830s.29 This 'diocesan revival' saw increasingly energetic activity by bishops such as Charles James Blomfield (Chester 1824-8, London 1828-56), John Bird Sumner (Chester 1828-48, Canterbury 1848-62),

Henry Phillpotts (Exeter 1830-69) and Samuel Wilberforce (Oxford 1845-69, Winchester 1869-73). Subordinate dignitaries such as archdeacons and rural deans also becamemuch more effective. A particular focus of revived Anglican effort was church extension, the building of new churches and the creation

created a situation in which entire generations had reached adulthood without exposure to any kind of religious formation (a typical case in point being Franc¸ois-BriceVeuillot, the artisan father of the Catholic journalist and polemicist Louis Veuillot). By the calculations of G´erard Cholvy and Yves-Marie

Hilaire, the ignorance in religious matters of the great mass of the French population was probably at its peak around 1830. But as clerical numbers expanded and the church began to put down roots in the villages and communes of France clear signs of a return to religious practice could be discerned,

5 Ibid., vol. i, pp. 545-6. 6 H. H. Milman, The history of the Jews (London: John Murray, 1829-30). See Clements, 'The intellectual background of H. H. Milman's The history of the Jews'. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

History and the Bible Israel in order to vouchsafe the revelation of God to the world through the chosen nation. What Milman's critics seemed to take exception towas the idea that the Bible's own account of its history could be put into other words, and

demand for new churches coincided with a mature appreciation of the architectural potential of the revived Gothic style. This appreciation was due to the influence of Pugin and, supremely, of Viollet-le-Duc and it fostered the emergence of a highly original Catholic architect, Petrus (Pierre) Josephus

Hubertus Cuijpers (1827-1921). Cuijpers had trained in Antwerp and moved his practice to Amsterdam from his native Roermond in 1865. Like his French counterparts, his early parish churches are often built on a 'cathedralesque' principle (notably the twin-towered St Catherine, Eindhoven, 1859-67, and the

was a mixture of Schopenhauer's metaphysical pessimism, a great admiration for the explanatory scope of science and a vitalistic fascination for a primordial ´elan or life force which is far more powerful than the veneer of civilisation. This is also a revolt against the Enlightenment, albeit clearly not theological.

In Germany, D. F. Strauss in Der alte und der neue Glaube (The old and new Christianity, 1872) presented Darwinism in a very positive light as the fruit of an idealistic conception of progress. However, it was due to the efforts of Ernst Haeckel, following the materialism of Ludwig B¨uchner's Kraft und Stoff

of 1830-1 and 1864 provided useful pretexts for brutal repression and severe restrictions. The autonomy of the kingdom was restricted and abolished, and Russification affected the Poles as well as Belorussians, Ukrainians and even Jews.

In Lutheran Prussia, the Poles preserved some autonomy after 1815 only in the region of Pozna´n; in the other provinces, the Germanisation of the churches was a latent threat. The first conflicts of a simultaneously religious and national character broke out in the 1830s, but the great Polish/German

even retained elements of a fusion between church and state down to 1818 and 1833 respectively. The Congregationalists of New England, the heirs of the original Puritan settlers, suffered division in the early nineteenth century as many congregations adopted liberal beliefs. The result, as in England and

Ireland, was a sizeable Unitarian community. Methodism, as in England, displayed the greatest capacity for expansion, becoming the largest denomination in the country by 1840. It differed from its English counterpart in being ruled by bishops and the extent of America dictated several Conferences, but otherwise

in apocalyptic terms as inherently world-negating and in strident opposition to human culture. Overbeck, a colleague and friend of Nietzsche at Basel, exerted a great influence upon Nietzsche's view of Christianity as inherently ascetic.

It was not until the appearance of Essays and reviews in 1860 that many of the critical implications of Coleridge's thought were expounded and widely debated. Coleridge refused to base Christian apologetics upon miracles, and insisted that the words of Scripture were not to be understood as directly

upon the proclamation of Mar´ıa II as queen were nothing less than rebels and traitors.15 Pope Gregory XVI protested against these measures to no avail in 1834. The impasse between the liberal state and the clergy resulted in many priests abandoning their parishes. By 1840, only one bishop, the patriarch of

Lisbon, Patricio da Silva, remained to administer his diocese.16 The so-called 'schism' (cisma) of the 1830s created a deep division between the papacy and the Portuguese state, divided the clergy into two camps and threw pastoral activities into disarray.17

still gave the churches pride of place in the provision of poor relief, and it was not superseded until 1963. Calvinist Christian Democrat proposals for old age pensions, invalidity pensions and health insurancewere passed in 1913, though not implemented until 1919.

One point which has emerged from this description is the extent to which therewere common emphases on the importance of Sunday schools and other education for children, and also the frequent provision of orphanages and other refuges for children in distress. In several countries the churches were to the

authority. It was thus the fears aroused by the European revolutions of 1830 and 1848which led Rome, in part by reviving full-blownworship and devotion as a means of attaching Catholics more firmly to the faith, to seek to unify those within the fold; it was the threat presented to the Vatican by the Italian

Risorgimento that paved the way for the Syllabus of Errors; and it was the crisis over the loss of the Papal States in 1870 which led to the declaration of papal infallibility in faith and morals - popularly misunderstood to mean papal inerrancy in everything - also in 1870.4

Between all the countries discussed there was regular interchange. People from Germany, Scandinavia and the Low Countries visited Great Britain and vice versa; and the influence of Germany on Scandinavia and Holland was considerable. Furthermore, the extent of European emigration to the United

States established links there also. This is a significant part of the background to the campaigning on the question of peace. Mid-nineteenth-century liberals tended to be somewhat complacent on this because they believed that free trade guaranteed that it was in no country's interest to go to war. However,

1918), a German-American Baptist whose friendship with the New York City socialist Henry George led him to propose governmental actions for repairing the wounds of industrialisation. The Bible was an even stronger influence, as illustrated by his Christianity and the social crisis (1907), which drew on the Old

Testament prophets as well as New Testament warnings about the dangers of money. Social concern of a different sort drove large-scale efforts to control the production and use of alcoholic beverages. The most successful agency working

and the Resurrection. The poem's opening addresses the 'Strong Son of God, immortal Love'; despite a sceptical aspect to it, reflecting the anxiety about evolution before Darwin, it concludes with a confident reference to a God who is all in all:

That God, which ever lives and loves, One God, one law, one element, And one far off event, To which the whole creation moves.

sources of recruitment for the fast-expanding convents and the clergy. Few results were achieved by the small number of Protestant ministers in the phenomenon called 'souperism', to convert starving Catholics by offering them food.

The Catholic Revival also, however, had a more purely religious dimension in improving regular Sunday mass attendance which, David Miller has estimated for 1835, was a matter of as little as 20 to 40 per cent of population in rural parishes with numerous Irish speakers, especially in the west with few

'they love Catholicism almost instinctively'.7 But outward conformity does not tell the whole story or unveil the depth of commitment, either among fervent believers or among apparently nominal ones, or among those influenced by social pressures.

The faith was secure, behaviour lamentable: this was the consensus of church opinion. The records of synods, councils and visitations describe a sinful population happy in its adultery, drunkenness, gambling, corruption, superstitionandhedonism. In SantiagoArchbishopMarianoCasanovadevoted

rector of the Catholic university created at Lublin), were particularly notable in reinforcing the Catholicism of the Polish intelligentsia. It became quite widely accepted that a moral and even a religious renaissance was an indispensable condition for the independence of the country.

The great success of the Polish scouting movement in the service of 'God and country' stems from this idea; the formula proved extremely appealing to successive generations of young Poles in the twentieth century. The religious elites: men and women in the

were much reduced by the end of the nineteenth century. The state also adopted a more inclusive attitude to non-Christian minorities, with Jewish Emancipation in 1858 and the admission of atheists to the House of Commons in 1886.

The last third of the nineteenth century thus saw the Church of England consolidating a changed role, no longer enjoying the exclusive constitutional status accordedto it prior to 1828,but still acknowledged as the leading religious expression of national consciousness. It retained some important attributes of

and of miracles, that of an immortal soul disappeared from public, scientific discourse, finding a place of refuge in the sphere of private belief or of such fringe or pseudo-sciences as spiritualism. Situating the issues institutionally

The major treatises on the issue of religion and science enjoyed an international readership. Of Buckland's Geology and mineralogy, for example, there were, in addition to four London editions, a Philadelphia one, aswell as translations into French and German. The treatise was discussed in detail by Reusch,

See below, chapter 12. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 nicolaas a. rupke and human beings to the external conditions of existence. The Bridgewater

Treatise on The hand, written by the surgeon Charles Bell, was a brilliant exposition of special teleology.The most frequently reprinted and most widely translated Bridgewater monograph wasWilliam Buckland's. Paley had made the human body the main source of evidence for design, though he also

national religiousness was strengthened by the crisis and break of the Union with Norway. The Young Church Movement, with its base in student circles in Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Scandinavia: Lutheranism and national identity

Uppsala, made the Swedish people the object of a national religious mission, summed up in the slogan 'the Swedish people a people of God'. The difference between the Danish and Swedish concepts of a national church is an illustration of the problem of using the modern concepts of 'state

argued by David Livingstone.44 This emphasis helps reveal the embeddedness of the religion-science literature in the many and various vested interests that were circumscribed by the institutions of nation-states, churches, denominations or political parties. Buckland's Bridgewater Treatise as well as his earlier

Vindiciae geologicae (1820), for example,must be institutionally situated in order adequately to grasp the meaning of these texts. At the Mus´eum d'Histoire Naturelle in Paris, the explicitness of concern with deluge and design in these texts represented an instance of antiquated theory, yet 'on the ground' -

in the winter. Better known at the time was an informal movement called the Social Gospel. Its early leaders includedWashington Gladden (1836-1918), a minister in Springfield, Massachusetts, and Columbus, Ohio, who in 1876 published

Working people and their employers, an appeal for fairness towards labour, and who later acted for a national Congregational organisation in rejecting a gift from oil magnate John D. Rockefeller as tainted money. The most important voice in the American Social Gospel belonged toWalterRauschenbusch (1861-

law in July 1904 which banned even authorised orders from teaching. At the same time he encouraged discrimination against practising Catholics in certain sectors of the bureaucracy and, infamously, as the affaire des fiches revealed, sought to prevent them from being promoted in the army.

Yet not even Combes wanted to dispense with the concordat, which he valued as a tool to keep the clergyunder control.Onthe other hand,hewas rash enough to threaten the Vatican with its abolition when the new pope, Pius X (1903-14), proved a much more intractable opponent than his predecessor

Christianity and literature in English The century did, however, produce certain prominent propagandist and/or confessional novelists who had a considerable impact on the beliefs of their time. Out of a general unworldliness which encompassed a rigid sabbatarianism,

a fear of wasting time on idle pursuits and an unremitting hostility to the theatre, many evangelical Protestants disapproved of fiction altogether at the beginning of the period, apart from explicitly religious tales like those of Miss Hannah More (Coelebs in search of a wife, 1809). Novel reading, however,

The Frankfurt Assembly was the brainchild of German liberals, a predominantly bourgeois Protestant group. Since the late 1810s they had actively fostered the development ofGermany's identity as a cultural nation (Kulturnation). The Grimm brothers' grammars and folk tale collections called attention to

a shared linguistic culture that transcended state boundaries. The humanistic Gymnasium provided a common educational experience for the middle class and nurtured in them an appreciation of German literature, language and music. A national consciousness developed too, in the networks of middleclass

the king's superintendents. But the East-Nordic traditionwas high church and confessionally orthodox, with a weaker degree of integration with the state. In Sweden, for example, there was a certain, recognised, ecclesiastical realm, and the archbishop's office had continued through the Reformation. In Finland

a similar see was established after the separation from Sweden in 1809. These western and eastern traditions lived in almost total isolation from each other. But such patterns and traditionswere challenged and altered during the nineteenth century.

and nature. Schelling consistently reflected on inscrutable or given aspects of these phenomena, regarding them as 'unprethinkable'. From his early development of a philosophy of nature (Naturphilosophie) up to his late Philosophy of mythology, Schelling was trying to develop a system of Idealism which was

able to incorporate these elements that other Idealistic systems would relegate or redescribe. Schellingwas concerned that authentic philosophy should describe the reality of existence, as distinct from negative philosophy which is concerned merely with the abstract idea of reality. But he insisted that there

popewarned that itwould be a crime to apply ChristianDemocracy to political action and asked that it be used 'to mean nothing else than beneficent Christian action in behalf of the people'. Yet he castigated those 'who criticise Christian Democrats [for]wanting to better the lot of theworker' and asserted that such

actionwas 'in keeping with the spirit of the Church'. Finally, he insisted that the rich also have a 'strict duty' to engage in the task of helping the disadvantaged, because 'no one lives only for his personal advantage in a community, he lives for the common good as well'.25

self-conscious heirs of the revolutionary tradition, came to view as an aggressive and unacceptable 'clericalism'. At another and deeper level, however, anticlericalism needs to be understood as far more than a direct and legitimate reaction to clericalism. There is a real sense in which 'clericalism' was

an invention of anticlericals, and anticlericalism, certainly in its most extreme forms as expounded by the likes of Proudhon, Paul Bert and Emile Combes, a mythic and fanatical ideology based on a highly partial interpretation of French history. Anticlericalism had a dynamic all of its own which owed little

for Irish churchmen, who suffered not only the loss of considerable financial resources, but also their sense of identity founded in the linking of church and nation: as the hymnwriter Mrs C. F. Alexander put it, 'Fallen, fallen, fallen is nowour Country's crown.'51 In the longer termthough, itwas tacitly accepted

as an adjustment to the reality of their minority status. In the period after disestablishment, a minority of Irish Anglicans, particularly in the south, supported the nationalist cause: successive leaders of the HomeRule party, Isaac Butt and Charles Stewart Parnell,were members of the

who wrote several novels for appreciative Catholic audiences. In the late nineteenth century the Social Gospel was fictionalised in the work of a clergyman from Topeka, Kansas, Charles Sheldon, whose best-selling In his steps (1897) presented a picture of Christians who approached life by asking themselves

at every moment, 'What would Jesus do?' Charles Gordon (1860-1937), a Canadian Presbyterian minister writing under the name Ralph Connor, parlayed similar themes, set inWestern Canada, into great successes, like The sky pilot of 1899.

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Christianity and the creation of Germany the state in church-state relations. Between 1868 and 1874 they passed laws to guarantee religious freedom, end the church's educational monopoly and separate

civil from canon law. In 1870 the concordat itselfwas declared void.There was, however, no Austrian Kulturkampf. After fifteen years under the concordat, the Catholic Church was thoroughly discredited. The bishops themselves were in no position to resist effectively had they so desired (and most did not).

suppressed the regular clergy, ordered the sale of their property, forbade ordinations to the priesthood, exiled bishops and abolished the tithes on which diocesan priests depended. At other times, conservative liberals sought an accommodation with the church. Portugal and the Holy See concluded a

convenio in 1848 and concordats in 1857 and 1886, while Spain agreed to a concordat in 1851 that governed civil-ecclesiastical relations until 1931, save for two periods. The shifting balance between aggressive and moderate approaches to

was exactly what happened from the 1860s. During a constitutional battle in the 1870s and 1880s, where the issue was a parliamentary system, the king engaged himself on the conservative side and made plans for a coup d'´etat. The Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

dag thorkildsen conflict ended in 1884 with the impeachment of a conservative government, which meant a victory for the middle-class counter-cultural coalition which gathered around the Liberal Party, and its democratic and national politics.

enabled the authorities to take stern action against the rising tide of biblical criticism.TheworkswereWilhelmVatke's BiblischeTheologie andD.F. Strauss's Leben Jesu. Vatke followed de Wette in presenting a very minimal account of what could be known about Moses and the early years of Israelite history, but

he also reconstructed Israelite history along the lines of Hegel's philosophy in a manner that seemed to rob the Old Testament of its unique status as divine revelation. Strauss's book attacked the trustworthiness of John's Gospel as a source for the life of Jesus, and regarded much of the gospel material

was constructed on a cramped site in the West End of London. The church stands to the rear of a tightly designed courtyard containing a rectory and choir school, both contiguous with the church. The site is dominated by a soaring tower crowned by a slate-tiled broach spire which accentuates the

horizontal emphasis of the whole composition. What most delights the eye is the strident red brick that Butterfield employed, the surfaces being articulated with stripes, diapers and lozenges of black brick, which originally stood out against the dull and sooty yellow bricks of the surrounding houses. The

13 Molony, The worker question, pp. 18-20. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 john molony and david m. thompson for the pope to speak, thus echoing the expectation of the Union of Fribourg

in 1888, which had said to Leo, 'Everyone is now looking to the Vatican for a word.'14 Meanwhile, Vatican circles were agitated about the teachings of the American populist Henry George on the private ownership of land. His ideas had

douglas hedley his Platonising insistence upon the identity of Being and Intellect. Feuerbach, by contrast, insisted upon the difference between Intellect and real, i.e. material, Being. The latter cannot be the object of speculative thought - Being

is the opposite of Intellect, and its particularity and individuality cannot be grasped by the Intellect. Hegel represented, for Feuerbach, the neo-Platonic tradition in its supplanting of the real world with the intelligible. Feuerbach saw the new philosophy as a sensualism which maintains the reality of the

john molony and david m. thompson 11 · Christianity and the sciences 164 nicolaas a. rupke 12 · History and the Bible 181

john rogerson 13 · Popular religion and irreligion in countryside and town 197 david m. thompson part ii

summary of the creation week described in the verses that follow, but a retrospective reference to the primeval creation of matter, the stars, the planetary system and the earth. The second verse, 'And the earth was without formand void', takes up the history of the earth after an indefinite and possibly very

long interval at the moment of the last geological revolution, as a preparatory statement to the creation of the human world. Thus there existed a time gap that could accommodate all of geological history, which had taken place before the six days of creation. Through the early decades of the nineteenth

heretical reinterpretation of Christianity with philosophical immanentism, but they misunderstood both orthodox scholars like Blondel and Laberthonni`ere, who sought the intellectual renewal of Catholicism through modern biblical study and philosophy and thought, and the socially reforming French Catholic

movement Le Sillon, which was unimpeachably orthodox. On 3 July 1907, sixty-five Modernist propositions were condemned in the papal decree Lamentabili,whichwas followed on 8 September by the encyclical Pascendi damning Modernism more generally. Modernism is called a synthesis

down the centuries, has affinities with the thought of the Catholic theologians of the T¨ubingen school, J. S. von Drey and J. A. M¨ohler. Conversely, the idea of the church as the extension of the incarnation came to influence British Hegelians. In the Liberal Catholicism of the Lux

mundi group of 1889, one can see a movement from the embattled conservatism of Pusey and Liddon: a strain of thought which tried to integrate biblical criticism and evolutionary theory into a self-consciously organic view of the church. Its theology drew much from the Alexandrian-Platonising

dag thorkildsen the church. As mentioned above, the Nordic churches before the nineteenth century could be accurately described as territorial churches. The concepts of 'state churches', 'folk churches' and 'national churches' were comparatively

new, as they presupposed the idea of a church as something different from a state and its government. Together with the concept of Free Churches, which replaced old terms like sects and separatism, all these concepts expressed changes in the understanding of the church which occurred in nineteenthcentury

people and society. The Church of Sweden could be characterised as 'national church' or 'folk church', but not as 'state church', because the independence of the church was expressed by the establishment of a Church Assembly in 1863. That happened also in Finland, but the Finnish Lutheran Church did

not have the same aversion to being characterised as a state church, because the links between state and church concerning administration and economy continued after 1869. It is, however, more common to talk about the two 'folk churches' of Finland since the legislation gives both the Lutheran and the

trans. A. J. Butler (London: Cassell, 1894), p. 98. 34 ASV, Archivio Particolare Pio IX, Sovrani, Austria. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 frank coppa

observed that Turin wished to differentiate herself from Catholic Austria by persecuting the papacy, which had wounded national sentiment during the abortive war of liberation. Vienna, in turn, determined to show herself persistently Catholic as Piedmont betrayed her 'heretical' sentiments. Piuswas

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 The papacy The papacy was the weak point in Metternich's Congress system, and the election of a liberal pope precipitated the 1848 revolutions. Charles Albert

of Piedmont-Savoy went into battle to expel Austria from Italy in 1848, and the excitable Roman revolutionary clubs put pressure on Pius through great public demonstrations to join the Piedmontese crusade against Austrian rule. The papal minister Count Pellegrino Rossi was assassinated, and Rome came

church lost influence in the more divided villages and towns, and the new free churches acquired a distinctive social character; in some of the growing towns this reflected the social differences between different housing areas. Methodists and Baptists doubled their numbers in the 1880s and, with the

other free churches, continued to grow until about 1930.42 Freedom of religion did not exist in Denmark before the adoption of the Danish constitution in 1849; all inhabitants had to belong to the Lutheran Church in order to qualify as citizens. The new constitution turned the state

study of nature. The period 1815-1914 saw the disappearance of natural theology as a genre of scientific literature. To attribute this decline to Darwinism is probably inadequate as an explanation. Admittedly, Darwin's notion of natural selection turned the argument from design (special teleology) inside

out by stating that anything not well adapted (not properly designed) simply will not survive in the struggle for life: 'in one sense Darwinism is Paleyism inverted'.29 Design in the sense of special teleology is therefore not proof of intent but merely the chance result of the struggle for life. Yet as repeatedly

Naturforscher und ¨ Arzte (on which organisation the British Association for the Advancement of Science was modelled) met in G¨ottingen, when Rudolph Wagner addressed the assembly on 'Menschensch¨opfung und Seelensubstanz' (creation of mankind and the soul's substance). He argued that there are no

physiological grounds for denying the existence of an independent, immaterial soul, and that the moral order of society requires us to assume the soul's existence.This addresswas published, and republished,Wagner adding among other things that in matters of faith he preferred the simple 'K¨ohlerglauben'

In the event, their opposition to land ownership was as much at the basis of the papal teaching on private property as anything that socialists taught. Listening to the diverse pleas addressed to him, Leo concluded that so

pressing a problem required a pithy title, 'TheWorker Question', and on 1May 1891 issued his lapidary encyclical entitled Rerum Novarum. The encyclical was composed entirely in the Vatican by Jesuit and Dominican scholars working under the constant supervision of the pope. The principal author, an elderly

The victory of Austria over Piedmont at Novara in 1849 restored Habsburg rule in northern Italy, while a French army reinstated papal power. Pius returned to Rome in April 1850. He was a patriotic Italian but was committed to the integrity of his states, and he was henceforth the most resolute of the

public enemies of liberalism, a course confirmed by the attacks upon church property, the religious orders and ecclesiastical jurisdiction in Piedmont in the 1850s under Count Camillo di Cavour. Pius's astute and courageous if self-aggrandising secretary of state, Giacomo Antonelli, encouraged him to

like Theodora Phranza (serialised 1853-4; separately published 1857), implying the kinship between the Church of England and Eastern Orthodoxy. Neale was the translator of Latin medieval and Orthodox hymnody as well as the historian of the Orthodox churches. There was a domestic setting for the

refined moral and theological arguments of The heir of Redclyffe (1853) and The daisy chain (1856) by the loyally Anglican Charlotte Mary Yonge (1823- 1901). In contrast to Yonge's work, Anthony Trollope's very secular novels of church life, notably The warden (1855) and Barchester Towers (1857), offer a gently

that the tavern was seen as the natural rival to the church for the attention of the mass of the population. Owenite Halls of Science developed into Secular Societies in mid-nineteenth-century Britain, under the influence of men like G. J. Holyoake and Charles Bradlaugh. Their 'activist' approach led to

regular meetings and rallies of their members, not unlike religious services. Secularist activists tended to come from the same social groups as Christians, whereas many ordinary folk who ignored the churches ignored secularism as well.

the Irish sometimes formed their own parishes, islands in the larger sea of French Catholicism. Most of the missionary work in western Canada was the work of the French. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

sheridan gilley The United States illustrates most of the oddities of Irish emigration, but the Catholic immigration into England and Scotland also vastly increased the numbers of Catholics in Britain, especially in four great urban centres, London,

rationalists and members of the Free Churches, especially the Baptists, increasingly opposed the teaching of Lutheranism. The tensions and conflicts ended in 1919, when religious subject matter was reduced, and teaching was made non-confessional. In Finland, where the tradition that religious education

should take place in the household was carried on after 1809, the first school law came in 1866, while school administration was separated from the church in 1870. But the basis of religious education remained the catechism. National language

who approved the suppression of the fuero eclesi´astico (clerical immunity), a privilege from another age. Faith and the faithful Lay membership of the church in the nineteenth century ranged over a wide

spectrum of belief and practice, from those who went to mass every Sunday to those whose only contact with religion was at baptism, first communion, marriage and death, and those whose Catholicism was primarily social and political. There was, however, an ingrained Catholicism in the majority of the

1870; Tilly-sur-Seulles 1896-9). English and Irish Catholics do not appear to have imported the French and Italian habit of using ex-votos; nor was Belgian Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Catholic revivalism in worship and devotion

spirituality, with its relics of local saints and fashion for miraculous statues of the Holy Child (rather in the Habsburg tradition of the Infant of Prague), the same as German, Dutch or French spirituality, let alone African, Indian or Chinese. Each Catholic community appears, in the main, to have remained

300,000 copies in its first year of publication, rendered the novel a vital element in the moral campaign against American slavery, a campaign fought with evangelical vigour on both sides of the Atlantic. The Oxford Movement and the Roman Catholic Revival in England also

stimulated a very distinctive kind of propaganda which took the form of historical fiction.The nineteenth-centuryinterest in the MiddleAgeswas fedby the historical poetry andnovels of SirWalter Scott, himself a Protestant Scottish Episcopalian, and contributed to a popular fascination with the externals of

5 Orledge, Gabriel Faur´e, pp. 6-7. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 jeremy dibble was manifested in the fifteen masses of Gounod, which reveal amultiplicity of

styles, endorsing the purity ofPalestrina at one end of the spectrum(such as the Messe dite de Clovis of 1895) and the unabashedly emotional and richly operatic at the other (the Messe solonelle de Sainte C´ecile of 1855). As Alfred Einstein said of the latter: 'This Mass tends towards Catholicism, but it is not itself Catholic.

convents and introduce legislation to provide civil matrimony.31 Depretis's programme was partially implemented by the Siccardi Laws of 1850, which included nine measures. The first five abrogated various forms of ecclesiastical jurisdiction enjoyed by the church in Piedmont; the sixth eliminated

the church's right of asylum; the seventh limited punishment of nonobservance of religious solemnity to six Catholic holidays and Sundays. Proposal VIII stipulated that ecclesiastical corporations could no longer acquire real property without the state's consent. Finally, the last proposal called for

of unyielding authority. Notwithstanding the evident truth in such a generalisation, there is a subtler picture. It would be more accurate to say that equally within Protestantism and Catholicism we can see both the drive to dialogue and reaction, although in Catholicism political circumstances -

the impact of the French Revolution and the often precarious and embattled position of the Vatican in Italy - accentuated the element of reaction. Yet the nineteenth century was a period of revival of Catholic thought - often from converts as brilliant as Friedrich Schlegel or John Henry Newman, and many

monarchy would aid its conservative ally, so that the liberal bloc of London, Paris and Turin might co-operate to push the Austrians out of Italy. Cavour's dream was the pope's nightmare. He feared that Austrian involvement in the war would lead to a relaxation of her efforts in Italy, encouraging

the revolutionaries to unleash anotherwave of terror.Romewas likewise troubled by Piedmont's efforts to ingratiate herself with the British by denouncing the temporal power.37 The pope urged the faithful to pray for peace, lamenting the injuries threatened by bellicose afflictions.38 Hiswordswerewasted on the

minority that would never surrender to Rome. This state of mind was sustained both by theological hostility to Roman Catholicism, derived from a polemical reading of the evangelical and reformed traditions, and by vigorous keeping alive of the memory of historic confrontations.53 In particular

there was celebration of the successful Protestant defiance of the besieging forces of James II at Londonderry in 1688-9, which served as a legitimation of the siege mentality developed by Ulster Protestants three centuries later.54 Successive Home Rule Bills failed in parliament, largely because of the opposition

at Linz (1862-1924) designed by Vincenz Statz (1819-98), the diocesan architect who had worked on the designs for Cologne. The earlier Votivkirche on the Ringstrasse at Vienna (1857-79), designed by Heinrich von Ferstel (1828- 83), is a twin-towered essay in the thirteenth-century French manner built

to commemorate the Emperor Franz Joseph's survival of an assassination attempt. The construction of the Votivkirche did not please Reichensperger, Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Church architecture and religious art

A further factor in the Catholic Revival was what has aptly been called a clerical recuperation of popular religion (the latter term being understood as the mix of animist and heterodox Christian beliefs which held sway in much of the countryside, having survived in the face of efforts down the centuries

to convert them into the tenets of Counter-Reformation Catholicism). In the nineteenth century, the church succeeded as never before in narrowing the gap between the religion of the people and the religion of the clergy, largely by embracing beliefs and practices which had powerful resonances with the

never materialised. Membership of the people's church remained at nearly 90 per cent of the population until the 1990s, with 80 per cent of children being baptised; but church attendance on a weekly basis was less than 5 per cent. Nevertheless more than half the population attended church from time

to time, so that formally there has been no large-scale drift from the church. Lay revivalism developed from the 1790s, and after being opposed by ministers educated on Enlightenment principles, itwas drawn back into the mainstream in the 1830s and 1840s by ministers influenced by the more sympathetic teaching

to sing'). With his own compositions, like 'Missionary Hymn' (for Reginald Heber's 'From Greenland's icy mountains'), these adaptations made Mason's work as widely used as any other contribution to American religious life. A hymn by the Canadian Joseph Scriven (1819-86) represented a more popular

type of gospel song that became immensely popular in America. Scriven wrote 'What a Friend we have in Jesus, / All our sins and griefs to bear' after enduring several personal tragedies; it becamewell knownafter itwas included by Ira L. Sankey in the first of his Gospel hymns (1875), which inaugurated a

(the faith of a charcoal-burner). This expression provided Carl Vogt (1817-95), known for his scientific materialism and political radicalism, with the title of a scathing counter-booklet, K¨ohlerglauben undWissenschaft (1856), in which he denounced Wagner's Christian piety. Wagner countered with his Der Kampf

um die Seele (1857) and subsequently made capital out of the fact that he had in 36 Soulimani, Naturkunde, pp. 224-353. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 nicolaas a. rupke

such grand speculative Platonising monistic structures gaveway to more sceptical and pragmatic approaches to the relationship between philosophy and theology.Amore pragmatic approach at the end of the nineteenth century is typified by the Ritschl school and the Catholic Modernists.

1 Holmes, Coleridge, p. 32 (quoting Lamb). Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 douglas hedley The Enlightenment legacy: Socinianism and

the use of instrumental music in the liturgy except as a subordinate role to voices.Suchrestrictions only servedtogalvanise a greater polemical distinction between 'old' and 'new' in churchmusic.As evidenced by theworks of Mozart, Haydn, Jomelli, Galuppi and Pergolesi, the 'strict' practice of counterpoint,

1 Rushton, Classical music, p. 118. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 jeremy dibble demonstrated in fugues and the Palestrina-inspired 'motet' style, stood out

positive report to the courts of Europe. However, the goodwill it generated was squandered by Pio Nono's stance during the Mortara affair of 1858. The Hebrew child, Edgardo Levi Mortara, secretly baptised by a Christian servant of the household during a childhood illness,was taken from his parents in June

1858, to assure his salvation. There were protests from the family, the Jews of Italy and Napoleon, but Pius refused to relent. Despite the condemnation of world opinion and the unfortunate publicity it generated, Pius would not budge.41 Cavour utilised the Mortara affair to discredit Rome, and secretly

Alexander 'Greek' Thomson (1817-75). The Caledonia Road Church (1856-7) is now a ruin, while the extraordinary, conically domed Queen's Park United Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 andrew sanders

Presbyterian Church of 1867was destroyed by bombs in 1943, but the StVincent Street United Presbyterian Church of 1857 survives intact. It is a structurewhich refers both to Greek precedent and to the apocalyptic architectural fantasies of the painter John Martin (1789-1854), but behind the design or its tapering

by his brethren of 1816-17 and Cornelius's The reconciliation of Joseph and his brethren and Joseph interpreting Pharaoh's dream (both 1817). A further commission to decorate the Casino Massimo in Rome with scenes from Dante, Tasso and Ariosto (executed 1818-28) saw the gradual dispersal of the Nazarenes as

a community. Most returned to Germany. Schnorr and Cornelius settled in Munich and in 1834 Philipp Veit was appointed director of the Art Institute in Frankfurt where he encouraged what he styled 'New German Religious Art'. His most important painting of these years, Christianity introducing the

dresswhich, after an initial reaction, reinforced an existing trend to clericalism among the British Nonconformist clergy. Given the pre-existing renaissance of the British Protestant traditions between 1790 and 1830, especially in the form of evangelicalism, the rise of

a counter-catholicising movement created bitter tensions within the Church of England with Protestants and liberals, as well as exacerbating conflict with the Protestant Nonconformist churches. Chapter 7 on church architecture and art shows some of the consequences in stone and paint of this kind of catholicising

by the Esterh´azy court to write his Mass in C (1807) and Cherubini's personal fusion of ancient and modern techniques gave rise to two fine requiems, in C minor (1816) andDminor (1836), and several Solemn Masses for the restored Bourbon monarchy in Paris. Even by the middle of the century, Bruckner, then

a monastery organist at St Florian, was still wedded to the paradigms of the classical mass, as can be seen in his Requiem (1848-9) and Missa Solemnis (1854). With the transformation of Bruckner's style in the late 1860s, his later masses expanded in length and spiritual aspiration to a pointwhere their natural home

Creed. At the same time, a basic concept in Grundtvig's religious, cultural and political activities from the beginning of the nineteenth century till his death was the idea of awakening the sleeping and almost forgotten Nordic spirit, which he found expressed in Norse literature and poetry. This Nordic spirit,

according to Grundtvig, represented a Nordic and national identity. Since nationality was the expression of the character of the people, Christianity had to become Nordic and national in order to influence the average person. Grundtvig claimed that the Spirit of the Creator manifests itself in the spirit

identity. In Lower Canada the Constitutional Act of 1791 left in place the legal and social structures of NewFrance, including an established status for the Roman Catholic Church. Half-hearted British efforts at transforming Quebec into

an English Protestant province were almost entirely abandoned after Bishop Joseph-Octave Plessis (1763-1825) rallied support for the British during theWar of 1812. By1819,when Lower Canadawas divided into two dioceses, with about 200,000 Catholics each in Quebec and Montreal, religious orders had taken

to be more than 10 per cent, the variations from place to place in regular Sunday mass attendance were very much greater. Although it is probably true, as Professor Gabriel Le Bras declared, 'that religious practice was never more widespread than between 1650 and 1789', there was evidence

before the Revolution (and industrialisation) of significant regional variations in practice; furthermore the same variations emerged much more clearly in the nineteenth century. The west, the east, the Massif Central and the western Pyrenees were the most fervent; the centre, the south-west and

despite the headline conversions of prominent Anglican clergymen associated with the OxfordMovement, his successeswere mostly confined to winning the allegiance of Irish emigrantswho,however patchy their conformity to Catholic doctrine and practice, regarded themselves as Catholics, not Protestants, by

birth.16 The Catholic Revival of the mid-nineteenth century, for all its disingenuous claims to have 'won' new converts to what it termed 'Christianity', was in practice largely confined to persuading the members of pre-existing Catholic

If the century began with Protestant dominance, the other major denomination in the country, theRomanCatholics,was considerably lessmarginalised by the end of it. There were no new schisms here, but in 1723, the low church Jansenists in the Dutch Roman Church had set up their own episcopal hierarchy,

called the Old Catholic Church. Rome was constantly concerned about them in the nineteenth century, fearing a revival of Dutch Gallicanism, but they never amounted to more than 0.2 per cent of the population. Dutch Catholicswere used to centuries of suppression in varying degrees, but having

with the exception of Georg von Sch¨onerer's abortive Free from Rome movement, they lacked a nationalist dimension. In Habsburg Austria state and emperor served as the objects of patriotism, not a confessionalised nationstate, and the dynasty remained resolutely Christian throughout the liberal

campaign to de-emphasise the state's religious character. Symbolic of this link between religion and dynasty was the emperor's participation in Vienna's annual Corpus Christi procession, which recalled the legendary sanctification of the Habsburgs' right to rule through the Eucharist. Indeed, the more

of growing denominational recognition of official leadership roles forwomen. Part of the reason for this lay in wider social changes. By the 1880s, women in Britain and the United States were participating in a growing number of protest movements that had increased their visibility as platformspeakers and

campaigners. Higher education, the vote and the temperance movement all offeredwomen unique opportunities for public speaking. As society moved to accept women in public roles, so denominations found it easier to entertain such participation in the religious sphere.

hardly cast in stone. In Prussia, Frederick William IV strove to heal the rifts that occurred during the reign of his father. Upon ascending the throne in 1840, he ended the persecution of the Orthodox Lutherans and made peace with the Catholics. He also supported the completion of Cologne cathedral,

celebrating it in 1842 as a great German, Christian monument. This spirit of reconciliation, however, stopped short of outright religious tolerance. In 1845, a Prussian cabinet order authorised the repression of the liberal Protestant 'Friends of Light' (Lichtfreunde)movement. Furthermore, at a joint meeting of

of patronage' ever more widely, and saw politically active, pro-government prelates become bishops, mainly as a result of the government's right to nominate candidates. The bishops lived and behaved like aristocrats; they paid no official visitations to their dioceses, and delegated administrative matters and

confirmations to their vicars-general and suffragans. The lower orders of the clergy lived as they pleased. They chased better benefices, did scarcely any pastoral work, and preferred to devote their energy to managing their parish estates and participating in the life of high society. The bourgeoisie was either

gave pre-war German Catholics a respectability and sense of membership in the nation-state of which their Italian and French counterparts could only dream. The interplay between Catholicism and politics followed an altogether different

course in Austria between 1866 and 1914. Austria's loss at K¨oniggr¨atz precipitated a political crisis, resulting in the creation of the Dual Monarchy and the definitive introduction of constitutional government in 1867. It also brought the liberals to power,who quicklymoved to restore the upper hand to

of appropriating the Irish church surplus, and was then, in November, dismissed by KingWilliam IV,who sawhimself as committed to the defence of the Protestant church. During late 1834 and 1835 there was a strong campaign of agitation in Britain in defence of the Church of Ireland, presenting it as an

essential bulwark against the perceived corrupt religion and subversive politics of Roman Catholicism. Under these circumstances the evangelical Ulster Presbyterian leader Henry Cooke also gave notable support to the established church.27

war during which the Lutheran Church and the revivalist movement became involved with thewarof 'thewhites' against 'the reds', Finland became an independent nation-state in 1917-18 with a Lutheran majority church and a small Finnish Orthodox Church (representing some 1 per cent of the population) as

established churches. Denmark became involved in the Napoleonic wars on the French side, went bankrupt in 1813 and had to give up all rights to Norway in the Treaty of Kiel ( January 1814). After an important interlude in the spring of 1814 that

century, the gap interpretation grewincreasingly popular with geologists, and was prominently advocated by Buckland in his Bridgewater Treatise of 1836, giving the schema a gloss of religious and scientific credibility.17Wagner, in the second edition of his Geschichte der Urwelt (1857-8), adopted Buckland's 'gap

exegesis'. It had the sanction of leading Anglican theologians, including the evangelical John Bird Sumner (1780-1862), bishop of Chester and later archbishop of Canterbury, and Edward Bouverie Pusey (1800-82), Regius Professor of Hebrew at Oxford and Tractarian leader; the same exegesis had previously

the absolute necessity of the direct involvement of the state for any genuine resolution of the worker question. That this acceptance took place in Italy, where the curia still looked out across the Tiber with resentment at the new Italian state, was a further tribute to the leadership of Leo XIII, who saw

far beyond the Vatican in his determination to make the voice of the church heard among the world's working masses. It was no longer a question of concentrating on the problems of the old European heartland of the church, but one of also facing the situation in America and Australia. That the masses

establishment, notably the presence of bishops in the House of Lords, and its historic endowments, although these were now deployed in a manner very different from that operative before the 1830s. Important in developing the national role of the church was Arthur Penrhyn Stanley, dean ofWestminster

from 1864 to 1881, a Broad Churchman and pupil of Thomas Arnold, who sought to make the abbey accessible to people of diverse religious opinions, as symbolised by his readiness to bury the heterodox Charles Dickens in 1870 and the Nonconformist David Livingstone in 1874.72 Charles Darwin was also

ofwhich several editions appeared in the 1820s,was frank in its admission of difficulties in the biblical texts.3 The Book of Joshua had suffered 'accidental derangement of the order of the chapters',4 as had 1 Samuel 16-18. Some events, such as the creation of male and female in Genesis 1:27, anticipated the

fuller accounts at Genesis 2:7, 21-3, while Abram's departure from Haran in Genesis 11.31 preceded God's call to him to depart at 12:1.5 Apparent contradictions that critical scholarship explained by assigning material to different sources were noted by Horne. They included the discrepancies between the

deaths and marriages, and considerable expense illustrated the domestic force of religious values. For Catholics, an equivalent to the Bible-centred ritual of Protestants could be the celebratory street festival where images and folk practices sometimes enlisted more enthusiastic support than was

given to the church's ordinary ministrations. Yet Catholics also remained loyal to the Douay-Rheims translation of Scripture, and also sponsored several new translations, including one prepared by Francis Patrick Kenrick in the late 1840s.

a selection process for parish priests that virtually excluded diocesan prelates, who declared that they had been reduced to mere 'shadows of bishops' by the civil authorities, a view shared by Pope Pius IX (1846-78) in a vigorous protest against the government's action.8 Spanish liberal governments did not

go this far. After 1843, they interfered less in the church's internal affairs, even during the revolutionary periods 1854-6 and 1868-73, although they insisted on retaining the state's rights over episcopal appointments. In both countries, however, moderate and aggressive liberals agreed on the necessity of reforming

Jesuit, Matteo Liberatore, had lectured and published in Rome extensively on economics and social principles. Rerum Novarum began with the proposition that the 'Worker Question' was of such importance that beside it stood 'no other question of greater moment in the world today' and that it was 'one of

great concern to the well-being of the State'.16 After eight laborious drafts and various translations from Italian into Latin, the encyclical was published on 15 May 1891. The first sentence, beginning with the words 'Rerum Novarum', was capable of a grave misunderstanding in

Divina in 1853; three volumes were published during his lifetime and a fourth posthumously in 1864 (further publicationswere continued by Franz X. Haberl from 1872). Haberl was even more important in this branch of scholarship. In addition to the work he continued for Musica Divina after the death of Proske,

he founded a Palestrina society in 1879 and took on the demanding task of editing the complete Palestrina edition begun by Breitkopf andH¨artel in 1862. With the musicologist Adolf Sandberger, he worked on the early volumes of the complete edition of Lassus'smusic, and produced newbooks of plainchant

granted to Christian missionaries (in treaties concluded in 1858 and 1860) to allow them to travel and proselytise in the interior, the fiasco of the Taiping rebellion (1851-64), in which a quasi-Christian millennialist sect failed to overthrow the Qing (Manchu) dynasty, widely discredited Christians of every

hue, leaving the Chinese Catholic Church almost exclusively in the hands of foreign priests who, as in Africa, all too often found themselves in a white 'ghetto' composed largely of Irish, French, American and Australian priests without entr´ee into local society.15 In Japan, where Christianity remained proscribed

also of divine origin, which the state is bound to protect. Voluntary association is a positive good. Leowas hostile to the French Revolution and its successors on the left, for his model of society was based not on class warfare or social equality but on an ideal bodily harmony in which unequal classes

in a traditional hierarchy exercise Christian charity and forbearance to one another. This is conventional Catholic teaching. The original twist was Leo's consistent denunciation of the two rival systems of unregulated liberal laissezfaire

pictures were not well received by critics, but the greatest furore connected with the first phase of Pre-Raphaelitism arosewhen Millais exhibited his Christ in the carpenter's shop (1849-50), also known as Christ in the house of his parents. The picture'soddperspective, naturalistic settinganduse of unidealisedmodels

in awkward poses stimulated the fury of critics, among them Charles Dickens. Its symbolic prefigurings of the Passion, however, delighted those sympathetic to the Oxford Movement and Pugin's neo-Gothic propaganda (these loose associations between artistic and religious movements were not lost on the

Hostility to pope and 'popery' was confirmed as a central attribute of British national identity. The inevitable other side of the coin was the further political and religious alienation of Roman Catholic Ireland. While Protestantism thus reasserted itself, itoverlaid andwas tosomeextent

in conflict with a variety of other religious aspirations to express national identity. Alongside an internally diverse Anglicanism and a divided Presbyterianism was an increasingly self-conscious Nonconformity, which, inWales above all, was challenging the traditional role of the state church as the religious

Berlin and a firmbeliever in absolute rather than constitutional monarchy) also regarded co-operative organisations for handicrafts, commerce, manufacture, 29 Lausten, A church history of Denmark, pp. 242ff. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

john molony and david m. thompson agriculture, buildings loan societies, etc. as the only way to overcome social and economic disaster. His writings were most read in the decade before his death in 1869. Rudolf Todt, minister in Barenthin and Brandenburg until his

49 See the preface to the English edition of Schweitzer's Quest by F. C. Burkitt. 50 S. R. Driver, The Book of Genesis with introduction and notes, Westminster Commentaries (London: Methuen, 1904). Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

john rogerson radical History of the synoptic tradition (1922)would become available in English translation. In 1914 the practical implications of the advances made in biblical scholarship in the previous hundred years had yet to be confronted seriously

and poor parishes in the country. In rural societies priests were often younger sons who were not expected to inherit land and found an alternative career in the church. This created a reserve of recruits for the clergy and was an asset to the church, though it did not guarantee good vocations or ensure that priests

kept their vows. The church began its new life short of priests. In post-war Venezuela in 1837 there were 200 fewer priests than in 1810 and regions such as the llanos of Apure hardly sawa priest from one year to the next. Itwas the common people

Baptists. The two main categories of Methodism and the Old Dissent by no means exhaust the almost infinite variety of Nonconformity. In Wales the preponderant formof Methodism was Calvinistic. Usually worshipping in theWelsh

language, the Calvinistic Methodists constituted the second largest denomination in the principality (after the Independents), attracting as many as 15.9 per cent of its people in 1851. In England there was another Calvinist body, the Countess of Huntingdon's Connexion (with 0.1 per cent of the

extended elsewhere. In worship, he tried to insist on the use of Gregorian plainchant and polyphony, over the loved modern sub-Mozartian operatic settings for masses, while his support for the Solesmes version of plainchant did away with much local usage. These reforms urged lay participation in the

liturgy. Pius rebutted the Jansenist discouragement of frequent reception of the sacrament through a sense of unworthiness, and exhorted the faithful to receive communion often, and even daily: thiswas a means to holiness and not its reward.The decreeQuamSingulari Christus Amore of 1910 lowered the age for

national community characterised by certain features. These features create national identity, which becomes an important part also of individual identity. For this reason a national system of education is a central part of nation building. Furthermore, national identity describes that condition in which a

mass of people have internalised the symbols of the nation, so that they may act as one psychological group when there is a threat to, or the possibility of enhancement of, nation and national identity.3 1 Hutchinson, The dynamics of cultural nationalism.

the Marist Brothers seized the opportunity to develop new techniques of religious instruction to reach out to the children of some of the most remote and backward rural areas. For the church, this obligation to educate and socialise the faithful was fundamental to its sense of mission and was defended as a

non-negotiable right. Inevitably, therefore, when the state once again dared to challenge the hegemony of the church in this sphere, education immediately became the principal theatre of a renewed culture war between the church and the Republic.

Arthur Bonus called for healing the rift by 'Germanising' Christianity. They advocated stripping Christianity of its foreign influences so that it expressed the healthy values and virtues of the German people (Volk), a sentiment that also infused Richard Wagner's final opera, Parsifal. Extreme as these

notions were, they indicate that the basic understanding of Germany as a Christian nation remained intact, despite the era's confessional polemics. Thus, in its founding charter of 1876, the German Conservative Party noted that, although the dominant religion of the German nation was Lutheran

of evangelical churches and communities were established, centred in Basel and Geneva. Here an Evangelical Free Church was founded in 1849 as a church independent of the state. From the mid-nineteenth century, revivalism became part of the conservative Protestant movement. It also gave rise to a

number of pious, missionary and welfare societies, which were ambivalent in their attitudes to modern society. Since the diffusion of the Bible was a central concern of the revivalist movement, in several cantons so-called Bible associations were established. Among the foreign missionary societies, the

The disputes and tensions between Hungary and Romania with regard to policy on ethnic affairs (literally, nationalities policy, referring to groups within a multinational state) came to a head when a separate Uniate diocese was established forHungariancongregations.Uptothen, theseHungarian Uniates,

numbering approximately 335,000, had been integrated into four Romanian and two Ruthenian eparchies, sowhen the Holy See established the diocese of Hajdudorog in 1912, the Romanian National Party and the Romanian Uniate church regarded this as a blatant infringement of their rights, and began an

Although support was unevenly distributed over the country, in some parts, notably the Highlands, the great majority of the people joined the Free Church. By the 1851 census it was attracting as many worshippers as the established church. Initially it was in the curious position of maintaining the principle

of establishment in theory while repudiating it in practice, but as the century wore on, and especially as the Church of Scotland began to reclaim lost ground, the Free Church became eager to see an end to religious privilege and on that basis was able to combine with the United Presbyterians in 1900 as the

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 david bebbington The weighty English Congregationalist R.W. Dale, for instance, adopted the idea of conditional immortality, the notion that only the saved receive the gift

of eternal life, so that the unsaved are extinguished rather than punished.23 For Dale the shift was a matter of intellectual conviction, but for many it was part of a broader tendency to present Christian teaching in a form more palatable to suburban dwellers. The softer formof doctrine went with refined

Reading and Singing In the nineteenth century, basic statements of Christian belief by notable theologians, but aimed at popular audiences, often gained a very wide distribution. Such volumes included Charles Hodge's The way of life (1841), and The faith

of our fathers: being a plain exposition and vindication of the church founded by our Lord Jesus Christ (1876) by James Cardinal Gibbons, Catholic archbishop of Baltimore, which sold more than 2 million copies in more than a hundred editions during its first forty years in print.

hierarchy of their church.16 Even though Phoebe Palmer wrote a powerful justification of female preaching, The Promise of the Father (1860), she based her own ministry on a strongly domestic ideology and did not encourage other women to follow her example.17 Indeed, once the new holiness sects took

on denominational characteristics, roles that women had been encouraged to fill were increasingly closed to them.Women continued to operate on the institutional fringes, despite the appearance of greater acceptance. The final decades of the nineteenth century can be characterised as a period

United Free Church of Scotland. The existence of the Free Church, however, had ensured that in the second half of the century most Scottish Christians were not in the state church. In Ireland the Protestant churches, though dwelling in the shadow of the

overwhelming Roman Catholic majority, nevertheless grew markedly during the nineteenth century. Among the Presbyterians, who were strong in the north, there was tension in the early years of the century as the unorthodoxy that claimed traditional English Presbyterians made similar headway in

to a consideration of the relationship between religion and national identity. In accordance with the complexity and diversity of religious experience, there was no single national identity or process of nation formation in the nineteenth century in the Netherlands, but several. These separate but parallel

paths towards a multiple national identity were themselves part and parcel of the particularly Dutch process of vertical pluralism, or 'pillarisation'. 'Pillarisation' requires careful definition. Strictly speaking, it refers to a condition found in many countries where vertical, ideological divisions dominate

preach a sermon before the United States Congress, innovated as public speakers. Still others won recognition for service alongside their husbands, such as Ann Hasseltine Judson (1789-1826), Sarah Boardman Judson (1803-45) and Emily Chubbuck Judson (1817-54), successive wives of Adoniram Judson,

pioneer Baptist missionary to Burma; their labours as translators and their fortitude in suffering and death made them well-publicised icons of evangelical faithfulness. The driving force of Methodist expansion also exerted a considerable impact

Eduardo S´anchez Camacho, bishop of Tamaulipas, was different. He aroused much indignation among conservative Catholics for his attempt to reconcile the laws of the church and those of liberal reform, and for his opposition to the cult of Our Lady of Guadalupe. He was censured by the Roman Inquisition,

resigned from his see, and died without the sacraments. The political thinking of Colombia's bishops was almost entirely conservative and normally alarmed their opponents. Liberal statesmen feared the church, believing that it had great influence over consciences and could divert

naturally suited to a public role. For others, like Catherine Booth, women had the right to preach regardless of their sex, and simply because they were children of God.23 Throughout the nineteenth century, male-dominated western Protestantism

resisted women's desire to exercise a public ministry. It sought to limit and restrict their roles and to deny them access to full rights as church members, believing not only that such roles would contradict Scripture but also that women might seize denominational control for themselves. Yet, the

omission from this volume, in its aspiration to give thewhole of Christianity a fair coverage, and that is of the Eastern Orthodox, which leaves the work with an unhappy appearance of incompletion.They are to be covered in a volume of their own; thiswas not by a decision of the editors. The Eastern rite Christians

sometimes called Greek Catholics or Uniates in communion with the pope, who were awkwardly poised between the Orthodox and overregulation from Rome, have their own chapter, and references to them occur in others. In a volume of this kind, there is bound to be some variety of method and

church or state. In general Latin American bishops took a cautious and middle way, more prone to compromise than to conflict. But during times of crisis they varied between intransigents and those seeking a consensus with society and the

state. TheMexican episcopate contained men like Eulogio Gillow, archbishop of Oaxaca (1887-1922), and Ignacio Montes de Oca, bishop of San Luis Potos´ı (1884-1921), both from wealthy families, both educated abroad - Gillow in England, Montes de Oca in Rome - and both true princes of the Church.

before. The Society of Friends, which had emerged during the radical days of the English Civil War, had adopted from the outset a distinct spirituality, the 'inward word', that gave women equal authority with men in the spiritual leadership of the sect. Over the course of the eighteenth century, it is estimated

that between 1,300 and 1,500 women conducted local and itinerant preaching careers with official approval.4 Such activity continued throughout the nineteenth century but women increasingly lost ground to men in the control and administration of the denomination.5

of good versus evil, there could be no compromise, as liberal Catholics (and many moderate republicans) believed. Compromise, according to Veuillot, was 'the liberal illusion': the fight had to be fought to the finish.1 Thus, by 1880, the Catholic Church had made a remarkable recovery from

the ruinous condition in which it had found itself on the morrow of the revolutionary era. Inthe process,however, it hadbecomeamuchmore militant and intransigent organisation, still haunted by the wrongs it had suffered in the past and ready to resist any future attempts to relegate it to only a marginal

Deputies in 1879 and the Reichstag in 1881. In 1882 a rather different development began in Rhineland-Westphalia, when a miner named Ludwig Fischer founded the first evangelicalworkmen's union as a reaction against theRoman Catholic unions,whichwere tending to proselytise among Protestants.By 1887

there were forty-four unions with 11,700 members. Their anti-Catholicism tended to be a defining characteristic, but they were also educational and Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 john molony and david m. thompson

upbringing, presented a diametrically opposed view to that of the 'Gottes Zeugen' (God's witnesses) literature, attacking the Catholic Church for its alleged traditional hostility towards science and scientists.Religion and science had fought a continual battle in an effort by Christianity, 'steeped in blood',

to attain and retain political power over and against 'the expansive force of the human intellect'.7 The general drift of Draper's argument was continued by the Cornell University historian Andrew Dickson White, brought up as a high church Episcopalian, who characterised the engagement of Christianity

with right-wing politics. The freedom of religious worship permitted under article 11 of the 1876 constitution provoked traditional cries that this permitted error. Leo XIII appealed to the church in Spain in 1882 to accept the new constitutional situation, as he was to do in France ten years later; but efforts

to forma Catholic Union which might represent a more moderate position in politics failed.13 Portugal escaped the Napoleonic period more lightly, but had a nineteenthcentury history very similar to that of Spain. Religious practice was much

to observe the similarities in the practice of the three absolutisms, despite the differences between Orthodox Russia, Protestant Prussia and Catholic Austria. InRussia, the Orthodox Churchwas governed by the state andwas prepared

to further the state's imperial goals. The suppression of the powerful Uniate Catholic Church before the dismemberment of the Ukrainian and Belorussian lands of the federationwas a primary objective in 1772. Before 1772, this church had the most numerous network of parishes in the federation - almost 10,000

(1822), and which contain a notably sympathetic verse on the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin. These poems, which trace the history of Christianity in England, are testimony to the poet's faith in a developing, various and continuing Christian presence at the centre of national life. They were

to have a considerable influence on Wordsworth's successors. The work of two clergyman poets, Henry Francis Lyte (1793-1847 - the author of 'Abide with me') and John Keble (1792-1866), can be seen to parallel Wordsworth's historical retrospect. Both poets looked back to the tradition of religious verse

to 2 Kings, and Chronicles and Ezra and Nehemiahwere made up,workwhich had begun in the eighteenth century. He identified six 'narrators' or editors who had added material to existing editions of the Pentateuch and Joshua over a period of six or seven centuries, and proposed similarly complex solutions

to the composition of the 'Great Book of Kings' ( Judges to 2 Kings) and the 'Great Book of Universal History to Greek Times' (Chronicles, Ezra and Nehemiah). He identified many problems thatwere recognised in subsequent scholarship and although his own solutions were often too idiosyncratic to

the drunkenness and disorganisation of Irish rural life before 1850 may partly explain why so many emigrants in their new, mainly urban, settings abroad failed to make the transition to the Tridentine norm of Sunday mass-going, and lost their connection with their religion, which had been bound up with

traditional folklore and folk practice in a sacred landscape in Ireland, now abandoned forever. The foundation of All Hallows College by Fr John Hand in Ireland in 1842 to provide priests for the diaspora helped to confirm the Irish character of

to rein in the traditional celebrations and make them much more parochial occasions.34 Consequently the notion of reform in religion, which characterised all churches in all countries in rather different ways, is somewhat ambiguous. The increased number of clergy, usually more systematically

trained, tended not to be sympathetic to traditional customs, and sought to eliminate them.AnEnglish examplewould be the removalof the village singers from many parish churches, and their replacement by boys' choirs, often in surplices. This often meant refurnishing the chancels of parish churches with

movement supported state schoolswhere teachingwas not based on Calvinist or Catholic dogma, in 1857 an Education Law permitted the establishment of denominational schools; so Catholics, who were moving steadily in an Ultramontane direction, sought public funds for their schools.Eventually they allied

with Abraham Kuyper's Anti-Revolutionary Party.22 The membership of the Dutch Reformed Church had fallen to 48.5 per cent of the population by 1899 (though the combined total of the Reformed Church and the Gereformeerde Kerken had been around 56 per cent for fifty years);

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England. In 1851 whereas some 19.7 per cent of the population attended the Church of England, Nonconformity enjoyed the support of as high a proportion as 18.6 per cent. Dissenters - a term equivalent to 'Nonconformists' - had mushroomed over the previous seventy or eighty years. Between 1773

and 1851 the number of Nonconformist congregations hadmultiplied tenfold, far exceeding the increase in population.1 Expansion relative to population, at least as measured by membership, continued after 1851 among the Free Churches for another quarter-century.2 There were parallel surges of church

Italy. France, Holland, Germany and Great Britain provided a rather different picture, with subtly different variations: in Great Britain the established churches of England and Scotland were increasingly challenged by varieties of Protestant Nonconformity, particularly in the period up to 1875; in Holland

and Germany there was a balance between Reformed or Lutheran churches and the Roman Catholic Church, which varied from state to state; whereas in France the dominant position of the Roman Catholic Church increasingly had to contend with anticlericalism, which tended to prevail in government

brought about an increase in the number of Protestants from 11.6 per cent in 1850 to 25.6 per cent in 1888 and 30.9 per cent in 1900. Between 1850 and 1888 the Catholic population in the Protestant cantons of Zurich, Berne, Glarus, 2 See Kaspar von Greyerz, Religion und Kultur: Europa 1 500-1800 (G¨ottingen: Vandenhoeck

and Ruprecht, 2000). 3 See Florence Guggenheim-Gr¨unberg, 'VomScheiterhaufen zur Emanzipation. Die Juden in der Schweiz vom 6. bis 19. Jahrhundert', in Willy Guggenheim, Juden in der Schweiz. Glaube - Geschichte - Gegenwart (K¨usnacht and Zurich: K¨urz, 2nd edn, 1983), pp. 10-53;

India (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2003), he is writing the Oxford history of Christianity in India. Sheridan Gilley is an Emeritus Reader in Theology of the University of Durham. He is the author of Newman and his age (republished London: Darton, Longman, and Todd, 2003)

and of numerous articles on modern religious history. He is co-editor, with Roger Swift, of three volumes on the Irish in Britain: The Irish in the Victorian city (London: Croom Helm, 1985), The Irish in Britain, 181 5 -1939 (London: Pinter, 1989) and The Irish in Victorian Britain: the local dimension (Dublin: Four Courts Press, 1999); and, with W. J. Sheils, of A history of

membership still lying in the future. On the other hand, the innovative phase lay in the past and the adoption of the New Code of Canon Law (1917) meant much less opportunity for variation and even for the expression of individual charism than previously. Therewas a more settled expectation at both popular

and official levels, and within the congregations themselves, about who and what a religious sister should be, and more centralised control by the church. The uneducated founders, and those founders and founding members with more complex personal histories including marriage, children and conversion,

pill to swallow. It conceded the principles both that the legitimacy of religious establishments was derived from popular acceptance rather than a conviction of the truth of their teachings, and that religious diversity in the constituent parts of the United Kingdom should be recognised by varying constitutional

and organisational arrangements. It therefore stirred considerable controversy and strong opposition from the Tories in Parliament. The government eventually had to drop the appropriation clause in order to get it through the House of Lord, but its other provisions became law.25

has specialized in the study of Norwegian and Scandinavian church history and has written several publications dealing with nation-building and religion, and religious awakenings and the modernisation of society: Nationality, identity and morality (KULTs skriftserie, 1995), 'Church and nation in the 19th century - the case ofNorway', in Ingmar Brohed (ed.), Church

and people in Britain and Scandinavia (Lund: Lund University Press, 1996), Grundtvigianism and xv Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 List of contributors

In the face of mounting evidence that the conviction was unsafe (enough to convince Leo XIII, for one, that revision was essential) many republicans, spearheaded by Radicals like Georges Clemenceau, came to see in Dreyfus a symbol of the need to vindicate a secular and republican conception of justice

and the nation against a raison d'´etat that ultimately derived from the Old Regime. Rumours of a clerical-militarist plot were absurd, but there was no denying that most Catholic spokesmen defended the army and its honour against what they saw as the political machinations of the left. At the turn of

France increasingly looked to Rome for inspiration and salvation from an anti- Christian state.Again, partof the reaction lay inapowerful revivalof traditional devotions partly sustained by newapparitions of the BlessedVirgin to children and female visionaries, as the church reaffirmed the power of the miraculous

and the supernatural to men who did not believe. This devotional movement was farmore than the response of authority to political challenge, as spirituality has its own energies and reflected more immediate and domestic concerns as well as feminisation, but Pope Pius IX himself saw an intimate connection

minister of Praed Street, laterWestbourne Park Baptist church, London (1859- 1915), was the first president of the predominantly Nonconformist Christian Socialist League (later Brotherhood), founded in 1894; as early as 1872 he had spoken of the need to go beyond poor relief, to improve wages and education,

and to moralise the relations between masters and men in commerce and industry. The emergence of an explicit German Christian socialist movement took place at about the same time, but with a more decisively conservative tone.

of Irish-born and Leipzig-educated Charles Villiers Stanford. Full of Brahms and Schumann, and a fervent believer in the merits of instrumental composition, Stanford brought a symphonic and cyclic dimension to his Morning, Communion and Evening Service in B flat Op. 10 in which choir and organ

are fully integrated. The avoidance of cadence, the integral role of key, the sense of continuing variation, and the seminal role of the organ are all features that set it apart from the more episodic settings ofWesley and Stainer. Indeed, the most striking attribute of Stanford's new style is the emphasis placed on

unions and expanding the range of Catholic charity. When the anti-socialist measures expired in 1890, Catholics decided to meet the socialist challenge head on by founding their own mass-based social and cultural organisation: the Volksverein. Catholics and Protestants, however, closed ranks when socialists

attacked the state's Christian foundations, rebuffing socialist efforts to end obligatory religious education and public support for the churches. Catholics and Protestants also shared anti-Semitic sympathies. But in contrast toAustria, where anti-Semitismwas an integral part of Christian socialism's raison d'ˆetre, it

In 1872 P. J. H. Cuijpers was appointed architect to the German cathedral of Mainz. Here he rebuilt the eastern tower, replacing an earlier cast-iron Gothic-styledomewith a neo-Romanesque octagon and spire.The restoration of Mainz was part of a sequence of German restorations in which Catholics

attempted to outbuild and outclass Protestants. The greatest architectural challenge of the period, the completion of the medieval Catholic cathedral at Cologne (1842-80), was rivalled by the construction of the massive western spire of the Protestant minster at Ulm (1843-90), both projects being based

Indeed, since coming to power, he had tried to reduce the Protestant church's influence over Prussian politics, and thus had no intention now of permitting Catholicism to establish itself as a political force. Bismarck's plan to disarm political Catholicism delighted liberal politicians,who provided the parliamentary

backing for the crusade. Yet, the phrase the left-liberal Rudolf Virchow coined for this struggle, the Kulturkampf, suggests that the liberals wanted to do more than prevent Catholicism from becoming a political force. They wanted victory over Catholicism itself, the long-delayed conclusion of the

into overseas missions. A final reflection concerns anticlericalism. In many ways this was concentrated in predominantly Roman Catholic countries. It was initially inspired by revolutionary ideas, and it became a staple of secularising political programmes,

based on the assumption that the church in general and the clergy in particular were opposed to enlightened thinking. In predominantly Protestant countries anticlericalism does not seem to have been so strong. This may partly reflect the fact that generally in such countries the clergy had already

however, searched for the surviving remains of an Old Norwegian or Norse culture. They examined the dialects spoken in the rural regions of the country. The goal was to change the literary language from Danish into a more Norwegian style, or to construct a New Norwegian literary language on the

basis of the rural dialects, one not 'polluted' by the Danish language. In 1869 a Norwegianised hymn book was introduced, but at the same time the first leaflet with hymns in NewNorwegianwas published. Gradually the Biblewas translated into New Norwegian, and the hymns became popular, especially

In Iceland and the Faeroe Islands the union with Denmark was decisive for the development in the churches, since they were united with the Danish folk church. Before World War I a movement to separate church and state grew in Iceland and several free congregations were established. The confessional

basis was, however, Lutheran, and the liturgy the same as in other Icelandic parishes. The motivation, therefore, seems to have been purely national, and after 1944 most of them were reunited with the Church of Iceland. For the same reason it was decided in 1909 that the bishop of Iceland in future should

at Oxford, pitching the aggressive advocate of Darwinism Thomas Henry Huxley (1825-95) against Owen and his supporters. The Huxley-Owen clash, which continued during the annual British Association meetings of 1861 and 1862,must rank as one of the fiercest, most bitter and most publicly sensational

battles between scientific rivals of the nineteenth century. It was known as the hippocampus controversy, as Owen had identified several anatomical features of the human brain and in particular the hippocampus minor - an elevation at the rear of the brain's lateral ventricles - as 'peculiar' to the human brain,

the state churches was a characteristic of the period. What most, but not all, the growing Free Churches shared was the characteristic dedication of the evangelicalmovementto spreading the gospel.Therewere external advantages for the churches in the circumstances of the times, but their advance can

be attributed most to their own capacity for appealing to men as well as women, for providing education, for evangelism and for philanthropy. There was a great deal in common between these bodies in England and Wales, in Scotland, Ireland and the British settler colonies and in the United States. Even

Dictionary of Biography at the Australian National University. He is also Adjunct Professor, Australian Catholic University. He is the author of The Roman mould of the Australian Catholic Church (Carlton, Victoria: Melbourne University Press, 1969), The emergence of political Catholicism in Italy, Partito Popolare, 1919-1926 (London: Croom Helm, 1980), The Penguin

bicentennial history of Australia (Ringwood, Victoria: Viking, 1987), The worker question: a new historical perspective on Rerum Novarum (Dublin: Gill and Macmillan, 1991) and Luther's pine (Pandanus Books, 2004). Heleen Murre-van den Berg is Associate Professor for the History ofWorld Christianity

outcry over Pius IX's treatment during the 1848 Revolution had the further consequence of transforming the pope into an icon of lay adoration. Hence, by 1850 Ultramontanism had become as much a popular as a clerical force in Catholic Germany, with the significant exception ofAustria.There it remained

blocked by Josephinism. Closely associated with the Ultramontane movement was a revitalisation of Catholic religious practices and sensibilities.4 Priests revived devotions to the Virgin Mary and the Immaculate Conception, and established newones to

the national and constitutional goals of the reformist party. Pius believed that the creation of a tariff league to co-ordinate economic activity in the peninsula would address its economic problems while quelling the growing national sentiment in Italy. To satisfy those who called for some form of representative

body, he announced the intention of forming an advisory council. Gizzi accepted both proposals with the understanding that the tariff league would not assume a political dimension, while the consultative chamber would not become a legislative chamber. Assured by the pope, in April 1847, Gizzi published

sizes and textures. His larger Amsterdam church, the Maria Magdalenakerk in the Zaanstraat of 1887, has a brick-vaulted chancel with a wooden vault over its taller nave. Cuijpers's son, Joseph (1861-1949), was responsible for the remarkably eclectic Catholic cathedral of St Bavo in Haarlem (1895-1930), a

building which mixes elements of the Gothic, Romanesque and Moorish with an entertaining dash of art nouveau. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 andrew sanders

marriage. A good deal of 'canonical' nineteenth-century poetry is more explicitly religious than the mainstream fiction of the period. To strictly orthodox minds the poetry of William Blake (1757-1827) might seem radically individualistic,

but the profound spirituality of Blake's work (neglected in its own time) has found many committedly devout admirers since. The eclectic Blake delighted in and redeployed elements of biblical prophecy, the moralising verse of Isaac Watts, the mysticism of Swedenborg and the epic visions of Dante and Milton.

the immortality of the soul are dismissed. Nietzsche's attack on truth as the correspondence of intellect and object, degrees of reality and the moral significance of reality was part of his account of the genealogy of western thought with its roots in Plato and culminating in

17 Brandes, Friedrich Nietzsche. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 douglas hedley Hegel. This is part of a long debate about Hegel's metaphysics. Nietszche's

of Magenta on 4 June 1859, the Austrian garrisons were withdrawn from Pavia, Piacenza, Ancona and Ferrara, encouraging revolutionaries in Bologna to move against the legate, who fled to Ferrara. The provisional government which ensued called for Piedmontese protection, and Victor Emmanuel dispatched

2,000 troops, appointing Massimo D'Azeglio his representative in the Romagna. Pius decried the conspiracy in his dominions, excommunicating all those involved in the rebellion. There was a call for the papal government to mediate the Franco-Austrian dispute and restore peace, but Pius

whose Bibel und Natur in turn came out in an English edition. Yet it would be wrong to assume that the debates were part of an international, unitary 40 Nelson, '"Men before Adam!"', pp. 161-81. 41 C. Darwin, The origin of species (London: John Murray, 1859), p. 488.

42 H. Spencer, The principles of ethics, 2 vols. (London:Williams and Norgate, 1892-3). 43 M. Paine, Physiology of the soul and instinct, as distinguished from materialism (New York: Harper and Bros., 1872). Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

England and Nonconformitywere strong. Similar patterns have been observed in other countries, in both northern and southern Europe. The contrast between the piety of peasant smallholders in northern Spain and landless 43 On Grundtvig and Danish revivalism, see pp. 345-7 below.

44 Lausten, A church history of Denmark, pp. 200-57, 315-16. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 david m. thompson labourers in the latifundia areas of southern Spain is perhaps the most obvious

in 1823. The 1823 conclave was dominated by the zelanti cardinals who disparaged the political realism of Consalvi and Pius VII.Austria's Metternich,onthe other hand, invoked a moderate successor. When the election of the intransigent

Cardinal Gabriele Severoli appeared certain, Metternich authorised Cardinal Giuseppe Albani, representing Austrian interests in the conclave, to exercise its veto. The frustrated cardinals lined up behind another zelanti, securing the election of Cardinal Annibale della Genga, who assumed the name Leo XII.4

by comparison with the previous century, especially in industrial and urban areas, it remained a significant part of the weekly routine, particularly for women. The various religious festivals,whichwere usually the main holidays, also remained significant. Devotion to particular saints and shrines remained

important locally, though perhaps the most significant development here was the increasing dominance of devotion to the Blessed Virgin, particularly as reflected in the dogma of the Immaculate Conception, proclaimed by Pius IX in 1854.

his death in 1847, he had, despite his non-sectarian attitude to Irish Protestants of like political views, so fused together the loyalties to the Catholic faith and the Irish Fatherland that they would endure for another 150 years, giving most ordinary Irish Catholics at home and abroad an unshakeable sense of the

interchangeability of Catholicity and Irishness. This union of church and nation was cemented by the failure of attempts by the British government to achieve with Rome a veto over the appointment of Catholic bishops or to endow the Catholic clergy. The only official state

voice. The majority of the bishops rejected the revolution and remained loyal to Spain. They owed their appointments to the crown, they had sworn allegiance to the king, and theywere under immediate pressure to conformand deliver to

the king a docile people. Bishops were urged 'to cooperate by their example and their doctrine in preserving the rights of legitimate sovereignty which belongs to the king our lord'. During these years bishops helped to finance, arm and activate anti-insurgency forces, and they launched weapons as well

Inghamites and Scotch Baptists were groups inherited from the eighteenth century; the Churches of Christ, the Free Church of England and even a body calling itself the Peculiar Peoplewere the fruit of the nineteenth. The Catholic Apostolic Church, as elaborately liturgical as Anglican ritualists, repudiated

the label 'Protestant' butwas nevertheless part of the sectarianworld. Perhaps most intriguing of all, and illustrative of the scope for local initiative in religion, was the Society of Dependants, a group that sprang up in the 1850s on the borders of Sussex and Surrey in the south of England under the preaching of

the cambridge history of christianity WORLD CHRISTIANITIES c .1815-c.1914 This is the first scholarly treatment of nineteenth-century Christianity

to discuss the subject in a global context. Part i analyses the responses of Catholic and Protestant Christianity to the intellectual and social challenges presented by European modernity. It gives attention to the explosion of new voluntary forms of Christianity

Gibbons in Baltimore, Moran in Sydney - gave guidance to the infant labour movement, and tried to keep it from running to a secularist, socialist or Marxist extreme. Leo provided this popular political movement, the largest in the western

world, with its philosophy. As a fine Latinist and diplomat, he was the quintessence of the universal Latin mind, of its urbane familiarity with literatures, cultures and languages, and its consciousness of standing not in some merely Italian tradition but in the great name of Rome. His social

with their sheep and cattle crossed the Red Sea and journeyed through the wilderness.20 It raised an outcry not only because of its lack of respect for the biblical text but because the author was the Anglican bishop of Natal. Such was the hostility that it provoked that a project called the Speaker's commentary

(named after J. E. Denison, Viscount Ossington, Speaker of the House of Commons from 1857 to 1872) was organised to rebut the results of the biblical researches that Colenso published with increasing competence during the 1860s. Colenso was, in fact, in conflict with the ecclesiastical establishment

Separation in France of 1905, and also involved the suppression of the religious orders again.14 Italy too in the late eighteenth centurywaswell provided with clergy - in the Kingdom of Naples there was probably one priest for every hundred people,

10 Lannon, Privilege, persecution, and prophecy, pp. 59, 61, 89. 11 Callahan, Church, politics and society, p. 245. 12 Lannon, Privilege, persecution, and prophecy, p. 149. 13 Ibid., pp. 122-3, 133-6.

for they lived with them daily: liberalism, secularism, freedom of thought, and toleration. The encyclical focused the attention of Latin American Catholics obsessively on liberalism, rationalism and laicismo (exclusion of religion from 10 Londo˜no-Vega, Religion, culture, and society in Colombia, p. 163.

11 Jeffrey Klaiber, 'La reorganizaci´on de la Iglesia', in HGIAL, vol. viii (1987), p. 301. 12 See chapters 2 and 15 above. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Latin America: the church and national independence

39 Ibid., pp. 388-99. 40 Ibid., pp. 369-72. 41 On Rosenius, see p. 348 below. 42 Scott, Sweden, pp. 355-61, 573; Samuelsson, From great power to welfare state, pp. 168-70,

182-4. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Popular religion and irreligion in countryside and town church into a people's church, though the promised constitution for the church

pp. 463, 486. 35 Cited in Neto, O Estado, a Igreja, p. 481. 36 Andr´es Gallego, Pensamiento y acci´on social de la Iglesia en Espa˜na, pp. 203-6; Neto, OEstado, a Igreja, pp. 444-5.

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Spain and Portugal: the challenge to the church organised by several bishops after 1900 to defend the church at local level. The success of the multitude of associational initiatives launched by clergy

the United Presbyterian Church. In 1881 the Church of Scotland had 528,475 60 Brown, 'In pursuit of aWelsh episcopate', pp. 84-92, 97-8. 61 Davies, Religion in the industrial revolution of SouthWales, pp. 139-40. 62 Cragoe, An Anglican aristocracy, p. 246.

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 john wolffe members, the Free Church 312,160, and the United Presbyterian Church 174,557 communicants.63

26 Scott, Sweden, pp. 338-51. 27 Hope, German and Scandinavian Protestantism, p. 376. 28 Ibid., pp. 508-12. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

Popular religion and irreligion in countryside and town founded, for example the Sisters of the Good Shepherd (1835).29 New men's orders were founded as well, for example the Salesians by John Bosco in 1859. Moreover, although attendance at mass probably declined in percentage terms

system with the viewof unlocking vast means and resources for the benefit of the nation': Portugal illustrated (London: Treuttel andWurtz, 1829), p. 196. 8 Almeida, Hist´oria da Igreja, vol. iii, p. 38, cited in Oliveira, Hist´oria eclesi´astica de Portugal, p. 259.

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Spain and Portugal: the challenge to the church out between 1837 and 1850, when 203 of the country's approximately 4,000 parishes were closed, fell short of what liberal ecclesiastical reformers had in

Ireland. This, however,was intelligent conservatism, not liberalism. Leowas bold in giving John HenryNewmana cardinal's hat in 1879, at the behest of Newman's 2 Ibid., p. 325.

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 The papacy tutor, the duke of Norfolk. He was cautious in his encyclical Providentissimus Deus of 1893, which welcomed biblical scholarship but placed severe limits

63 Currie, Gilbert and Horsley, Churches and churchgoers, p. 132. 64 Hanham, 'Mid-century Scottish nationalism', pp. 150-6. 65 Brown, 'The myth of the established church', pp. 60-70. 66 Ibid., pp. 70-3.

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 The religious identities of the United Kingdom England The Victorian Church of England was internally diverse and at times bitterly

36 T. Chalmers, 'Lectures on the establishment and extension of national churches', in W. Hanna (ed.), Select works of Thomas Chalmers (Edinburgh, 1857), vol. xi, p. 121. 37 Ibid., vol. xi, pp. 136-55. 38 Ibid., quoted in Brown, The national churches, p. 226.

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 The religious identities of the United Kingdom the terms on which the Church of Scotland was currently founded were fundamentally flawed and that secession was their only viable option. When the

his thought drifted into an increasingly deistic mode. What was left was a rather truncated and artificial surrogate Christianity close to the proposal of Comte. 18 Reardon, Religion in the age of Romanticism, p. 234.

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Theology and the revolt against the Enlightenment Developing the work of Comte, Emile Durkheim developed sociology as an autonomous discipline. Like Comte, Durkheim perceived an intimate

revivalism, and so set itself at cross-purposes with popular evangelicalism. Further removed from convention were followers of William Miller (1782-1849), who predicted the Second Coming of Christ for around 1843. After the 'Great Disappointment', Miller's ex-disciples went on to establish the Seventh-day

Adventist and Advent Christian churches. Joseph Smith (1805-44), founder of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, proclaimed a new revelation in The Book of Mormon that represented even further protest against the norm. But the most important exception to a Protestant evangelical construction of

14 T. Arnold, 'Two sermons on the interpretation of prophecy', in Sermons by Thomas Arnold,D.D., 4th edn (London, 1844), vol. i, pp. 365-449; Rogerson, Old Testament criticism, pp. 188-91. 15 See Rogerson, Old Testament criticism, pp. 91-103.

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 john rogerson provided comfort to traditionalists that such a great critical scholar as Ewald could produce a reconstruction that seemed to vindicate the Old Testament in

Promotion of Knowledge in Catholic Germany to the twin pillars of Catholic social action in the Wilhelmine period - the Volksverein f¨ur das Katholische Deutschland (the Popular Association for Catholic Germany) and the German Caritas Bund - explicitly defined themselves in national terms.

After 1900 Munich-based intellectuals and younger clergy sought to lower the ghettowalls. But until 1914 the most effective agent of Catholic integration was the Centre Party, the very organisation Bismarck meant to cripple. The Centre not only defended Catholic interests in the state and federal legislatures,

proponent was Jacob Boehme (1575-1624), and in England it was typically represented by Quakerism. Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (1729-81) was deeply influenced by this tradition, and this explainswhy he could hold that the (inner) truth of Christianity remained unaffected by the results of biblical criticism.

Again, like Socinianism, the challenge of Spiritualism was deeply felt because it had Christian sources. Nor was it confined to Protestantism: the Catholic mystical tradition shaped the thought of Joseph de Maistre in France, and the German Catholic Romantic strand of Franz von Baader and the later

Victorian religion-science controversies of the English-speaking world. It was less a question of a fight between Christian belief and scientific theory than of professional rivalries between theologians and scientists.51 Among the latter were Christians as well as non-Christians. The devoutly religious and churchgoing

Anglican Owen, for example, the most formidable figure of British 49 Livingstone, Darwin's forgotten defenders. 50 Numbers, Darwinism comes to America; Roberts, Darwinism and the divine in America. 51 Turner, 'The Victorian conflict between science and religion', and Contesting cultural

and maintained down to the end of the conflict - and of the Kaiserreich - in 1918. 6 Verhandlungen des Reichstags, no. 1, 4 August 1914, pp. 1-2. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

Anglicanism, Presbyterianism and the religious identities of the United Kingdom john wolffe

in line with historic Catholic practice. To meet themultiple challenges of American life, a Catholic formof voluntary activity also emerged as, following European examples, Americans began to establish their own religious orders. The former Episcopalian Elizabeth

Ann Seton (1776-1821) was the most notable of early pioneers, founding a new 5 Carey (ed.), American Catholic religious thought, p. 81. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 'Christian America' and 'Christian Canada'

10 See Rogerson, Old Testament criticism, pp. 50-68. 11 Ibid., pp. 79-90; K¨ummel, The New Testament, pp. 120-6. 12 B. G. Niebuhr, R¨omische Geschichte, 2 vols. (Berlin, 1811-12). 13 H. Ewald, Geschichte des Volkes Israel (G¨ottingen, 1843-59).

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 History and the Bible exhibited divine providence, and constantly confronted the people with moral choices. It was the prophetic traditions that exhibited the moral challenges

44 ASV, Archivio Particolare Pio IX, Sovrani, Sardegna, n. 53; Gabriele (ed.), Il carteggio Antonelli-Sacconi, vol. i, pp. 136-8. 45 ASV, Archivio Particolare Pio IX, Sovrani, Austria, n. 35; 'Allocuzione di N.S. Papa Pio IX', 18 Mar. 1861, Civilt`a Cattolica, ser. iv, 10 (1861), 17.

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Italy: the church and the Risorgimento 1861, the Angel of Death bypassed the aged and ailing pontiff, who would live to 1878, removing Cavour, who had just become Italy's first prime minister.

12 Serafini, Pio Nono, vol. i, pp. 1397-1406. 13 Atti del sommo pontefice Pio IX, felicemente regnante. Parte seconda che comprende I Motuproprii, chirografi editti, notificazioni, ec. per lo stato pontificio, 2 vols. (Rome: Tipografia delle Belle Arti, 1857), vol. i, pp. 8-10, 15.

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Italy: the church and the Risorgimento the Jews of Rome and even proposed the creation of a Council of State.14 News of his reforms was facilitated by a revised press law which tolerated the

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 The religious identities of the United Kingdom town into a major industrial city, in which Catholics, although still a minority, numbered over 40,000 in 1861, 33.9 per cent of the total population.52

In 1886 Gladstone, again prime minister, brought forward in parliament proposals for Home Rule for Ireland. Fierce and prolonged opposition to this step both consolidated the gathering together of Protestant forces in Ulster, and reinforced their consciousness of themselves as an embattled religious

provided the usual mutual funds, benefit clubs, savings banks, etc. Initially they were essentially non-political, but from 1888 they spread to the whole of the Reich; by 1896 there were 350 unions with 80,000 members. The emphasis shifted to opposition to SocialDemocrat unions, and anti-Catholicism receded.

In 1890 a new body, the Evangelical Social Congress, was initiated to meet annually as an attempt to draw all strands of the Christian social movement together. Nevertheless, there remained a difference between the older and the younger leaders, especially Friedrich Naumann, a pastor in Langenberg,

situation varied according to the different cantonal constitutions. Whereas in some cantonal constitutions of the Regeneration Era of the 1830s, freedom of belief and conscience was guaranteed to the Christian confessions, a number of cantons recognised only one church.6

In the 1830s, the Liberals and Radicals were eager to subjugate the Catholic Church to secular state power. The abolition of the monasteries in the canton of Argovia by the anticlerical Radicals and the appointment of Jesuits to institutions of higher education by Catholic ultras in Lucerne brought about

be inaugurated in Iceland. But since therewas only one bishop in these islands, a special solutionwas introduced to secure autonomy. Therewere always two ministers who were invested as bishops, so that they could act as inaugurating bishops.

In the Faeroe Islands, the vernacular language became the main issue of the national movement, since it was about to be extinguished. One of Grundtvig's sons and even Grundtvig himself took an interest, and in 1888 a claim for using the mother tongue in church was raised. But the struggle for

'Benediction of the Blessed Sacrament', The Month 97 (1901), 587-97 and 98 (1901), 58-69, 186-93, 264-76; Heimann, Catholic devotion in Victorian England, pp. 45-58. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Catholic revivalism in worship and devotion

Irish peasants from placing rosaries on the corpses of young girls believed to have lived a life of special piety,21 any more than it could stop villagers inWest Africa from hanging them, like so many charms to ward off evil, on the walls of their homes.22

He has edited a number of Victorian novels and is the author of The short Oxford history of English literature (3rd edn, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004). He has maintained an active scholarly interest in art and architecture and served as a member of the committee of the Victorian Society for many years.

Jon Sensbach is Professor of History at the University of Florida. He is the author of Rebecca's revival: creating black Christianity in the Atlantic world (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005) and A separate Canaan: the making of an Afro-Moravian world in North Carolina, 1763-1840 (Chapel Hill and London: University of North Carolina Press, 1998).

wide range of topics including historiography, opera and church music in Britain and is currently working on a study of the life and music of John Stainer and a volume of Parry's piano trios for Musica Britannica. His future plans are to write a study of the music of Frederick Delius.

Jos ´e Mario C. Francisco has been Director of the East Asian Pastoral Institute since 1996 and will hold the Gasson Chair at Boston College for 2005-6. After graduate studies x Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

Church went unspent. Finally, between 1872 and 1878, numerous Catholic newspapers were confiscated, Catholic associations and assemblies were dissolved, and Catholic civil servants were dismissed merely on the pretence of having Ultramontane sympathies.

Nevertheless, the Kulturkampf ultimately failed. Why? In part, state officials and liberal politicians underestimated the degree to which Ultramontanism had integrated the clergy into Catholic society. Thus, when the state moved against the priests, the laity -andespeciallylaywomen- took it personally.They

exposed the essential flaws in religion. Against this background sociologists developed a cluster of theories of secularisation to describe or explain the changes in the modern period; the extent to which they have explanatory force has remained controversial.

Nevertheless,whilst the significance of population growth and urbanisation cannot be denied, the extent towhich the changes at the end of the eighteenth century were underlying causes rather than presenting causes remains open for discussion. The French Revolution, for example, made it possible for the

The venerable fourth-century Basilica of St Paul was almost entirely destroyed by fire in July 1823. The news of the disaster was kept from the dying Pope Pius VII, who had begun his religious life as a monk in the adjoining monastery, and it was left to his successors, Leo XII, Pius VIII and Gregory

XVI, to raise funds for the reconstruction of the church under the Roman architects Pasquale Belli, Pietro Bosio and Giuseppe Camporese. The campaign to rebuild the basilica in a fittingly impressive style was international. Mohammed Ali, the viceroy of Egypt, sent columns of oriental alabaster and

join the evangelical phalanx. Sectarians like Mennonites, Moravians and the Church of the Brethren tried hard to maintain their peace testimony in distinction from 'Yankee' religion. Quakers divided in this period between more evangelical 'Gurneyites' (after the Englishman J. J. Gurney) and more rationalistic

'Hicksites' (after the Long Island farmer Elias Hicks), but all debated how far they should go in aligning themselves with the era's dominant Protestants. Fromearly inthe nineteenth century, a high church Episcopalmovementled by John Henry Hobart (1775-1830) of New York defended tradition and criticised

their leaders. From 1857 to his death in 1885, he presided over the first nationwide Catholic association, the Piusverein. In Fribourg the young priest Joseph 16 Altermatt, 'Ambivalence of Catholic modernisation'; Altermatt, Katholizismus und Antisemitismus, pp. 59-96. For this trend elsewhere in Catholic Europe see chapter 5 above.

17 See Arx, 'Christkatholische Kirche'; Conzemius, Katholizismus ohne Rom. 18 See Altermatt and Metzger, 'Milieu, Teilmilieus und Netzwerke'; Altermatt, Der Weg der Schweizer Katholiken ins Ghetto; Altermatt (ed.), 'Den Riesenkampf mit dieser Zeit zu wagen . . .'.

Revelation. The popes hoped that anyone of good will, with no knowledge or acceptance of Revelation, would none the less heed, and weigh solemnly, 1 For the English text of the encyclicals see Carlen's two volumes, The papal encyclicals 1740-1878 and The papal encyclicals 1878-1903. From Benedict XIV in 1740 to Pius VII in

1800, the popes issued twenty-six encyclicals. During the nineteenth century, 125 were issued. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Christian social thought

Mission and catechesis: Alexandre de Rhodes and inculturation in seventeenth-century Vietnam (1998) and his trilogy on Asian theology: Christianity with an Asian face, In our own tongues and Being religious interreligiously, all published by Orbis Books (Maryknoll, NY). Stuart Piggin is Director of the Centre for the History of Christian Thought and Experience

(incorporating the Centre for the Study of Australian Christianity) at Macquarie University in Sydney, Australia. He has written over a hundred articles on the history of evangelicalism, missions and disasters. His books include Making evangelical missionaries: the social background, motivation, and training of British Protestant missionaries (n.p.: Sutton

and Berne, Glarus and Basel Protestant majorities, all of between 80 and 90 per cent.4 In the mixed cantons of St Gall, Grisons, Argovia and Geneva the Protestant and Catholic populations varied between 38 and 62 per cent either way.

Between 1850 and 1900, the percentage of Protestants and Catholics in the whole of Switzerland remained very stable, with a Catholic population of 40.6 to 41.9 per cent. Census returns indicate that there were 971,809 Catholics and 1,417,786 Protestants in 1850 and 1,379,664 Catholics and 1,916,157 Protestants

the human species considered as a whole: divine and infinite. Bruno Bauer (1809-82) saw this in his Posaune des j¨ungsten Gerichts wider Hegel, den Atheisten und Antichristen (Proclaiming the last judgement against Hegel, atheists and the opponents of Christians, 1841) as the veiled intention of Hegel himself.

But Feuerbach saw Hegel's Logik as a genuine theology that fell into the same trap as all other forms - the false objectification of an essentially immanent consciousness. Furthermore, Hegel (for Feuerbach) was hamstrung by Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

27 Callahan, The Catholic Church in Spain, p. 245. 28 See, for example, Franc¸a, Comportamento religioso da populac¸˜ao portuguesa. 29 Cited in Benet and Mart´ı, Barcelona a mitjans segle XIX, vol. i, pp. 203-4. 30 Rodrigues, 'Le Portugal', p. 413.

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Spain and Portugal: the challenge to the church Jesuits of 1860 increased to 359 by 1910, while the number of religious orders operating in the country, insignificant in 1860, reached thirty-four by this

from the fourteenth century, but had kept a Polish dialect; conflicts concerning the language reawakened the people's national consciousness. There were similar phenomena in the other eastern Prussian provinces. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

Catholic nationalism in Hungary and Poland In the two Russian zones, the 'Kingdom of the Congress' (Vienna 1815 or Kongresowka in Polish) and the 'western goubernias' of the empire, the situation was very different. The anti-Polish strategy of the 1830s and 1840s

Constantine to c.600 edited by winrich l ¨ohr, fred norris and augustine casiday Early Medieval Christianity c.600-c.1100 edited by thomas noble and julia smith

Christianity inWestern Europe c.1100-c.1 500 edited by miri rubin and walter simon Eastern Christianity edited by michael angold

those in a series of booklets, The Fundamentals: a testimony to the truth (1910-15), which mixed sophisticated argument and testimonial exhortation to defend the reality of the Bible as the inspiredWord of God, the Virgin Birth of Christ, his substitutionary death on the cross and the promise of his literal Second

Coming. The prominence of apocalyptic belief among fundamentalists owed much to a new theology of premillennial dispensationalism that had risen to popularity at prophecy conferences from the late 1880s. The dispensational emphasis on a mostly literal interpretation of Scripture focused on biblical

The post-colonial church The collapse of the Bourbon state and the onset of colonial rebellion in Spanish Americawere observed by the church not simply as secular events but as a conflict of ideologies and a struggle for power that vitally affected its own interests.

Controlled as it was by the colonial state, the Bourbon church reacted to the trials of the state. And in the war of ideas the church saw allegiance to Spain, obedience to monarchy and repudiation of revolution as moral imperatives and their denial as a sin. Yet the church in America did not speak with a single

Index 65 6 viii Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Contributors

Gabriel Adri ´anyi is Emeritus Professor of Church History (including East European Church History) in the Catholic Theological Faculty, University of Bonn, and is Professor of Church History at the Lorand-E¨otv¨os-University at Budapest. He has written and edited a number of books on modern church history, including Geschichte der katholischen Kirche

defeat, chaos and, in 1919, a communist dictatorship. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 B: Poland jerzy kl oczowski

General introduction The history of Polish Catholicism and of the Catholic Church in Poland in the years 1815-1914 is inseparably linked with the history of the Poles and the Polish nation. It is a deeply dramatic history, because Poland, divided

identity. The nation's history, the mother tongue, the ancient Nordic myths and knowledge of the country became the main subjects. In this way these schools became a nursery of nationalism, and the ideawas also spread to other nations.

In Sweden it took some time to establish a public school system, and to replace the religious education given in the household on the basis of the catechism, examined by the local vicar. The first school law legislation was introduced in 1842, but in the second half of the nineteenth century liberals,

upper-class and upper-middle-class women whose class reinforced the independence of their communities and, whilst their relationship with the Church of England was ambivalent and often unhappy, the Anglican movement was not consequently hampered in its development.30

In addition to this innovation in governance, the development of religious life in the nineteenth century saw the emergence of several trends that proved to be long-lasting. First, as we have seen, the active rather than the contemplative life became the norm for female religious. It was soon reflected in

accounts of creation in Genesis 1:1-2.4a and in 2:4b-25, the taking into the ark of two pairs of animals at Genesis 6:19-21 as opposed to taking seven pairs of clean animals in 7:2, and the problem that Egyptian cattle were mentioned as existing in Exodus 9:20 whereas they had all been destroyed at Exodus 9:6.

In all these cases Horne found ways of defending the unity and accuracy of the text, but by resorting to explanations such as that chapters or sections had become accidentally deranged, he was using critical methods to solve problems of historical criticism.

the most intellectually advanced and innovative college in Oxford. He shared with Coleridge an interest in the spiritual aspect of religion, the heart and the imagination, rather than just rites and ordinances. Sanctification, seen as the necessary expression of justification, was the principle which informed

Newman's theology and he shared this with the Broad Church movement of which Coleridge was the spiritus rector. Though completely independent in 6 Berlin, 'Joseph de Maistre'. 7 J. de Maistre, 'Consid´erations', in CEuvres compl`etes (Lyons, 1884-6), vol. i, p. 50.

compared to 5,000 Latin parishes. It was energetically attacked before 1795, then again, after a pause due to liberal Tsars, after 1825. The last Uniate network was suppressed around 1875. The statistics are revealing: before 1772 in the Ukrainian-Belorussian area of the federation there were a few hundred

Orthodox parishes in a diocese numbering 250,000 faithful. By the early twentieth century, on the same territory, therewere nine Orthodox bishoprics, more than 6,000 parishes, and more than 10 million faithful. This touches on the problem of central importance for the national history of the Belorussians

He died in August 1914, just after the outbreak of the First World War. His body was incorrupt when exhumed in 1944. Pius XII beatified him in 1951, and canonised him in 1954, the first working-class pope and papal saint in modern history.

Pius was typical of his successors in his geographical origin. In the Veneto religious practicewas high: in John Pollard'swords, 'the strength of the Italian Catholic movement lay in the North: in Venetia, north-eastern Lombardy, and southern Piedmont, in that order. More specifically, it was concentrated

Pio IX, Oggetti Vari, n. 1433. 42 Gabriele (ed.), Il carteggio Antonelli-Sacconi, vol. i, p. 5; Massari, Diario, pp. 84, 93. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 frank coppa

Pius, regretting the prospect ofwar, invoked prayer to avoid the catastrophe. His prayers were not answered, and on 29 April 1859 the Austrians declared war. Napoleon,who cast his lot with Piedmont, promised to protect the pope. The pledge was violated under the pressure of events.43 Following the battle

against the explicitly devout fiction of a Newman, a Yonge or a Hughes Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Christianity and literature in English appears in such novels as William Hale White's The autobiography of Mark

Rutherford (1881), a tale of de-conversion, Walter Pater's Marius the Epicurean (1885), on the aesthetic alternative to Christianity, MaryWard's Robert Elsmere (1888), with its progress to agnosticism, and Thomas Hardy's Jude the obscure (1895), attacking what Hardy perceived to be the Christian hypocrisy about

Revivalism was not usually nationalistic. It was often locally based and had inter-Nordic and international links, as in the case of Swedish Rosenianism (after Rosenius), which also made an impact in Finland, Norway and Denmark. An inter-Nordic ethnic revivalism occurred among the indigenous

Saami population in northern Sweden, Norway and Finland, originating with the preaching of theSwedish minister Lars Levi Læstadius (1800-61). Its followers experienced ecstatic phenomena such as jumping, clapping and sighing, and in 1852 a small group caused an uproar in Kautokeino in Norway by

decorated Notre-Dame-de-Lorette (1823-36)was designed by Louis-Hippolyte Lebas while the impressively situated Saint-Vincent-de-Paul, approached by a series of monumental ramps, was begun in 1824 by Jean-Baptiste Lep`ere but redesigned and completed in the early Christian style in 1848 by his son-in-law

Jacques-Ignace Hitorff. Protestant northern Europe was equally notable for the quality of its statesponsored churches. The Grand Duchy of Finland had become part of the Russian empire in 1809, and its capital Helsinki was transformed by fine neoclassical

fairly well-disciplined church; town churches in the east had their full range of 'Italianate' devotions before 1850, when most church building took place.5 The movement towards a more Puritan, Victorian set of mores can be seen in the 1840s in the rhetoric of the temperance crusade of the Capuchin friar,

Fr Theobald Mathew. Yet the creation of a respectable and well-behaved body of worshippers in urban shrine chapels was essential to sustaining the new Irish church of the diaspora, in the slums of Liverpool, Boston and Sydney. The underchurched character of a good deal of the older Irish Catholicism and

ThepoperesentedFrench pressureuponhimtocometo termswithmodern civilisation in general, and the Turin regime in particular, decrying the threats to remove French troops from Rome unless it reached some accommodation. On 15 September 1864, the Minghetti government signed an accord with the

French empire to regulate the Roman question without consulting Pius IX. It provided that Napoleon would withdraw his forces from Rome within two years, while the Italian government promised not to attack the patrimony of St Peter and to prevent others from launching an attack from its territory. Pius,

with populations of more than 20,000 in 1871, with consequently low rates of churchgoing, up to a third of children unbaptised, and a significant increase in marriages outside the church.20 The difference between Catholic and Protestant was also primary in

Germany. In some states the parish church in one village might be Lutheran and in the next village Roman Catholic; and in some towns, for example Landau in the Palatinate, the parish church was shared between Protestants and Catholics until the twentieth century, when a new Catholic church was built.

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Musical trends and the western church (1872, edited by Barnby), the Congregational Church hymnal (1887, edited by E. J. Hopkins) and the Presbyterian Church hymnary (1898, edited by Stainer).9

Itwas, however, Hymns ancient&modern that had the widest audience, appealing to all branches of the church with its combination of Gregorian melodies, chorales, eighteenth-century psalm tunes and hymns specially written for the collection, though itwas the latter that caught the contemporary imagination.

the 'Apostle of Andalusia', declared in one of his rare moments of depression, 'Everything is lost. All the zeal of a saintwould be dashed to pieces', before the indifference that he encountered in the towns and villageswhere he conducted missions towards the close of the nineteenth century.33

Members of the religious orders were also prominent in the devotional resurgence that occurred from the mid-nineteenth century onward. Traditional devotions anchored in the patterns of village life continued, of course. But they were supplanted to some extent by the spread of devotions that

workforce, however, enjoyed higher wages than before and so could afford new forms of entertainment. From the 1870s the music hall attracted huge audiences and organised sport took off as a major preoccupation of the masses. So there were new activities competing with the churches for popular favour.

On the other hand non-religious reasons for making a connection with the churches declined. The basic training in reading and writing that was often provided in Sunday schools earlier in the century became superfluous as state schools became general. Professional social workers started to appear and

Pomerania. Thus Sweden-Finland and Denmark-Norwayweremulti-national states, and for geopolitical reasons they were sworn enemies, fighting a string of inter-Nordic battles. The churches in the Nordic states were organised as state churches with

a Lutheran confession. Since the sixteenth century, the government of these churches - with certain variations - had been an integral part of the government of the state. Furthermore, religious confession and church order were an important part of legislation. The church had not only a religious,

creation days represent 'moments' rather than consecutive periods: 'the six days do not signify six consecutive periods but six moments of God's creative activitywhich can be logically distinguished from one another, six divine thoughts or ideas realized in the creation'.21 The hexaemeron did not represent

a chronology of events, the creation days were neither actual days nor periods but a logical list of aspects of divine creation - the sequence was ideal, 19 Otto Z¨ockler, Geschichte der Beziehungen zwischen Theologie und Naturwissenschaft: mit besondrer R¨ucksicht auf Sch¨opfungsgeschichte, 2 vols. (G¨utersloh: C. Bertelsmann, 1877-79),

religion, but modern historiography can get along without it. In fact, the historian of nineteenth-century Christianity need not be defensive about his or her theme, which still entered into the very fabric of the social and political conflicts of the era, and just as the creation of a united Italy was on one level

a defeat of Catholicism, and the creation of the German Empire a victory for Protestantism, so the attack upon the churches, in what some have seen as the beginning of secularisation, makes a fascinating story which, at least in the immediate term, led not only to religious decline but also to renewal and

with the reality of religious co-existence. The redrawing of state boundaries also necessitated alterations in ecclesiastical organisation and the clarification of church-state relations. Such measures were intended to promote interconfessional peace, but as religious revivals renewed a sense of confessional particularity

among Catholics and Protestants, state policies increasingly touched off dissent and socio-political conflict. By mid-century, the heightened sense of confessional difference had constructed a minefield for German politicians that affected domestic politics, church-state relations and, above all, public discussions

ecclesiastical affairs he claimed that a church which wanted to be united with civil society for that reason could not allow apostasy, and could not possibly accept any kind of private religious assemblies. A similar conservative, but Hegelian, comprehensive idea of state, nation, people and religion is found

among other Swedish theologians in the middle of the nineteenth century. But they also met liberal opposition advocated by Johan H. Thomander (1798- 1865), professor and later bishop of Lund, who wanted church reforms and ecclesiastical self-government. At the turn of the twentieth century, Swedish

Anglican Oxbridge - it meant quite the opposite, being part of a latitudinarian, broad church reform movement to establish the natural sciences at England's ancient universities.45 Robert Young and others have contended that natural theology in Britain provided a 'common context' for debate and co-operation

among the social and scientific elite. Different religious denominations could come together under the umbrella of a teleological world-view in the cultivation of science.46 For this very reason, John Henry Newman (1801-90), his Tractarian followers and various other traditionalists regarded Buckland's

was capable both of entering into dialogue with different intellectual currents, even those hostile to religion, and of mounting a profound and sympathetic critique of Polish Catholicism and its weaknesses - in intellect, morality, and the quality of popular religion. Certain priests - intellectuals formed chiefly

at Louvain in Belgium and Fribourg in Switzerland - began their activity in Poland from the beginning of the century, with crucial consequences for the evolution of Catholic society.ADominican, JacekWoroniecki, and two priests, WladyslawKornilowicz and Idi Radziszewsk (the latterwas from 1918 the first

Ultramontane network that by the middle decades of the nineteenth century had dealt a mortal blow to the Gallican tradition. Lamennais's followers included both clerics and laymen. Among the former, nonewas more influential than Dom Prosper Gu´eranger, who re-established the Benedictine Order

at Solesmes in the 1830s. At La Chenaie, his specialism was the history of the liturgy and in the 1840s he spearheaded a campaign to impose the Roman liturgy on the dioceses of France that was brought to a triumphal conclusion by the decree Inter Multiplices issued by Pius IX in 1853.

incarnation, and the vehicle of the Holy Spirit. This could be seen as a refuge in an increasingly secular society. In 1837 Newman produced his Lectures on the prophetical office of the church in which he propounded his influential view of 'Anglicanism' (rechristened Anglo-Catholicism in the second edition of the

following year) as the via media between Roman Catholicism and popular Protestantism. Yet just as England had avoided the Terror and Revolution, Newman's theology was not merely reactionary. Newman was a fellow of Oriel, quite

the Revolution of 1830 these ceased to be relevant in the northern provinces. The generally liberal pattern of government in the mid-nineteenth century meant that the Ministries ofWorship for Catholics and Protestants established in 1814were abolished in 1862. The so-called 'Ethical' movement became dominant

in the Dutch Reformed Church, emphasising personal religious experience (almost in a pietistway) and in the 1870s and 1880s began to acknowledge the importance of social and political problems for the churches. Then a striking shift took place under the leadership of Abraham Kuyper (1837-1920),

by their bishops - Baltzer in Breslau, Michelis in Braunsberg and Reusch in Bonn. It is likely that an understanding of their interest in the issue of Bible and science as well as their promotion of the idealist interpretation of the creation days of Genesis 1 will be deepened by exploring these as an

integral part of internal church politics. Thus the discourse over Christianity and science was anchored in particular socio-political programmes within the institutional enclosures of different churches and church groups. The situationwas further concretised by the fact

In spite of these differences, the national celebrations of the 600th anniversary of the Swiss Eidgenossenschaft in 1891 expressed the increasing integration of the Catholic population,who participated in the foundational myth of 1291. Politically and socially, Catholic self-definition through segregation led to the

integration of Catholics into Swiss society, both through political participation and through shared or differing narratives of the nation. In spite of this integration, however, Protestantism remained more formative for Switzerland's national culture.

(1870-7) is perhaps his finest. Its soaring spire, based on the stone steeples of north-western Normandy, was only completed in 1898, whilst the high Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 andrew sanders

interior gallerieswhich rise above the aisles and pierce the buttresses adapt the medieval precedent set by Albi Cathedral in France. Both stone choir screen and chancel are covered in profuse sculptural decoration. Pearson's St Agnes, Sefton Park, Liverpool (1883-5) lacks a tower but has a memorably serene

but a fresh enthusiasm for this distinctive teaching seized many in the wake of the American Civil War. Holiness camp meetings spread across America, large numbers professed sanctification in an instant and new denominations proclaimed the possibility of a second blessing after conversion. The effect of

the holiness teaching was to foster scruples about the avoidance of worldly pastimes as well as to rekindle zeal for dedicated evangelism. Another influence encouraging the same trend was the Welsh Revival of 1904-5, a classic movement of mass conversions in hundreds of chapels. As the enigmatic

and ecclesiological circumstances. Serious study of this phenomenon did not get underway until the 1980s, when historians began to recognise its significance.26 Generally accepted as a major force within the Catholic Revival and in its movement to combat

the influences of rationalism and the French Revolution, this resurgence of the female religious life has also been described as the single most important source for the feminisation of the Roman Catholic Church in the nineteenth 25 This total has been arrived at by adding together known figures for France, Belgium,

john lynch shocks of nature, and more likely to invoke their special saints and throng their favourite shrines than were the rich. Most of the fiestas were organised by particular peasant, mining or artisan groups, who sought the protection of

a popular saint or the Virgin. In some cases blacks andmulattos had their own fiestas, Indians their special feast days. The Catholics of Colombia took their religion not only into the churches but also into the streets, and popular religiosity was expressed in civic as well

with the teachings of the New Testament, be taken as the yardstick by which all people of good willmust act in the interests of the disadvantaged. The pope and his collaboratorswere conscious of the need to lay down firmand abiding principles, so that Rerum Novarum is a moderate, prudent document revealing

a reluctance to relinquish old forms of thought or to launch out too far into uncharted waters. To that end neo-Thomistic thinking, a development that had been led in Rome by Liberatore and greatly favoured by Leo, was easily adapted. Despite its innate caution, the burden of the encyclical demanded

apostolic congregations were part of the broader nineteenth-century female movement for charitable and evangelical action that in turn helped to develop a sense of professionalism and autonomy in women, and they contributed to it several specifically Catholic features. Foremost among these, at

a spiritual level, was the way that the charism of individual women, such as Julie Billiart, Maddalena de Canossa and Katharine Drexel, was articulated in written constitutions and embodied in the life of the congregations they founded. At the practical and professional level their contributionwas awave of

religious comprised 64 per cent of the church's personnel, a pattern repeated in the very different setting of Australiawhere by 1888 therewere around 1,000 sisters but fewer than half that number of priests, brothers and male religious combined.31 Fourth, as part of its growth the religious life for women underwent

a striking degree of democratisation. The new congregations, like the soeurs de charit´e before them, increased the opportunities for women from the lower classes - peasant and working-class women - to enter religious life. In doing so they changed the traditional social profile ofwomenreligious. Indeed,

in their respective histories during the nineteenth century. See Halpern Pereira, 'Del Antiguo R´egimen al liberalismo', p. 39. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 william j. callahan

an essential part of a hierarchical society and possessor of immense riches used to sustain a numerous body of priests and religious, the imposing church of the past staggered before the liberal offensive. Moreover, the ecclesiastical changes associated with liberalism posed a religious challenge for the church.

preference that pointed to the advance of Catholic and Orthodox devotional influences.Bothkingandbishop,however, recognised that the 'Nonconformist conscience' had to be accommodated, and that religious comprehensiveness andavoidance of controversywere ends tobeservedabove personal preference.

Such ready accommodation to the reality of diversity links the English experience to the wider United Kingdom one. Davidson's pragmatism would have shocked early nineteenth-century churchmen such as Keble and Chalmers, and their more exclusive and doctrinally specific visions of national churches

not only by their directors but also by Plantade, Gossec, Martini, Zingarelli, Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 jeremy dibble Durante, Jomelli, Roze and Persuis.4 After the 1830 Revolution, however, Le

Sueur and Cherubiniweremaderedundant (aswere their large retinue ofmusicians) by the new regime under the 'citizen king', Louis-Philippe, and though Napoleon III revivedtheChapelleRoyale, themusicwasnever asflamboyant or spectacular.

and Thomas Attwood Walmisley, whose Evening Service in D minor (1855), replete with modal harmony, counterpoint and cantus firmus (based on quasiplainchant), reveals an archaic style popular since the 1830s. Classicism yielded to an appetite for Mendelssohn and Spohr in the music of Samuel Sebastian

Wesley, undoubtedly England's most gifted composer of the early Victorian era.Wesley agitated vigorously against those who advocated the appropriateness of an 'old style' in favour of modernism and the full assimilation ofRomanticism, a viewmanifested in his anthems 'Blessed be the God and Father' (1834),

36 See K¨ummel, New Testament, pp. 127-43. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 john rogerson Baur provoked the famous Cambridge triumvirate of J. B. Lightfoot, B. F.

Westcott and F. J. A. Hort to refute him on behalf of British scholarship.37 They, and others, succeeded, to the extent that no competent scholar today would accept a second-century dating for any part of the New Testament, and Paul would be accorded more than the four letters allowed to him by

date.31 For the first time under liberalism, the regulars' expansion allowed the church to establish an important presence in education, largely through fee-paying schools serving middle- and upper-class students. The female orders provided personnel for work in a wide range of charitable institutions,

a field of activity where the church's involvement had been minimal for years. Expansion of the male orders intensified domestic missionary activity that had disappeared during the 1830s and 1840s and then reappeared sporadically

organised religious orders to staff Quebec's schools and hospitals, and encouraged a distinctly Catholic literary life among the province's intellectuals. Such efforts could never win over all opposition, yet they established what would be for more than a century one of the strongest organic Christian societies

anywhere in the world. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 'Christian America' and 'Christian Canada' Upper Canadawas virtually without permanent European settlement until

the origins of humans and human society and providing further material for Herbert Spencer (1820-1903), who coined the phrase 'survival of the fittest', substituting a natural for a divine basis of morality.42 The attempt by Wagner, Owen and others to set humans fundamentally

apart on the basis of cerebral characteristics failed. Dana argued that our upright position - the 'cephalisation of the body' - separates us from the rest of the mammalian world; others emphasised the criterion of speech, reason or imagination. To great acclaim across the USA, the New York University

after a delay of thirteen years, embarked upon the so-called 'age of reform' (1825-48),which inevitably affected relations between the state and the church. The new liberal ideas were not consonant with the existing character of the church, which was closely identified with the state. This was particularly

apparent in the laws on marriage, and their implementation in the matter of marriages between members of different denominations ('mixed marriages'). Hungary followed the lead given by the archbishop of Cologne, Clemens von Droste zu Vischering, in Germany in 1830. The bishop of Nagyv´arad

the Mediterranean south were much less so; and Paris was much the least practising.2 Arguably Spain was the most religious country in Europe; even in the twentieth century levels of religious practice in some northern Spanish valleys

approached 100 per cent.3 Yet there were wide variations in the level of religious practice in Spain as elsewhere in Europe: whereas in the north there was not only regular attendance at Sunday mass by men as well as women but also regular attendance at weekday mass, in the southern provinces of

by numerous invited Nonconformist representatives.74 Subsequent important events of this kind included the jubilees of 1887 and 1897, the coronation of Edward VII in 1902, and the funerals of the duke of Clarence in 1892, Victoria in 1901 and Edward VII in 1910. On such occasions the Church of England

not only played a prominent role in central national ceremonial, but also provided services that were a focal point for local observance.75 In general, in the Edwardian years of imperial self-confidence and militaristic nationalism, the church served more to endorse than to question these prevalent states of

were highly centralised, with local and regional meetings subject to an annual national gathering. Long into the century they professed distinctive teachings, such as belief in guidance by an 'inner light', and maintained archaic practices, such as the use of 'Thou' in conversation. From 1860, however, their declining

numbers (they drew only 0.1 per cent of the population in 1851) made them discard some of their more sectarian features such as the rule against marrying outside their ranks. By the later nineteenth century the Quakers were sharing fully in the phase of expansion long enjoyed by the Independents and

began to focus on sustaining an existing structure rather than forging a new one. The important roles now, those of minister, trustee and treasurer, were all perceived to be male and women were inexorably squeezed out. Where womenachieved the greatest measure of acceptancewas in the margins and on

the edges of institutional religious movements, in the informal environment of religious enthusiasm where gender was disregarded, and 'spirit-filled' was the only educational requirement for religious leadership. The nineteenth century, more than any other preceding period, did offer

a successor to Leowhowould continue his policies, and voted for his secretary of state CardinalRampolla.Rampolla, however,was obnoxious to theAustrian Emperor Franz Joseph II, who thought him too sympathetic to the nationalist particularisms of his unstable empire, and Rampolla's election was vetoed on

the emperor's behalf by Cardinal Puzyna, archbishop of Cracow. One of Pius's first acts as pope was to abolish this veto, though he was unable to publish this until 1909. Rampolla would probably not have been elected even without the imperial veto. The Conclave wanted change, to follow a diplomat with a

now inevitable Disruption came in May 1843, the Free Church, led by Thomas Chalmers, carried with it much of the impetus of the church extension movement, together with over a third of the Church of Scotland's ministers. Elsewhere in the United Kingdom 1843 was also a climactic year. Whereas

the events of 1834 and 1835 saw the checking of the impetus to radical reform of the state churches, those of 1843 showed that there could be no return to the pre-1828 confessional state.39 In England, provision for the education of child workers in the 1843 Factory Act had to be withdrawn in the face of

Enlightenment, Newton and Locke, were devout Christians, and figures such as Edmund Law,William Paley and RichardWatsonwere quite justified as seeing themselves in a Christian Lockean-Newtonian tradition. Recent historians such as J. C. D. Clark, J. G. A. Pocock and B. W. Young have tried to correct

the false impression that religion was a marginal interest amid a generally monolithic refusal of Christianity in the Enlightenment.2 The religious Romantic revolt against the Enlightenment cannot be understood without reference to theological debateswhich run through the Enlightenment

of evangelicals frequently spilled over into organised philanthropy and social reform, but therewas eagerness above all to spread the gospel. An evangelicalism displaying these four characteristics - emphases on Bible, cross, conversion and activism - united the great bulk of Nonconformists, partly superseding

the formal confessional boundaries.9 How is the growth of the style of voluntary religion represented by evangelical Nonconformity to be explained? In the first place therewere favourable social circumstances. It was at one time supposed that the urban industrial

sheridan gilley Some seventy bishops of Irish birth and 150 of Irish descent are said to have attended the First Vatican Council in 1869-70. This reflected a great international phenomenon, the emigration of Irish Catholics to the United States and

the four corners of the British empire in the century from 1815, in a river of people which became a flood during the Great Famine of 1846-9. The Irish ecclesiastical control of most of this emigration, outside Britain itself, was asserted by the Rome-trained and Rome-trusted Paul Cullen, archbishop of

version of the history of Israelite religion and sacrifice contained in the Old Testament. According to that version, Moses had instituted the system of Israelite priesthood and sacrifice at the beginning of the nation's history, during the wilderness wanderings that followed the exodus. According to deWette,

the fully fledged Mosaic system had developed over many centuries and had been preceded by a period inwhich therewas no centralised priesthood or fixed ritual for sacrifices. A decisive stage in this process had been Josiah's reforms in 622 bc which had centralised worship in Jerusalem and closed down the

voluntary agencies served a secular purpose by creating national infrastructures. In 1838 Nathan Bangs (1778-1862) - tireless itinerant, pioneer publisher, historian and theologian - averred that the Methodists had never intended to exercise political influence. Yet because of 'its extensive spread in this country,

the hallowing influence it has exerted in society in uniting in one compact body so many members, through the medium of an itinerant ministry, interchanging from north and south, and from east towest', Methodism had contributed Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

was, until the reign of John Paul II, the second-longest ruling pope in history, only after Pius himself. Born the sixth son of a minor Italian nobleman, and educated for the priesthood at the Roman College and the Academy of Noble Ecclesiastics, Leo was

the last pope to exercise civil authority, as governor of the papal enclave of Benevento in 1838 and of Perugia in 1841. After a brief period as nuncio in Belgium, he remained for over three decades bishop of Perugia, being distrusted by Antonelli. Skilled as a diplomat and administrator, he sought a new

subtle yet conservative harmonic language is well suited to the constraints advocated by Niedermeyer; yet there is also something of the civilised salon in his musical rhetoric and the refined taste of Massenet. Saint-Sa¨ens numbered among his pupils Andr´e Messager, Eug`ene Gigout and Gabriel Faur´e, ofwhom

the latter benefited enormously from the atmosphere of the Ecole.5 Perhaps more than any other composer of his generation, Faur´e overtly espoused the modal leanings of his 'harmonic' education which he used with increasing creativity and originality in his output. Although substantially Mendelssohnian

Ignaz von Wessenberg of Constance and Karl von Dalberg, the last imperial chancellor, strove to establish a national Catholic Church. Wary of an overly independent German church, however, the papal secretary, Cardinal Consalvi, preferred that the Congress only proclaim a concordat that fixed uniformly

the legal relationship between church and state throughout the Bund. The German princes liked neither idea. They felt that a national concordat would impinge upon their sovereignty, whereas the existence of a national Catholic Church might foster unwanted nationalist movements.

recovery in papal prestigewas marked by concordats with Bavaria and Sardinia (1817), Naples (1818) and Prussia (1821) and the Upper Rhine Provinces (1821). The portrait of Pius by Sir Thomas Lawrence commissioned by the Prince Regent conveys the weariness of the man in the beauty of his wasted face and

the long hands never raised except in blessing. It was the first papal icon of the coming age. The restoration of the Papal States belonged to the conservative reaction to the revolutionary turmoil of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic

blow to the association of church and state in its historic form, the Presbyterian tradition was invigorated through the energy and commitment of 39 Gash, Reaction and reconstruction, pp. 88-9. 40 Wolffe, God and greater Britain, p. 105; Brown, The national churches, p. 367.

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 john wolffe the new Free Church of Scotland, with its distinctive aspirations to cast off the oppressive state connection, while continuing to be national in its vision and

Stability of confessional distribution and regional changes In the confessional era of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the Swiss Eidgenossenschaft generated a model of religious co-existence in which the

1 See for Switzerland: Altermatt, 'Religion und Nation'; Zimmer, A contested nation; Metzger, 'Die Reformation in der Schweiz'; Vischer, Schenker and Dellsperger (eds.), O¨ kumenische Kirchengeschichte der Schweiz. Formore general treatments of this theme see: Heinz-Gerhard Haupt and Dieter Langewiesche (eds.), Nation und Religion in Europa:

Enlightenment. Coleridge developed a political theory which was equally hostile to the authoritarianism of Hobbes and the abstract rationalism of Rousseau. He envisaged the constitution as a dynamic equilibrium of two antagonistic forces,

10 Essays and reviews (London: JohnW-Parker and Son, 1860), p. 263. 11 Mill, 'Coleridge', p. 207. 12 Ibid., pp. 211, 225. 13 Newman, Apologia, p. 94.

'Christian America' came from the burgeoning presence of Roman Catholics. At the time of the nation's founding in 1776 therewere only 25,000 Catholics served by only twenty-three priests. Eighty-five years later the census of 1860 counted 2,550 Catholic churches with a constituency of close to 3 million (about

10 per cent of the national population).This spectacular expansion continued - in 1916 the census counted 15,120 churches and a membership of almost 16 million (or 16 per cent of the population). For Catholics, the manifest opportunities of the new world were accompanied

had Christian literature available in abundance. In the century after its foundation in 1807, the British and Foreign Bible Society published no fewer than 186 million Bibles, Testaments and Scripture portions.13 These were supplemented by cheap tracts and, in the later years of the century, Christian novels.

11 Spurgeon, Lectures, p. 21. 12 Richard Mudie-Smith (ed.), The religious life of London (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1904), p. 324. 13 William Canton, A history of the British and Foreign Bible Society, 5 vols. (London: John

by the increasingly Ultramontane and socially organised character of Catholicism. As a result of their interaction with modernity, new social forms of Catholicism as a sub-culture or socio-cultural milieu emerged in the second half of the nineteenth century.15

13 See Fatio, 'Auseinandersetzungen und Aufbr¨uche', p. 237; Pfister, Kirchengeschichte. 14 See Altermatt, 'Conservatism in Switzerland'. 15 See Altermatt, Katholizismus und Moderne. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

national myth was spread to the mass of the population. Religion had given legitimacy to premodern society. The prince had symbolised the state and kept it together through the local authorities, which Christians should obey in accordance with the will of God, as commanded by St Paul in Romans

13. Modern society, however, needed another and more functional 'glue' that could keep it together. Legitimacy came not from God, but from the people themselves, and in the same way the primary obligation of the individual became the nation and the people, not the prince and the will of God.

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 The religious identities of the United Kingdom movement which sought large-scale conversions to Protestantism, but bore very limited fruit, although reinforcing further the trend to sectarian polarisation.

15 In Britain meanwhile there was also a revival in Catholicism, assisted by growing immigration from Ireland (see chapter 16). These tensions came to a head from 1828 onwards with changes that have been perceived as 'revolutionary'16 in their implications for the relations of

nineteenth century seem to have been due to the spread of a new mood of devotional inclusiveness which was asmuch spiritual as it was pragmatic in its aims. Perhaps the most striking feature of this new piety was the degree to which it not only allowed, but positively encouraged, uneducated lay

21 Gilley, 'Vulgar piety and the Brompton Oratory', p. 20. 22 Hastings, African Catholicism, p. 77. 23 On nineteenth-century British evangelicalism, see especially: David Bebbington, Evangelicalism in modern Britain: a history from the 1730s to the 1980s (London: Unwin Hyman,

responsible for the war. Although he understood that Italian nationalism was sweeping the peninsula, Pius proclaimed that he could not declarewar against anyone. 21 ASV, Archivio Particolare Pio IX, Oggetti Vari, n. 368.

22 BFSP vol. xxxvii (1848-9), p. 981. 23 Metternich-Winneburg (ed.), Memoirs, vol. viii, p. 15. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Italy: the church and the Risorgimento

Green, 1862). See Rogerson, Old Testament criticism, pp. 220-37. 21 Guy, The heretic, pp. 43-5. 22 L. Huxley, Life and letters of Thomas Henry Huxley, 3 vols. (London: Macmillan, 1900), vol. i, pp. 256-8.

23 Guy, The heretic, pp. 193-214. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 john rogerson met several times during Colenso's visits to Britain and Europe, and Colenso

part iii THE EXPANSION OF CHRISTIANITY 26 · African-American Christianity 429 jon sensbach

27 · Christian missions, antislavery and the claims of humanity, c. 1813-1873 443 brian stanley 28 · The Middle East: western missions and the Eastern churches,

wide range of religious and theological opinion. In order to rationalise some of the complexity, the following account will employ a distinction between 'progressive' and 'orthodox-conservative'. It would be a simplification to suggest 27 Lijphart, The politics of accommodation.

28 A. Kuyper, Calvinism: six Stone lectures (Amsterdam: H¨oveker and Wormser [1899]), p. 268. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Switzerland and the Netherlands

Italian consolidation, desired an educational system open to all, and eventually invoked a separation of church and state. This infuriated Pio Nono, who branded this programme demonic. 28 Hansard's Parliamentary Debates, vol. cv (1849), p. 376.

29 ASV, SSE, corrispondenza da Gaeta e Portici, 1849, rubrica 242, sottofascicolo 76. 30 Coppa, 'Realpolitik and conviction', pp. 590-3. 31 Archivio Centrale dello Stato, Archivio Depretis, Serie I, busta 10, fascicolo 29. 32 Legge Siccardi sull'abolizione del foro e delle immuni`a ecclesiastiche tornate del Parlamento

century. According to this view, the more that the Vatican's political power was challenged by its critics, the more emphatically it insisted upon its spiritual 2 See e.g.Wolffe, The Protestant crusade in Great Britain and Sperber, Popular Catholicism in nineteenth-century Germany. For a fuller discussion of the Kulturkampf see chapter 18 below.

3 As cited inW.Ward, The life of John Henry Cardinal Newman, 2 vols. (London: Longmans, Green, 1912), vol. i, p. 14. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 mary heimann

coverage. The continuing conflict between church and Dissent in the mid-nineteenth century needs to be set in the context of a widespread sense of common Protestant identity. It has been argued that during the eighteenth century

'Protestantism was the foundation that made the invention of Great Britain possible'.41 Although Catholic Emancipation undermined Protestantism on the level of defining constitutional principle, it helped to galvanise its reassertion on the level of popular and political sentiment. Such Protestantismwas, in

interior. Its ashlar vault is almost playful in its inventive subtlety. Equally distinctive are the tall steeple of St Mary's, South Dalton, Yorkshire (1858-61) and the impressive triple spires of Truro Cathedral (1880-1910).With his son, Frank, Pearson provided the designs for St John's Cathedral, Brisbane, in Australia

(from 1887). The most remarkable nineteenth-century Anglican cathedral outside England is William Burges's St Finn Barre's, Cork, in Ireland (1863-1904). Burges (1827-81) also designed two fine country churches in Yorkshire (Christ-the-

Beginning the century as moderate Calvinists, upholding the predestination of an elect to salvation, most of them shed this belief during theVictorian years in favour of broader views. They held that each congregation should be selfgoverning (hence 'Congregationalists') and so free from any external authority

(hence 'Independents').The churcheswere nevertheless linked by county associations and, from 1831, by a Congregational Union thatwas entirely voluntary and yet gave a measure of national co-ordination to the denomination. The Baptistswere identical in polity to the Independents except that they practised

(1855), that Darwin was received in an avowedly and radically non-theistic context. In 1889 he published his work DieWeltr¨atsel (The riddle of the world) which presented a Spinozistic-monistic naturalism in the formof a pantheistic religion.16

15 See chapter 11 below. 16 On Haeckel see also chapter 11 below. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Theology and the revolt against the Enlightenment

14 The firstwomanto be ordained in the United Stateswas the Congregationalist Antoinette Brownin 1853.However, this ministry only lasted a year before Brownmoved into suffrage work, the care of her children and the Unitarian faith. She does not seem to have continued her preaching ministry. Cazden, Antoinette Brown Blackwell.

15 Tucker and Liefeld, Daughters of the church, pp. 261-8, 285-9, 359-74; Dayton and Dayton, '"Your daughters shall prophesy"', pp. 67-92. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 janice holmes and susan o'brien

THE CHURCHES AND NATIONAL IDENTITIES 14 · Catholic Christianity in France from the Restoration to the separation of church and state, 1815-1905 21 7 james f. mcmillan

15 · Italy: the church and the Risorgimento 233 frank coppa 16 · Catholicism, Ireland and the Irish diaspora 25 0 sheridan gilley

to mobilise the masses and place them more closely under clerical oversight. But these organisations also opened up new spheres of Catholic activity. Local chapters of the Borromeo Society (named after the influential Italian prelate whom Pope Pius IV declared 'Protector of Lower Germany' in

1560) disseminated Catholic religious literature and set up lending libraries. Associations like the St Vincent and Kolping societies extended the church's social mission, and the Boniface Society defended the interests of the Catholic diaspora.

the same terms as men. This official endorsement of female leadership was unprecedented and extraordinarily successful. As the Army expanded, the 16 Tucker, Prophetic sisterhood, p. 7. 17 Hovet, 'Phoebe Palmer's "altar phraseology"'.

18 Robert, American women in mission, p. 129; Tucker and Liefeld, Daughters of the church, p. 301. 19 Gill,Women and the Church of England, p. 173. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

but equally pressing challenge of living alongside each other as a Protestant minority in a predominantly Roman Catholic country. The United Kingdom was created by the Acts of Union between England (and Wales) and Scotland in 1707 and between Great Britain and Ireland in

1800. In 1815 the constitutional position of the national churches had changed little since 1688. In England, Ireland and Wales the established church was Anglican; in Scotland it was Presbyterian. In terms both of numbers and of effective power, Anglicanism was the dominant religious tradition in the

regime of censorship. The second empowered the Bund to act against any political changes that would threaten either monarchical power or particularism. Mounting hostility towards nationalism helps to explain another facet of the

1815 agreements: the absence of Confederation-wide solutions to the complex ecclesiastical problems ensuing from the HolyRoman Empire's collapse. Chief among these was how to define the Catholic Church's legal status in the new German states. Certain prominent Catholic churchmen, notably Heinrich

there was another large schism, called the Doleantie or 'Protest': 180,000 left in three years. They formed the Gereformeerde Kerken, reverting to the more traditional word for Reformed (gereformeerd, as opposed to hervormd), and rejecting all the innovations associated with the new church structure since

1816. In 1892 they joined forces with the Afscheiding of 1834. Much of this orthodox religious dissent was brought together after 1870 by the imposing figure of Abraham Kuyper. He has been called the Dutch Gladstone, indicating his importance to both religion and politics. He was a

democratically governed 'folk church'. The concept of 'folk church' came to the Nordic nations from the German Volkskirche. The German theologian and philosopher Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768-1834) was allegedly the first to use this concept in the early

1820s. He used it in opposition to the coercive religious politics in Prussia, where Fredrick William III was attempting to enforce a union between the Lutheran and Reformed Churches and introduce a new liturgy. In this situation Schleiermacher used Volkskirche to describe a church ideal, which was as

large cohort of Catholic MPs precluded from taking their seats atWestminster and hence likely to lead a movement to civil war and secession. Rather than risk such outcomes, the government decided that it had to reverse its previous stance and concede Catholic Emancipation, which was duly enacted in April

1829. Although the measure was passed primarily in order to resolve a crisis in Ireland, its implications for Britain were also profound, as it compromised the 'Protestant constitution', seen as a cornerstone of the settlement following the 1688 Revolution and as a defining feature of national identity throughout

21 Forbes, The Liberal Anglican idea of history, pp. 94-5. 22 Arnold, Principles, pp. 83-4. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 The religious identities of the United Kingdom

1830 onwards by extensive popular resistance to the collection of tithes, leading to some violent confrontations and loss of life.23 In 1832, in the face of protests from many Protestants but with the support of Archbishop Whately, the government set up a national scheme of education in Ireland, which sought to

5 Keenan, The Catholic Church in nineteenth-century Ireland. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 sheridan gilley were Protestants, who probably formed a majority of the emigrants before

1830. The first Catholic bishops in what was to become the United States presided in the colonies of France and Spain, and French clergy,who remained numerous, only gradually lost their dominance of the North American church. The first diocese in the newly independent country, created in 1789, with an

27 Wolffe, The Protestant crusade, pp. 77-91; Holmes, Henry Cooke, pp. 115-20. 28 Best, Temporal pillars, pp. 296-300. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 The religious identities of the United Kingdom

1847. Thesewere substantial reforms, but they left the fundamental structures and constitutional status of the church unchanged. The reforms initiated by the Ecclesiastical Commission were effective because they worked in parallel with a widespread grass-roots movement

In 1848 theDutchunderwent theirversion of theEuropeanliberal revolution (more or less bloodless in the Netherlands). Armed with a new constitution designed by Thorbecke, the new liberal government let it be known that it would not oppose the reintroduction of a formal hierarchy, and in March

1853 Pope Pius IX issued an apostolic brief announcing five new sees in the Netherlands, with the archbishop's seat at Utrecht.37 This provoked one of the more unsavoury incidents in the generally respectable, bourgeois history of the nineteenth century, known as the Great Protestant or April Movement. It

scandalised by the works published in Turin and their permissive philosophy, which he denounced as detrimental to the faith. He considered the Sardinian ecclesiastical legislation contrary to the rights of the church, accusing that state of interfering in the administration of the sacraments.35 In the spring of

1854, Rattazzi, Cavour's political ally, proposed a law (the Law of Convents) which envisioned the suppression of a number of Piedmont's religious orders. To make matters worse, the pope feared that the Turin government would export its power and policies to the other states of the peninsula.

theologians towards conceding a universal validity to human ethical intuitions and so to weakening the Augustinian character of much earlier American theology. The leading proponent of this 'modified Calvinism'wasN.W. Taylor (1786-

1858), professor at Yale College who taught 'the moral government of God' as a way of fending off both Unitarians on his left and conservative Presbyterians on his right. Charles Finney (1792-1875), the era's most effective revivalist, was alsoanearnestadvocate of thenewtheology, especiallythrough his Lectures

1867. Until that time, Cardinal Scitovszky successfully resisted the abolition or restriction of his rights as primate. During the 1850s, the church was at last in a position to consider internal reforms. Two provincial councils - at Esztergom in 1859 and at Kalocsa in

1860 - and two diocesan synods took place, and passed numerous regulations dealing with various measures for reform, notably concerning the sacraments, worship and the mode of life of clergy and religious, as well as church discipline. The dioceses introduced retreats for priests, the theological formation

not entirely homogeneous, either in ideas or in social status. A number of church leaders came from landed elites, as did Archbishop Rafael Valent´ın 2 Jos´e Hern´andez, Mart´ın Fierro (Buenos Aires: EUDEBA, 1962), p. 7. 3 Richard Arthur Seymour, Pioneering in the Pampas (London: Longmans, Green, and Co.,

1869), pp. 80-1. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 john lynch Valdivieso (1804-78) in Chile, whose family of landowners went back to colonial

2 See Clements, 'George Stanley Faber'; Flegg, 'Gathered under apostles', pp. 33-68. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 john rogerson to the development of biblical criticism in Britain, and which lasted until the

1870s. At the same time, however, it was recognised in some circles that the Bible contained apparent contradictions and inconsistencies, which needed to be explained. T. H. Horne's Introduction to the critical study and knowledge of the Holy Scriptures,

16 Archivio Segreto delVaticano (ASV), ArchivioParticolare Pio IX, oggetti vari, 412;Maiolo (ed.), Pio IX, p. 59. 17 ASV, Archivio Particolare Pio IX, Sardegna, Sovrani. 18 Metternich-Winneburg (ed.), Memoirs, vol. vii, p. 572.

19 Atti del Sommo Pontefice Pio IX, vol. i, pp. 47-8. 20 Nielsen, History of the papacy, vol. ii, p. 142. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 frank coppa

numbers from theRestoration period onwards. By1830 thereweresome40,600 priests, and 58,000 by 1878. This meant that (ifwe exclude the religious orders) there was one priest active for every 814 inhabitants in 1821 but by 1848 one priest active for every 752 inhabitants, a figure which fell to 657 in 1877. By

1901, it is true, the corresponding figure was 690, but this still represented a much better situation than in 1815. Moreover, especially in the first half of the nineteenth century, this was a youthful and vigorous clergy. Still more spectacular was the progress in recruitment to the religious

religious history include Der Weg der Schweizer Katholiken ins Ghetto (Zurich and Cologne: Benziger, 1972, 3rd edn 1995), Katholizismus und Moderne (Zurich: Benziger, 1989), Rechtsextremismus in der Schweiz, with Hanspeter Kriesi et al. (Zurich: Neue Z¨uricher-Zeitung, 1995), Das Fanal von Sarajevo: Ethnonationalismus in Europa (Zurich: Neue Z¨uricher-Zeitung,

1996), Katholizismus und Antisemitismus (Frauenfeld, Stuttgart and Vienna: Huber, 1999) and Katholische Denk- und Lebenswelten, ed. (Fribourg: Academic Press, 2003). Daniel H. Bays is Professor of History and Director of the Asian Studies Program at Calvin College, Grand Rapids, Michigan. He has written or edited several articles, chapters

Christian-Democratswere continuously represented in the Swiss government. However, internal opposition to mainstream conservative Catholicism from 19 See Alois Steiner, Der Piusverein der Schweiz: von seiner Gr¨undung bis zum Vorabend des Kulturkampfes 185 7-1870 (Stans: Kommissions-Verlag Josef von Matt, 1961).

20 See AltermattandMetzger, 'Katholische ArbeiterundMilieuidentit¨at';Ruffieux, Lemouvement chr´etien-social; Von der katholischen Milieuorganisation zum sozialen Hilfswerk. 21 See Ruffieux et al. (eds.), Geschichte der Universit¨at Freiburg Schweiz. 22 See Conzemius, Philipp Anton von Segesser, 1817-1888.

or resting on false assumptions. 2 Idealistic: Those who accepted the legitimacy of the challenge but denied that the 'Enlightenment'was employing an adequate conception of 'reason', 'religion' or 'Christianity'.

3 Existentialist: Those who attempted to outflank both the Enlightenment and religious Idealism. 4 Rationalistic: Those who accepted the Enlightenment critique and agreed that Christianity as traditionally conceived is an illusion. Usually in this

countries, a variety of publications on Christian belief and modern science saw the light. The bibliographical documentation of this body of literature, which is essential for a balanced study of the subject, remains to date fragmentary at best.6

3 Gillispie, Genesis and geology. 4 Benjamin Silliman added a substantial reconciliation 'Supplement' to his edition of R. Bakewell, An introduction to geology (New Haven: H. Howe, 1833). J. Trimmer, Practical geology and mineralogy (London: J. W. Parker, 1841), ch. 3; J. Anderson, The course of

Islam and Judaism 45 8 heleen murre-van den berg 29 · Christians and religious traditions in the Indian empire 473 robert eric frykenberg

30 · Christianity in East Asia: China, Korea and Japan 493 daniel h. bays and james h. grayson 31 · Christianity in Indochina 5 13 peter c. phan

Revolt. In 1795 French Revolutionary troops had invaded the Netherlands and removed its privileges, making it just one church among equals; following the new ideas of statecraft manifested in the policies of Joseph II of Austria and then of Napoleon, a new Regulation (Algemene Reglement) was provided by

31 See Rasker, De Nederlandse Hervormde Kerk; and Bos, In dienst. 32 Lipschits, De protestants-christelijke stroming, p. 34. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Switzerland and the Netherlands

to fall on deaf ears. A further major setback occurred in 1842 when the Court of Session (the highest legal authority within Scotland) ruled that the quoad sacra parishes were illegal. In the context of the ongoing non-intrusion crisis (see p. 62), this decision reinforced the conviction of evangelicals that

33 Brown, The national churches, p. 190; H. McNeile, Nationalism in religion (London, 1839), p. 16; Akenson, The Church of Ireland, pp. 215-25. 34 Brown, The national churches, pp. 179-80, 190-7, 217-27. 35 Brown, Thomas Chalmers, pp. xv-xvii.

achieved theoretically equal status under the law in 1795, they suddenly found themselves the majority church in the country, for between 1816 and 1830 the Netherlands was joined to the Catholic Belgian provinces under the rule of the Dutch king,Willem I. His government imagined it could use the Roman

34 A. Kuyper, Ons program, 2 vols. (Amsterdam: Kruyt, 1879). 35 A. Kuyper, Souvereiniteit in eigen kring (Amsterdam: Kruyt, 1880). 36 For a brief account, seeWintle, Pillars of piety. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

composed, with the process culminating in John's Gospel, which was dated by Baur to ad 170. The earliest Gospel was that of Matthew.36 Such a radical challenge to the dating of the New Testament was bound to provoke opposition, and it has become almost legendary to write of how

34 H. J. Holtzmann, Die synoptischen Evangelien, ihr Ursprung und geschichtliche Charakter (Leipzig,W. Engelmann, 1863). See K¨ummel, New Testament, pp. 146-55. 35 F. C. Baur, Das Christentum und die christliche Kirche der drei ersten Jahrhunderte (T¨ubingen: Fues, 1853).

34 · Missions and empire, c.1873-1914 5 60 andrew porter 35 · Ethiopianism and the roots of modern African Christianity 5 76 ogbu u. kalu

36 · The outlook for Christianity in 1914 5 93 brian stanley Select general bibliography 601 Chapter bibliographies 604

similarly spearheaded the critical approachwas the International CriticalCommentary series, begun in 1895, and edited on the Old Testament side by Driver and by C. A. Briggs of Union Theological Seminary, New York. The cause of Old Testament criticism in America had been well served by the Unitarian

37 For a critical review of this position see Treloar, Lightfoot. 38 See Treloar, Lightfoot, pp. 295-302. 39 See Parker, 'The New Testament'. 40 Treloar, Lightfoot, pp. 336-71.

Franconian Bavaria, especially the University of Erlangen, provided the 34 Schmidt, Holy fairs, pp. 192-212. 35 Hope, German and Scandinavian Protestantism, pp. 420-7. 36 Davies,Worship and theology in England, vol. iii, pp. 223-7.

37 Hope, German and Scandinavian Protestantism, pp. 293-4, 344-5, 347, 351-3. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Popular religion and irreligion in countryside and town leadership for more traditional Lutheran revival in both Germany and Scandinavia

Agassiz (1807-73), to whom it provided a means of legitimising slavery or at 37 R.Wagner,Vorstudien zu einer wissenschaftlichenMorphologie und Physiologie des menschlichen Gehirns als Seelenorgan, 2 vols. (G¨ottingen: Verlag der Dieterichschen Buchhandlung, 1860-2); Rupke, Richard Owen, pp. 303-9.

38 E. Haeckel, Anthropogenie oder Entwickelungsgeschichte des Menschen (Leipzig: Engelmann, 1874), pp. 489, 697; C. Flammarion, Le monde avant la cr´eation de l'homme (Paris: Marpon and Flammarion, 1886), pp. 752-3. 39 C. Vogt, Vorlesungen ¨uber den Menschen, 2 vols. (Giessen: I. Ricker, 1863), vol. ii, pp. 283-7.

were received in private audience; more incredible still, the tricolour was seen within the precincts of the Vatican, and delegates from the Italian religious organizations entered to the strains of the Royal March',4 while the Roman black aristocracy, who had shunned the Italian monarchy, looked on aghast.

4 Binchy, Church and state in Fascist Italy, p. 55. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 sheridan gilley This lessened the antagonism between state and church. So did theweakening

Syllabus detailed the church's rejection of those elements in modern society it regarded as baneful, principally the proposition that 'Moral laws lack Divine 2 Carlen, The papal encyclicals 1740-1878, p. 190. 3 Ibid., pp. 201, 222.

4 Ibid., pp. 234, 237-8, 249-50, 254. 5 Ibid., pp. 278, 280. In his Nostis et Nobiscum in 1849 Pius IX repeated the condemnation of socialism and communism. See p. 296 in the same volume. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

AugustaWeldler-Steinberg, Geschichte der Juden in der Schweiz vom 16. Jahrhundert bis nach der Emanzipation, 2 vols. (Zurich: Schweizerischer Israelitischer Gemeindebund, 1966, 1970); J¨udische Lebenswelt Schweiz: 100 Jahre Schweizerischer Israelitischer Gemeindebund (SIG) (Zurich: Chronos, 2004).

4 See for the following figures: Statistisches Jahrbuch der Schweiz, ed. by the Statistisches Bureau des eidgen¨ossischen Departements des Innern, Berne, vol. i (1891), pp. 14-15; and xii (1903), p. 7. 5 See Altermatt, Katholizismus und Moderne, pp. 239-40, 181-202.

nation for Christ. For one, Native Americans had to be shunted aside, even when, as in the case of the Cherokee, they fully embraced the vision of a free and Christian future. Guided by energetic leaders like Elias Boudinot (1802-39), the Cherokee of Georgia were well advanced in building their own miniature

4 Tocqueville, Democracy in America, p. 282. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 'Christian America' and 'Christian Canada' Christian republic when in the mid-1830s land hunger, racial antagonism and

has shown in his The post-Darwinian controversies that Darwinism, in spite of the problems it raised for many Victorian intellectuals, could be accommodated by orthodox Protestants, in particular Calvinists - Asa Gray being 44 Livingstone, Putting science in its place.

45 Rupke, The great chain of history, pp. 21-6, 51-63. 46 Young, Darwin's metaphor, pp. 126-63. 47 Rupke, The great chain of history, p. 271. 48 Elleg˚ard, Darwin and the general reader.

Gospel led to the view that it was possible to reconstruct a non-ecclesiastical Jesus along traditional lines, who could be presented in simple terms alike in church and school as a figure to be admired and followed. It would not be until after the Second World War that Rudolf Bultmann's pioneering and

47 See K¨ummel, The New Testament, pp. 245-80. 48 A. Schweitzer, Von Reimarus zuWrede: eine Geschichte der Leben-Jesu Forschung (T¨ubingen: J. C. B. Mohr, 1906), English trans. The quest of the historical Jesus (London: Adam and Charles Black, 1910).

De Ecclesia, which contained three chapters on the pope's primacy and one on his infallibility, created greater controversy. Bishop Ullathorne of 47 For Quanta Cura see Carlen (ed.), The Papal encyclicals, vol. i, pp. 381-6, and for the Syllabus Kertesz (ed.), Documents, pp. 233-41.

48 Carlen (ed.), Papal pronouncements, vol. i, p. 40; Coppa, Pope Pius IX, pp. 159-61. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Italy: the church and the Risorgimento Birmingham reported that Pius had strong opinions on both issues, and

also on economic grounds. Monasteries and friaries, declared the Spanish disentailment decree of 1835,were 'useless and unnecessary . . . for the spiritual 4 Proyecto de decreto de nueva demarcaci´on de parroqu´ıas y dotaci´on de p´arrocos (Madrid, 1821), pp. 115-22.

5 There were precedents for the suppression of the regulars and the sale of their property. Following the liberal revolutions of 1820 in Spain and Portugal, a partial suppression and disentailment was carried out in each country, although the process was reversed in 1823. Rueda and Siliveira, 'Dos experiencias: Espa˜na y Portugal', pp. 20-1.

difficult for the church to keep pace with industrial and urban development in the later nineteenth century, though there was some recovery. The church of 1860 was poorer than that of 1760 but better off than that of 1830. 5 Callahan, Church, politics and society in Spain, pp. 6-31.

6 Lannon, Privilege, persecution, and prophecy, p. 59.On the suppressions, see pp. 383-4 below. 7 Callahan, Church, politics and society, pp. 165-77. 8 Ibid., p. 178. 9 Kiernan, The revolution of 1854, pp. 2-3, 18, 121-34. For a fuller account of church and

absence of priests, not in opposition to them. Popular religion transcended social class. It was urban as well as rural, artisan as well as peasant, clerical as well as lay. But the church in Latin America existed within the prevailing social structure, where the poor were more prone to disease, starvation and

7 Pazos, La Iglesia en la Am´erica del IV centenario, p. 274. 8 Cardenal, El poder eclesi´astico en El Salvador, p. 163. 9 Pazos, La Iglesia de la Am´erica del IV centenario, p. 223. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

therein. On 20 October, he suspended the Vatican Council. Rejecting all offers 49 ASV, Archivio Particolare Pio IX, Sovrani, Francia, n. 86. 50 Commissione per la Pubblicazione dei Documenti Diplomatici, I documenti diplomatici Italiani. Prime serie (1861-1870) (Rome: La Libreria dello Stato, 1952), vol. xiii, n. 580.

51 ASV, Archivio Particolare Pio IX, Sovrani, Sardegna, n. 82; Coppa, Pope Pius IX, p. 170. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 frank coppa of asylum, he pledged to defend his rights. In a November encyclical, Pius

prestige, and authority of the local priest was apparent in all aspects of Catholic religious life' was true of Catholic Europe more generally.52 It is also significant that the way in which the lives of the local church, whether Roman Catholic or Protestant, were reformed in different European countries in the

52 Sperber, Popular Catholicism, p. 94. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 david m. thompson nineteenth century generally placed more significance on the role of the local

53 Ibid., vol. i, pp. 399-402. 54 Carlen (ed.), Papal pronouncements, vol. i, p. 41; P. De Franciscis (ed.), Discorsi del sommo pontefice Pio IX pronunziati in Vaticano ai fedeli di Roma e dell'orbe dal principio della sua prigionia fino al presente, 4 vols. (Rome: G. Aureli, 1872-8), vol. i, pp. 89, 137-40.

55 Ministero della Pubblica Istruzione, Testo unico delle leggi sull'istruzione superiore (Rome: Tipografia Romana Cooperativa, 1919), p. 2. 56 ASV, Archivio Particolare Pio IX, Francia, Particolari. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

learn and use the language. In 1870, with the appointment of Joshua Hughes to St Asaph, Wales had its first native Welsh-speaking bishop since the early 56 Morgan, 'From a death to a view', pp. 92-4. 57 Currie, Gilbert and Horsley, Churches and churchgoers, p. 218.

58 Brown, 'In pursuit of aWelsh episcopate', p. 91. 59 Quoted in Davies, Religion in the industrial revolution of SouthWales, p. 102. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 The religious identities of the United Kingdom

society being created during the nineteenth century was unreceptive 4 Jerrome, John Sirgood's way. 5 Stephenson, J[ohn], The man of faith and fire: or the life and work of the Rev. G. Warner (London: Robert Bryant, 1995), p. 184.

6 ChristianWitness, 1852, p. 256. 7 W. J. Mitchell, Brief biographical sketches of Bible Christian ministers and laymen, 2 vols. ( Jersey: Beresford Press, 1906), vol. i, p. 42. 8 C. H. Spurgeon, Lectures to my students (London: Marshall, Morgan and Scott, 1954),

was scorned by the intellectual elite as an obstacle to progress, and the corrupt and debauched rural priest became a stock character in the demonology of the Peruvian left. The church added fuel to the flames in its deference to Hispanic 5 Cardenal, El poder eclesi´astico en El Salvador, p. 163.

6 E. Mignone, 'La Iglesia argentina en la organizaci´on nacional', HGIAL, vol. ix (1994), p. 342. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Latin America: the church and national independence

natural and divine law' to lead from this pitfall and added freemasonry as another peril, eventually calling it a 'vile sect' in Inimica Vis (1892).8 By 1885 Leo had widened his horizons with an encyclical, Immortale Dei, on 'The Christian constitution of states' in which he insisted that, while the right

6 For Quanta Cura see Carlen, The papal encyclicals 1740-1878, pp. 382-3 and for the Syllabus of Errors see Ehler and Morrall (eds.), Church and state through the centuries, pp. 281-2. 7 Carlen, The papal encyclicals 1878-1903, pp. 52-4. 8 Ibid., pp. 52-4, 11-16, 91-105.

and the rise of Romanticism. As an ordained chaplain, however, he returned to an historical and biblical Lutheranism. But he continued to search for a kernel 5 Iceland was granted partial home-rule in 1918, and declared itself an independent nationstate in 1944. The Faeroe Islands received home-rule in 1948 and Greenland likewise in

6 In 1920 there was a harsh conflict between Finland and Sweden over the national identity of the A ◦ land Islands, which ended with the islands remaining Finnish, but with home

famous prayer book, The garden of the soul, came, in the wake of 'Second Spring' propaganda of the 1840s and 1850s, to be increasingly criticised as 4 For fuller discussions of the Syllabus and the 1870 definition see chapters 2 and 15. 5 McSweeney, Roman Catholicism, p. 38.

6 Lamberts, 'L'Internationale noire'. 7 McLeod, Religion and the people of western Europe, p. 36. 8 Larkin, 'The devotional revolution in Ireland'. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

differentiated from a more moderate conservative one. The leaders of the ultras, Josef Leu von Ebersol and Constantin Siegwart-M¨uller, reflected the 6 See Alfred K¨olz, Neuere schweizerische Verfassungsgeschichte: ihre Grundlinien vom Ende der alten Eidgenossenschaft bis 1848 (Berne: Verlag St¨ampfli, 1992), vol. i, pp. 337-9.

7 See Urs Altermatt, 'L'engagement des intellectuels catholiques suisses au sein de l'Internationale noire', in Emiel Lamberts (ed.), The Black International 1870-1878: the Holy See and militant Catholicism in Europe (Leuven: Leuven University Press, 2002), pp. 409-26; Metzger, 'The legal situation of religious institutes'.

mind.76 72 Wolffe, Great deaths, pp. 72-3. 73 Cannadine, 'The context, performance and meaning of ritual', pp. 120-38. 74 Wolffe, 'National occasions at St Paul's', pp. 384-5.

75 Wolffe, Great deaths, pp. 94-135. 76 Wolffe, God and greater Britain, pp. 215-35. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 john wolffe

account of Old Testament history in which all the Israelites from Abraham onwardswere treated as fully historical figures. This did not mean that Stanley shirked facing up to difficulties.How, for example, could the prophetic denials that Israel offered sacrifices to God in the wilderness (Amos 5:25, Jeremiah

7:22) be reconciled with the accounts in the Pentateuch of the institution of the sacrificial system in the wilderness? Stanley's view was that sacrifices had been offered in the wilderness, but that the laws regarding sacrifice and priesthood had assumed their final shape at a later period. Priesthood and sacrifice

from Switzerland, becoming, for Catholics, the martyr of the Kulturkampf in Geneva.10 The incomplete character of religious freedom in the constitution of the modern Swiss nation-state is especially apparent with regard to the Jewish

8 See Altermatt, 'Conservatism in Switzerland'; Olivier Fatio, 'Die protestantischen Kirchen', in Vischer et al. (eds.), O¨ kumemische Kirkengeschichte, pp. 215-19. 9 See Urs Josef Cavelti, Kirchenrecht im demokratischen Umfeld (Fribourg: Universit¨atsverlag, 1999).

their decision to take Rome.50 The intransigent element in the eternal city urged Pius to flee from the impending Italian occupation, and the Empress Eug´enie, the regent, sent the man-of-war Orenoque to Civitavecchia to evacuate Pius to France. However, the 78-year-old pope wanted to die at home. On

8 September Victor Emmanuel sent an envoy to the pope, justifying the necessity of occupying what remained of the Papal States. 'Nice words, but ugly deeds', the pope muttered as he read the king's letter, responding with a firm refusal.51 On 19 September, Pius instructed his forces to offer token resistance

in Italy. To reduce unemployment he urged the provinces to provide public work projects for his subjects.13 He relieved the burdens imposed on 7 Momigliano (ed.), Tutte le encicliche, pp. 186-95. 8 E Principio certo, in Carlen (ed.), Papal pronouncements, vol. i, pp. 25-6.

9 Archivio di Stato di Roma (ASR), Fondo Famiglia Antonelli (FFA), busta 1, fascicolo 125. 10 Metternich-Winneburg (ed.), Memoirs, vol. vii, p. 246; British and Foreign State Papers (BFSP) vol. xxxvi (1847-8), p. 1195. 11 P. D. Pasolini (ed.), Giuseppe Pasolini, Memorie. 181 5 -1876 (Turin: Bocca, 1887), p. 57.

For example, Dr Devlin challenges the view that the superstitious mind is incompatible with 'the reasonable pragmatism of modernity' and she also argues that popular religion was based on simple ideas of healing and justice to the poor, with priests almost redundant.50

A key element therefore was education. Schools, whether dominated by clergy or by secular-minded teachers, were the main means for diminishing superstition, though it did not disappear completely. The nature of irreligion changed, particularly in urban areas. Medical improvements reduced

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 The papacy sheridan gilley The nineteenth century was a period of paradox in the history of the Roman

Catholic Church. It was an age of revival, especially through the growth of active religious orders of women, and the strengthening of Catholicism in areas in which it suffered from disadvantage or minority status - Germany, Holland, the British Isles and the English-speakingworld -while coming under

quietly developed religious devotion and effective social work under the guise of officially sanctioned activities. The situation at the beginning of the twentieth century

An important change occurred at the beginning of the twentieth century, the Russian Revolution of 1905, which created much greater freedom for the church in the zone comprising the greater part of the former federation - which was never forgotten - and of the Polish population. The social context

papacy since 1789 (London and New York: AddisonWesley Longman, 1998) and The papacy confronts the modern world (Krieger, 2003), and he has edited and contributed to Controversial concordats (Washington, DC: Catholic University Press, 1999) and the two-volume Great popes through history (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2002).

Allan Davidson is Director of Postgraduate Studies and teaches church history in the School ofTheology at the University ofAuckland. He has written extensively on the history of Christianity in New Zealand and the South Pacific. The books he has written and edited include Semisi Nau: the story of my life: a Tongan missionary at Ontong Java (Suva, Fiji: Institute

of Basel. Bishop Eug`ene Lachat, who had openly declared himself in favour of the dogma of papal infallibility, was dismissed by the diocesan conference of the cantons in 1873 and, despite demonstrations in his support by Catholics, was exiled from liberal-radical Solothurn to Catholic-conservative Lucerne.

After a protest from the pope, the Swiss government broke off its relations with the nuncio in Lucerne. In 1873 Pius IX designated Gaspard Mermillod apostolic vicar of Geneva, trying to re-establish a diocese without consulting the cantonal or national government. As a consequence, Mermillodwas exiled

compatriots encountered in the Prussian and Russian zones,where censorship prevented publication.Works printed in Galicia, including religious books and manuals, for example historical ones, circulated clandestinely in the other two zones among Poles.

At the end of the nineteenth century, Polish Catholic resistance took a mature andwell-organised form, above all in the Prussian zone centred around the city of Pozna´n. It profited from the great progress on all levels in the Prussian state: a prosperous economy, illiteracy abolished and the rule of

upon it, as did his subsequent Biblical Commission of 1902. Nothing happens in Rome which does not begin elsewhere, and he condemned a heresy called 'Americanism' as demanded by conservative American prelates, in a church united in faith but divided by politics. His rejection of the validity of

Anglican priestly orders in 1896 as 'absolutely null and utterly void' in his bull Apostolicae Curae was at the behest of English Catholics like Cardinal Vaughan and Monsignor Merry del Val, born and partly educated in England, though of Spanish ancestry, who was to become secretary of state to Leo's

upon theRomantic interest in the realm of the symbolic. In many respects they represented the flowering of a tradition that built upon the innovating work of the highly influential figure of Georg Hermes (1775-1831) and the so-called Hermesianism (representing a certain style of Kantianism) of the Viennese

Anton G¨unther (1783-1863), who developed a more explicitly Idealistic and speculative philosophical theology.9 Two other important figures were the brilliant and eccentric Franz von Baader (1765-1841) - a man who embodies the link between the French mystical tradition in de Maistre and Schelling - and

more pluralist sense of German identity, their acceptance of the new Germany really was not at issue, as events soon showed. When relations between France and Prussia worsened after 1867, leading Catholic opposition figures such as August and Peter Reichensperger publicly endorsed Prussia's position.

As war broke out in 1870, Catholics joined their Protestant neighbours in justifying it and sanctioning war aims like the 'return' of Alsace. Nevertheless, the Franco-Prussian war effectively established Germany's identity as a Protestant nation. Journalists, politicians, academics and pastors on both

the connivance of President Andrew Jackson drove them onto 'a trail of tears' to barren reservations in the trans-Mississippi West. The contradictions of 'Christian America'were felt even more strongly by African Americanswhose story is told in chapter 26 of this volume.

Aspirations for a 'Christian America' defined by evangelical Protestants of British background also collided with the reality of religious pluralism. Protestant bodies that wanted to maintain old world forms - first the Dutch and German Reformed and then the Lutherans - vacillated over whether to

a discriminatory law against kosher slaughter was added to the constitution. Central to the double exclusion of the Jews, political and cultural,was the idea of the so-called 'Christian state', often linked to anti-Semitic discourse.11 Protestantism between revivalism and liberalism

At the beginning of the nineteenth century, a Protestant revivalist movement arose in reaction to liberal theology. This brought about a heterogenisation of Protestantism. In addition to the cantonal churches, the Landeskirchen, and the Schweizerische reformierte Kirchenkonferenz founded in 1858, a variety

Cross, Precious Blood and other confraternities, sodalities and guilds, were explicitly spiritual in that they sought to focus their members' attention on a particular devotional practice and, through it, to strengthen commitment to a discrete aspect of Catholic doctrine.

At the same time that Catholic expectations of worship and devotion appeared to be becoming more intense and demanding, Catholics were also becoming increasingly segregated from non-Catholics. Educated separately wherever possible, strongly discouraged from marrying outside of the fold,

largestmembers,Austria and Prussia, ruled considerable territories outside the Confederation. The Vienna Settlement did appreciably alter the relationship of these two states to 'Germany'. Prussia became more closely tied to German Europe through its acquisition of the Rhineland andWestphalia. Conversely,

Austria's gains in central Europe and Italy diminished her status as a German state, the possession of the Bund presidency notwithstanding. The return of peace, however, did not fully extinguish nationalist yearnings. At universities across German Europe, student fraternities (Burschenschaften)

Lessing, Kant and Spinoza Goethe and Schiller were at best cool towards Christianity; but Lessing and Kant represent a profound knowledge of, and not uncritical interest in, Christianity. Lessing, the godfather of the German Enlightenment, in his Uber den

Beweis des Geistes und der Kraft (On the proof of Spirit and power, 1777), criticised the traditional employment of the argument from prophecy and miracle from the testimony of Scripture,whilst his Das Christentum der Vernunft (Christianity of reason, 1758) had interpreted the dogmas of Christianity in terms of their

physical. The last thirty years of Nietzsche's life was a period of relative sterility in German philosophy after the extraordinary flowering of the early nineteenth century. The mood of German late nineteenth-century philosophy was full of

Bismarckian toughness: either philosophy of science (neo-Kantianism or positivism) or vitalism, i.e. some formof a philosophy of life. Nietzsche proposed a version of scientific materialism. The legacy of Darwin for the question of creation and the origin of manwas

of German Protestantism and Catholicism. The return to reaction strengthened the conservative-orthodox position in many Protestant state churches, particularly in Mecklenburg, Bavaria, Hesse-Kassel and Prussia. Once more, the princes looked to the church to help guard against sinful revolution.

But now conservative churchmen used this support to undercut liberal Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 anthony j. steinhoff theologians and silence advocates of synodal government. Liberal Protestantism

respond to the implications of works such as Lyell's Principles of geology (1830) which showed that the earth was much older than the 6,000 years of Ussher's chronology based on the Bible, and Darwin's Origin of species (1859) which 27 W. Robertson Smith, Lectures and essays of William Robertson Smith (London: A. and

C. Black, 1912), p. 233. 28 J. W. Colenso, 'On missions to the Zulus in Natal and Zululand', reprinted in Bringing forth light: five tracts on Bishop Colenso's Zulu mission (Pietermaritzburg: University of Natal Press; Durban: Killie Campbell Africana Library, 1982), pp. 205-38.

The Bible was the focus of private meditations, regular reading by families, informal study in Methodist cell groups, Catholic retreats and a multitude of other gatherings. In addition, millions of Americans regularly listened to sermons, a nearly universal vehicle throughwhich biblical phrases, values and

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 'Christian America' and 'Christian Canada' culture worked their way into the fabric of daily life - though often in tellingly diverse forms.

Luigi Einaudi - took part in the making of a new Europe in the twentieth century. Leo's encyclical had become part of the history of modern Europe. 26 See Molony, The emergence of political Catholicism, pp. 22-7, 46.

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 B: The social thought of the Protestant churches david m. thompson

Catholic interests in the nineteenth century (1852) denounced the perils of absolute power for spiritual as much as political freedom4 - the church hierarchy and 3 Cf. A. de Falloux, Le parti catholique: ce qu'il a ´et´e, ce qu'il est devenu (Paris: A. Bray, 1856). 4 C. de Montalembert, Les int´erˆets catholiques au dix-neuvi`eme si`ecle (Paris: J. Lecoffre, 1852).

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Catholic Christianity in France, 1815-1905 Ultramontanes likeVeuillot remained enthusiastic supporters until 1859,when the emperor reversed his Italian policy infavour of the Italian nationalists rather

successor, Emile Combes, who was to use the new law as an instrument for a general attack on the church. A visceral anticlerical, he systematically denied 6 M. Lagr´ee in J. Delumeau (ed.), Le dioc`ese de Rennes. Histoire des dioc`eses de France vol. x (Paris: Beauchesne, 1979), p. 221.

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Catholic Christianity in France, 1815-1905 authorisation to the vast majority of religious communities and sought to close down their schools. His persecution culminated in the passing of a new

order and the church therefore claimed the right to exercise influence on national life. Increasingly, however, and especially from the 1860s, republicans advocated a completely secular vision of the social order and affirmed their adhesion to the id´ee la¨ıque - the organisation of society on a totally secular

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Catholic Christianity in France, 1815-1905 basis. By 1880, the ground had been prepared for a renewal of open hostilities between the church and a republican state.

In the 1860s Galicia, as the Austrian part of the former federation was called, acquired a considerable degree of autonomy within Austria-Hungary. The province then quickly became a sort of Polish Piedmont, with a degree of freedom affecting the church and religious life. Thus the last decades of

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Catholic nationalism in Hungary and Poland the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth century were characterised by severe national and religious oppression in the Russian and

nothing of the Assembly's nationalist schemes. By default, the Assembly embraced the 'small German' (kleindeutsch) solution (Germany without Austria), and in April 1849 it offered the imperial crown to FrederickWilliam of Prussia.

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Christianity and the creation of Germany FrederickWilliam's rejection of the imperial distinction effectively wrecked the National Assembly's plans. By June the delegates had been dispersed from

of the 'German question'. Christian concepts and symbols permeated the discourse of nationalism and understanding of the state, but Protestants and Catholics constructed discrete, rival visions of this nation. Prussian might 1 As cited in Nowak, Geschichte des Christentums in Deutschland, p. 158.

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Christianity and the creation of Germany resolved the closely related questions of Germany's territorial and confessional definition in favour of Protestantism in 1870. Yet, despite the strong Protestant

isbn-10 0-521-81456-1 hardback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this book, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Contents List of contributors ix 1 · Introduction 1

in course of time, when the papacy responded to the needs of America, the churchmoved from Spain toRome, from Iberian religion to universal religion. The history of the church in nineteenth-century Latin America developed in 1 Leturia, Relaciones entre la Santa Sede e Hispanoam´erica, vol. ii, pp. 90, 110-13, 365-71.

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Latin America: the church and national independence two phases. In the first, 1820-60, a post-imperial church clung to its privileges in a time of secular state-building. In the second, 1860-1910, a reformed church

Patterns in history (Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press, 1979), The nonconformist conscience: chapel and politics, 1870-1914 (London: Allen and Unwin, 1982), Evangelicalism in modern Britain: a history from the 1730s to the 1980s (London: Unwin Hyman, 1989), William Ewart Gladstone: ix

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 List of contributors faithandpolitics inVictorian Britain (GrandRapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1993), Holiness in nineteenthcentury England (Carlisle: Paternoster, 2000), The mind of Gladstone: religion, Homer and politics

century. Lay brotherhoods declined in influence after the French Revolution in France and Germany; in some places they became almost exclusively 45 E.g. Gill, The myth of the empty church; Green, Religion in the age of decline. 46 Le Bras, L'´eglise et la village, pp. 186, 191-2, quoted in Devlin, The superstitious mind, p. 4.

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Popular religion and irreligion in countryside and town mutual benefit societies and lost their religious functions at members' burials and on the festival of their patron saint's day.47 Similarly traditional pilgrimages

dominated the concept of 'folk church'. Here a 'folk church' with ties to the state was understood as an outer framework, where all the baptised were members. The kernel, however, i.e. the true Christians, were the 'awakened' Christians.

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Scandinavia: Lutheranism and national identity National education Even before the Reformation, education was the business of the church. In

Arianism agree that strictly only the Father is God, but Socinianism is a more radical form of anti-trinitarianism. Through the Netherlands in particular, 2 Clark, English society; Pocock, Barbarism and religion; Young, Religion and enlightenment. 3 Mary Shelley, Frankenstein or, the modern Prometheus (1818).

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Theology and the revolt against the Enlightenment Socinian ideas became very influential in England in the seventeenth century, and often fused with Arianism. Socinianism became the institutional force of

Third, their growthwas on such a scale that in many countries the gender balance of the church's virtuosi (its professionals) shifted from men to women for 29 Williams, Society of the Sacred Heart, pp. 50-1. 30 Mumm, Stolen daughters, ch. 5.

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Women preachers and the new Orders the first time, with more women living under vows than the combined totals of priests, monks, friars and brothers. In Ireland, for example, by 1900 women

most extensive, and prestigious, of such restorations were those of the Sainte- Chapelle in Paris and, from 1844, of the cathedral of Notre-Dame at the hands of the two most prominent and competent Goths in France, Jean-Baptiste- Antoine Lassus (1807-57) and Eug`ene-EmmanuelViollet-le-Duc (1814-79).The

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 andrew sanders impressive newchapter house, linked to the south side of the cathedral, is their work. Paris's first full-blown modern Gothic church was, however, Sainte-

the contributions of Ernst Ludwig von Gerlach, the founder of the influential Protestant Evangelische Kirchenzeitung, to the Catholic Politisches Wochenblatt, and in the intellectual exchanges between Protestant and Catholic theologians at the University of T¨ubingen.

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 anthony j. steinhoff The post-1815 religious revivals would undermine this socio-confessional harmony.Within both Catholicism and Protestantism a strong sense ofdenominational

often promoted. In West-Norden, Grundtvig and his disciples played an important role in the modernisation and nationalisation of education. In Norway, for example, a younger generation including many followers of Grundtvig started a public

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 dag thorkildsen debate about schooling and suggested fundamental reforms, and they succeeded when a new law passed the parliament in 1860. First, secular subjects

the soil for the growth of Finnish nationalism. In the 1840s Johan Snellman (1806-81), philosopher and statesman, formulated a Fennomanic programme to protect Finland's culture and autonomy againstRussification, a programme thatwas further developed by Y. S. Yrj¨o-Koskinen (1830-1903), an historian and

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 dag thorkildsen politician. The scholar Elias L¨onnrot (1802-84) expressed what it meant to be Finnish, when in 1835 he published Finland's national poem, Kalevala, which

the nineteenth century began; and the stimulus that Methodist revivalism gave to Congregationalists and Baptists led to rapid Nonconformist growth in the early nineteenth century. 38 Ibid., pp. 445-9.

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 david m. thompson The dynamics of religious revival in Britain came from Germany, through the pietism associated with the University of Halle at the end of the seventeenth

48 Ibid., pp. 63-77. 49 Ibid., p. 70. 50 Devlin, The superstitious mind, pp. xii, 42. 51 McLeod, Religion and the people of western Europe, p. 93.

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 david m. thompson became as attractive as the Christian gospel - indeed Christian and political radicalism could be combined, as in teetotalism. It was not only in Britain

30 See chapter 5 above, pp. 70-83. 31 Harris, Lourdes, pp. 6-8, 68-71, 151-3; compare Blackbourn, Marpingen. 32 Lannon, Privilege, persecution, and prophecy, p. 25. 33 Ibid., p. 28.

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 david m. thompson wild behaviour and some sexual promiscuity. In the early nineteenth century there was a concerted effort by evangelical clergy in the Church of Scotland

overtones. Separation of church and state, as has been said,was not inevitable. Onthe other hand, it is misleading togive theimpression that the culturewar existed only in the minds of crusading Catholics and anticlerical intellectuals. It was fought also on the ground, nowhere more so than in Brittany, where

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 james f. mCmillan the school war, or guerre scolaire, as described by Michel Lagr´ee, was 'the continuation of la chouannerie by other means', a kind of action replay of the

many local sanctuaries. The Book of Deuteronomy, or parts of it, dated from 7 See Rogerson, Old Testament criticism, pp. 184-8. 8 See Sheehan, German history; McClelland, State, society and university in Germany. 9 Rogerson, W. M. L. deWette, pp. 145-57.

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 john rogerson this time. As well as advocating a revolutionary view of the history of Israelite sacrifice and religion, de Wette had argued that much of the material in the

conversions to Roman Catholicism, notably that of Henry Manning, 67 For a classic contemporary survey reviewed in the light of recent scholarship, see Conybeare (ed. Burns), 'Church parties'. 68 Chadwick, The Victorian church, vol. i, pp. 250-71.

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 john wolffe later second archbishop of Westminster. Despite the differences in theology, the underlying principle of objection to perceived state interference with the

The centrality of hymn-singing in American Protestantism was rooted in the evangelical revivals of the eighteenth century. At the start of the nineteenth century, Americans, particularly in the South, developed shape-note singing from tune books as an indigenous, democratic way of putting to use the work

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 mark a. noll of Isaac Watts, Charles Wesley, John Newton and other stalwarts. Newton's 'Amazing Grace' was first paired with the tune 'New Britain' in the Southern

enlarged in successive nineteenth-century editions to make room for new, or newly promoted, devotional material; and through addenda to catechisms, or short compendia of doctrine, which increasingly taught devout practices, such as genuflexion, the telling of the rosary, the saying of grace before meals,

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 mary heimann the use of pious exclamations (such as 'Mary, Joseph and Jesus!') during the day and the recitation of prayers 'for a good death' at bedtime, as pious habits

creation (London: Longman, 1850), ch. 6. 5 Gregory, Nature lost?, pp. 112-59. 6 Further examples of scientists who produced important reconciliation treatises are: the Catholic magistrate and geologist Marcel Pierre Toussaint de Serres de Mespl`es

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 nicolaas a. rupke In the meantime, the NewYork chemist and historian JohnWilliam Draper (1811-82),whowas intimately familiar with religious issues from his Methodist

Christ and the Scriptures from the church. Christ preached the kingdom, and the kingdom came as the church, so that an orthodox Catholic could read Loisy's book as saying with tremendous scholarship what every Catholic believes.

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 sheridan gilley Yet Loisy did not believe that Jesus was divine as well as human or that he had meant to found the church. Loisy's faith was in the contemporary

In his most comprehensive exposition of this theme, the 1891 encyclical RerumNovarum, or 'Workers' Charter' as itwas later called, Leo used language which would not have disgraced Karl Marx and sent pious manufacturers fleeing through the church doors: 'a small number of very rich men', he

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 sheridan gilley declared, 'have been able to lay upon the teeming masses of the labouring poor a yoke little better than that of slavery itself '.2

in the provinces of Belluno, Padua, Treviso, Vicenza and Verona, Bergamo, Brescia,Como, Sondrio and Cuneo', the so-called 'white areas' of the Christian Democratic party.3 Sarto, the first of five twentieth-century popes from this 3 Pollard, 'Italy', p. 71.

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 sheridan gilley region, was born in Treviso, trained for the priesthood in Padua and became patriarch of Venice. The north Italian church owed much to the educational

the British army, with their own chaplains; Kipling's Kim in India was the son of such a soldier. The appointment of Irish bishops in India had as its outcome the opening of schools and orphanages by the Loreto Sisters and the Christian Brothers. The Society of African Missions and Holy Ghost Fathers contributed

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 sheridan gilley to the missionary effort in Africawhich, with the Maynooth Mission to China, was to becomemuch more substantial after 1914. The half-century to 1960 was

century; the archdiocese of Evora in the south only 145. Similarly, the Old Castilian archdiocese of Burgos had 1,500 parishes in 1842 but the archdiocese of Seville, with a far larger population, only 172. Neto, O Estado, a Igreja, pp. 55-6; S´aez Mar´ın, Datos sobre la Iglesia espa˜nola contempor´anea, pp. 139-40.

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 william j. callahan as time passed agricultural modernisation and emigration to the cities and Latin America led to rural depopulation that undermined the vitality of

was held prisoner from 1809 to 1814, reverted to the role of the monk who mended his own soutane. In 1814, the defeat of the Emperor Napoleon allowed him to return to Rome, where he revived the Society of Jesus. Almost alone among the numerous ecclesiastical principalities of the ancien r´egime, the astute

Cardinal Ercole Consalvi negotiated the restoration almost in toto of the Papal States at the Congress of Vienna, losing Avignon and the Venaissin in France, before taking up the reins of papal government. The papal archives and many of the artistic treasures looted by the French were returned to Rome. The

THE CHURCHES AND NATIONAL IDENTITIES Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

Catholic Christianity in France from the Restoration to the separation of church and state, 1815-1905 james f. mCmillan

including the visual and material culture of Catholicism. Throughout the century congregations adopted new works according to what they and the church hierarchy saw as fruitful. By 1914 the active congregations were seen as an essential part of the

Catholic Churchworldwide and had survived the expulsion of religious orders in Germany in the Kulturkampf of the 1870s, again in France in 1904 in a massive relocation of sisters to other parts of the world, and in Portugal in 1910. Recruitment of new sisters was very strong, almost systemic, with the peak in

the eighteenth century. It was a decisive step towards a more religiously pluralist concept of the British state. After the fall in November 1830 of the Wellington government, deserted by many of its own diehard backbenchers who could never forgive it for

Catholic Emancipation, the Whigs, led by Earl Grey, came to power with a clear reforming agenda. The struggle for parliamentary reform heightened 15 Bowen, The Protestant crusade; Brown, The national churches, pp. 93-136. 16 Cf. Clark, English society, pp. 393-408.

Church of Ireland. The dominant trend, however, especially in Ulster, was for Anglicans and Presbyterians to develop a sense of shared Protestant identity. Now that the establishment issue no longer divided them, for both minority groups this was a natural response to the challenge presented to them by

Catholic Irish nationalism. It also reflected the powerful impact of a crossdenominational evangelicalism which, to a greater extent than in other parts of the United Kingdom, came to dominate the religious culture of the non- Catholic churches in Ireland. It was further boosted by the Ulster Revival of

with the blessing of the congregation by the Host, framed in an elaborate monstrance. This marked rise in the use of set devotions among the Catholic laitywas an international phenomenon which appears to have left few, if any, nineteenthcentury

Catholic communities untouched. Its progress can be traced through parish church listings for special services such as PublicRosary and Benediction of the Blessed Sacrament; through visitation reports; through increases in the publication and sale of a wide variety of prayer books, most of which were

disappear. The Hungarian nation reacted to these attempts with passive resistance. Primate Scitovszky opposed the abolition of the distinctive features and special Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

Catholic nationalism in Hungary and Poland privileges of the Hungarian Catholic Church by convening bishops' conferences, and eventually, in 1854, he personally presented a Promemoria to Pius IX in Rome, in which he put forward arguments against extending

relative to the aristocracy and the regional assemblies of nobles, all difficult problems had to be taken to the local or regional nobility and compromises sought. But the relations between the clergy and the nobility were in general Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

Catholic nationalism in Hungary and Poland very good in the age of the Enlightenment, when ecclesiastical elites played an important role. The shock of encountering the three absolutisms which divided up the

1 Hallam, as cited in T. Okey, introduction to 'The little flowers' and the life of St Francis with the 'Mirror of perfection', ed. E. Rhys (London, n.d.), p. xxi; Heimann, 'St Francis and modern English sentiment'. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

Catholic revivalism in worship and devotion lay, not in ancient Greece or Rome, still less in the European Enlightenment, but rather in the holiness of medieval Christendom. Going to confession and taking the Blessed Sacrament stopped being treated as fearful privileges to be

order, but his English successor, Roger Bede Vaughan, archbishop of Sydney (1877-83), brother to the cardinal archbishop of Westminster HerbertVaughan, 6 Clark, A history of Australia, chs. i-iii. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

Catholicism, Ireland and the Irish diaspora was succeeded in turn as archbishop (1884-1911) by Patrick Francis Moran, Cullen's nephew, the first cardinal in Australia (from 1885), in a hierarchy which under Cullen's influence had become overwhelmingly Irish. A steady

enthusiasm gave mid to late nineteenth-century Christian worship and spirituality, whether Protestant or Catholic, a kind of broad family resemblance, despite the ever-sharper emphasis being placed, by both communities, on the doctrinal differences which continued to divide them.

Catholicism, as practised in all countries which boasted a substantial Catholic population, came to seem more exclusive and denominationally distinct as Catholics everywhere began to withdrawfromwhatwere increasingly perceived to be dangerous, non-Catholic influences by ensuring that theywent

the peace, German Catholics increasingly severed their ties with their Protestant neighbours, creating a socio-cultural world of their own that scholars have alternatively described as a Catholic ghetto or milieu. They bought from Catholic-ownedshops and read newspapers published by and oriented towards

Catholics. Distinctly Catholic approaches to folk literature, church architecture, art, and even historical writing and scholarship also emerged after 1870, all ofwhich the Protestant middle class roundly disparaged. Most significantly, Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

and publisher Ira Sankey (1840-1908) to mount large public meetings. Moody's great popularity as an urban evangelist did not make him callous to the needs of society, but his focus was on the soul. His broader significance lay in the institutions he founded, including a Bible training centre for lay workers in

Chicago (later the Moody Bible Institute) and the Student Volunteer Movement (1876) that encouraged thousands of students to dedicate their lives to service as foreign missionaries. While Moody's solution to the problems of a rapidly industrialising America

Christianity and the sciences and philosophers on the other. Two epic clashes in this war occurred, the first initiated at G¨ottingen, the second at Oxford. Comparative anatomy was the battlefield and in particular the physical anthropology of skulls and brains.

Christian anthropologists such as Johann Friedrich Blumenbach (1752-1840) and James Prichard (1786-1848) upheld the unity of mankind, which to many implied that differences between human races are small as compared to those between humans and the anthropoid apes. A search continued for anatomical

foreign missions, the numerous revivals, the general attendance on divine worship, and the custom of family devotion - all expressions of the general Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 mark a. noll

Christian character of the people, in which the Americans are already in advance of most of the old Christian nations of Europe.1 For all its dynamism, the course of Christianity in North America throughout this period was never tranquil. If there were triumphs of democratic

in the intellectual climate produced by the rise of the Romantic movement. Chateaubriand's The genius of Christianity (1802) did more than any other single work to restore the credibility and prestige of Christianity in intellectual circles and launched a fashionable rediscovery of the Middle Ages and their

Christian civilisation. The revival was by no means confined to an intellectual elite, however, but was evident in the real, if uneven, rechristianisation of the French countryside. Coming on top of an already significant decline in religious practice towards the end of the ancien r´egime, the French Revolution had

was predominantly Protestant, and reproduced the denominational divisions of Victorian Britain with fervently Catholic and Nonconformist minorities, though after 1840 without an established church. Yet it wore its Protestantism with a difference - some might say with an indifference - combining generally

Christian convictions with strong culture-based reservations in the national psyche about the institutional churches. One purpose of this work is simply to supply the necessary information for understanding a subject and its latest literature.There is onewholly regrettable

derive from the late medieval monuments of the Baltic coast of Germany. The pictures which place crucifixes against mountain settings (The cross in the forest, 1820) or against striking skyscapes (The cross beside the Baltic, 1815, and the superb Morning in the Riesengebirge, 1810-11) insist most overtly on a

Christian reading of landscape. TheWinter landscape of 1811 shows a man who has thrown away his crutches in the snow as he contemplates the cross. In the distance there rises a church touched by the sun's rays. This Christian context is supremely evident in the so-called 'Teschen Altar' or The cross in the

that legislation. Sumner sought to put a more optimistic interpretation upon T. R. Malthus's influential Essay on population (1798). 28 Wearmouth, Methodism and the working-class movements of England, pp. 217-21. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

Christian social thought Alongside these legal structures, which after 1834 were verymuch intended to be a last resort, the British churches supported a host of charitable activities at a local level to assist those in need. Historically many parish churches had

By 1919 thewaywas clear in Italy for a political party imbued with the ideals of Rerum Novarum, but its founder, Luigi Sturzo, carefully avoided the title 25 Graves de Communi Re (1901) in Carlen, The papal encyclicals 1878-1903, pp. 480-3. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

Christian social thought Christian Democracy and named it the 'Partito Popolare Italiano'.26 Many whose ideals and impetus were shaped in their youth by Rerum Novarum - Alcide De Gasperi, Konrad Adenauer, Robert Schuman, Carlo Sforza and

Novarum; Molony, 'The making of Rerum Novarum', pp. 27-39. 17 See the sentence in Fremantle (ed.), The papal encyclicals, p. 166; Molony, The worker question, pp. 101-3. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

Christian social thought Roman republic had often come across the words 'rerum novarum cupidine' in the writings of Cicero, Sallust and Caesar, where they invariably meant that the 'mob' was often stirred up by a determination to overthrow the existing

theologians' - that is to say, the 'rising generation of Tories and High Churchmen' - were likely to 'find him vastly too liberal'.12 Indeed Newman famously thought that Coleridge indulged a 'liberty of speculation, which no Christian can tolerate, and advocated conclusionswhichwere often heathen rather than

Christian'.13 Coleridge argued in Aids to reflection that Reason is the organ of wisdom and the source of truth and that the Christian dogmas should be considered in the light of their tendency to improve ethics or mind, an argument that reveals the degree to which Coleridge internalised the ideals of the

would coincide with state borders. The borders of Fulda (Hesse-Kassel), Hildesheim (Hanover) and Limburg (Nassau) were thus redrawn, the old 2 Clark, 'German Jews', p. 127. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

Christianity and the creation of Germany bishopric of Constance divided into the dioceses of Freiburg (for Baden) and Rottenburg (W¨urttemberg), and the former electoral diocese of Mainz restored as the see for Hesse-Darmstadt. At the same time, the Vatican strove

mood, as some have argued, but it does reflect the fact that by 1914 there was no European country in which Protestant thinking on social questions determined the political agenda. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

Christianity and the sciences nicolaas a. rupke Cognitive dissonance about cosmogony Amongthe different possible approaches to Christianity and the sciences is that

2 vols. (London: George Routledge, 1858), vol. i, pp. 13-31. 18 J. P. Smith, The relation between the Holy Scriptures and some parts of geological science, 5th edn (London: Henry Bohn, 1839); Greene, 'Genesis and geology', pp. 139-59. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

Christianity and the sciences the consequence of human sin - had entered the world long before the fall of man. The restitutionary exegesis - just as the concordist one -was not new; it had

which located itself between neo-Thomism and the Liberal Protestant notion of 'The essence of Christianity': Christianity had to see itself as a part of a dynamic process. The opposition to the Ritschl-Harnack school was in a sense more rhetorical than real, since the neo-Kantian immunisation of

Christianity from the intrusions of scientific and historical critique was as radical as anything in the Ritschlian school. With their polemic opposition to 'theoretical' knowledge and 'speculation', Catholic Modernists like Edouard le Roy (1870-1954) shared much in common with liberal Protestants.

Kulturkampf (literally: culture war) actually strengthened Catholic solidarity and deepened the Catholic-Protestant divide. Nevertheless, because imperial Germany remained a fundamentally Christian state, even Catholics found meaningful ways to claim citizenship in the nation. In Austria-Hungary, too,

Christianity played a critical symbolic role in keeping the fragile,multinational dual monarchy together. The Franco-Prussian war completed the territorial dimension of German nation-building, but internally the process had just begun. The Kulturkampf

the French Republic. Her brothers were punished for their part in the city's rebellion against the Republic the previous year, for they and their siblings had been brought up in the committed Catholic household of a wealthy Lyonnais silk merchant that openly opposed the Revolution's anticlericalism and anti-

Christianity. For more than twenty years after this life-changing experience Marie-ClaudineTh´evenet lived at home, following a life of prayer and personal charitable activity thatwas sufficiently striking to be noticed by others. When, in 1816, she worked with a well-known local priest, Fr Andrew Coindre, to

religion in Britain (Oxford: Blackwell, 1994). James H. Grayson is Professor of Modern Korean Studies in the School of East Asian Studies at the University of Sheffield. An anthropologist, Methodist minister and former missionary to Korea, he has written extensively on the religious traditions of Korea, including

Christianity. His books include Early Buddhism and Christianity in Korea (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1985) and Korea: a religious history (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989, revised edition Routledge- Curzon 2002). Among his articles on the socio-cultural aspects of Korean Christianity are 'The Shintˆo shrine conflict and Protestant martyrs in Korea, 1938-1945', Missiology 29 (2001),

nationalism. In such a context the situation of the Church of Ireland looked ever more marginal and perilous. There is room for pondering the parallel between the repeal movement in Ireland and the Disruption in Scotland, as proto-nationalist movements, drawing much of their inspiration from organised

Christianity.40 Moreover all these developments in 1843 pointed, in different ways, to widespread resistance to close association between church and state. Thus by the 1840s there had already been substantial weakening in the

done by Hermann Gunkel in the three editions of his commentary on Genesis (1901, 1902, 1910) which moved progressively to the view that the stories of the Patriarchs had their origin in Hebrew folk tales (M¨archen), which in their turn had much in common with the folk tales of all nations. Earlier, Gunkel's

Creation and chaos (1890) had drawn attention to the importance of Jewish apocalyptic as the milieu which had preserved the biblical traditions about the beginning and end of time, traditions which owed much to Babylonian influence.46

Institute, Rome, and Consultor for Liturgy of the Vatican Congregation for the Oriental Churches. He has authored over 690 publications, chiefly on Oriental liturgy, including fifteen books. David M. Thompson is Fellow and President of Fitzwilliam College, Reader in Modern

Church History in the University of Cambridge and Director of the Centre for Advanced Religious and Theological Studies. He has published widely on Victorian nonconformity, nineteenth-century Christian social thought and the history of the ecumenical movement. Dag Thorkildsen is Professor in the Faculty of Theology at the University of Oslo. He

look to its own renewal. Dioceses were established, seminaries were founded, and a new and more dedicated clergy emerged. Monarchy, however, had not been the only embarrassment. The stain of slavery seeped through the whole of Brazilian society, and few institutions were left unmarked. The Catholic

Church was no exception. While the faithful relied on priests for mass and sacraments, priests depended upon bishops for selection and ordination, and the church depended on them as teachers and administrators. The Latin American episcopate was

of Bangor and St Asaph, which had been recommended by the Ecclesiastical Commissioners.58 A further key development was the appointment in 1850 of an energetic new bishop, Alfred Ollivant, to Llandaff, the diocese which included many of the most industrialised districts. He recognised that 'our

Church, if it would be a national Church, should provide for the instruction of the people in the tongue not only in which they speak, but in which they think and feel'.59 Although Ollivant himself was not a native Welsh speaker, both he and his contemporary at St David's, Connop Thirlwall, struggled to

made an important contribution to the secularisation of the Nordic nations. Outside a smaller elite of radical intellectuals this secularisation, however, consisted not in dechristianisation, but rather in a religious and ideological individualisation, differentiation and pluralism.

Church, state and nation While religious revivalism actualised the question of individual identity, the modernisation of the Nordic societies challenged the traditional identity of Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

desire to see higher standards in singing,musicianship and the composition of new liturgical works. In this regard, the appointments of E. J. Hopkins at the Temple Church in London and T. A.Walmisley at Trinity College, Cambridge became a focus for change, as did E. G. Monk's choral services at Radley

College, and Ouseley's self-financed establishment of St Michael's College, Tenbury, intended as a model of the cathedral ideal, was perhaps the most remarkable. The most strident cry from the cathedral quarter, however, came from S. S. Wesley with his tract A few words on cathedral music (1849) written

redoubtable Jabez Bunting. The stringency of control from above was probably a necessary check on the extensive authority given to laymen as class leaders, society stewards and local preachers. But the tight discipline was unable to prevent a series of secessions fromWesleyanism: the Methodist New

Connexion, asserting greater rights for laypeople in denominational decisionmaking (with 0.4 per cent of the population in 1851); the Primitive Methodists, practising a more unrestrained revivalism (1.9 per cent); the Bible Christians, largely restricted to the south-west of England (0.3 per cent); and the United

Netherlands 323 urs altermatt, franziska metzger and michael wintle vi Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

Contents 21 · Scandinavia: Lutheranism and national identity 342 dag thorkildsen 22 · 'Christian America' and 'Christian Canada' 359

position of the Roman Catholic Church in Mediterranean Europe, with some dioceses remaining vacant for several years. It was also the first opportunity for anticlerical voices to be heard in force; thereafter in the nineteenth century it proved impossible to quell them. This was first apparent at the time of the

Cortes of 1812, though their reforms were short-lived. The Revolution of 1820, which abolished the Inquisition for a second time and once more removed the Jesuits from the scene, began the process of reforming the monasteries; about half of them were suppressed. This was carried further in the Liberal

and 'Cultural encounter: Korean Protestantism and other religious traditions', International Bulletin of Missionary Research 25 (2001). Douglas Hedley is Senior Lecturer in the Philosophy of Religion at the University of Cambridge and a Fellow of Clare College. In 2002 he was Directeur d'´etudes invit´e at the

Ecole pratique des hautes ´etudes, Sorbonne, Paris, and he was the Alan Richardson Lecturer in Christian Apologetics at the University of Durham in 2004. He is a past Secretary of the British Society for the Philosophy of Religion and a past President of the European Society for the Philosophy of Religion. He is the author of Coleridge, philosophy and

divinely inspired purity was the scholarship that turned the Christian religion with its textual sources, ritual practices and context of historical origins into a subject of comparative scientific research.26 The decipherment of tablets with Sumerian parallels to the Old Testament stories of creation and deluge -

Enuma Elish and the Gilgamesh Epic respectively - strengthened Friedrich Delitzsch (1850-1922), son of Franz Delitzsch, and other Assyriologists, in the belief that the Biblewas not an original source, but that 'Bible' had to be traced back to 'Babel'. More comprehensively, the history of religions approach,

imprecisely called 'Gallicanism' or 'Liberal Catholicism'. Although a handful of 'Ultramontane' enthusiasts in England, as elsewhere, campaigned hard for the Vatican-approved prayer book, the Raccolta or Collection of indulgenced prayers, to be translated into English and spread among the local Catholic community,

English Catholics continued instead to buy successively enlarged and updated 17 F.W. Faber, Growth in holiness; or the progress of the spiritual life (London: Burns and Oates, 1854), p. 371. 18 J. H. Newman to Mrs William Froude, 2 Jan. 1855, in C. S. Dessain, et al. (eds.), The

were dissolved in 1855, and this legislation was extended to other parts of Italy as Piedmont unified the country after 1859-60. Church property in Italy was sufficient to support clerical stipends. There were similar regional variations in religious practice in northern

Europe. In Great Britain the difference between areas was less than in France. Professor McLeod noted that few, if any, areas of England could match the overwhelmingly high levels of religious practice found in parts of Brittany, and England certainly had no dechristianised areas to match the Limousin.17 However,

The Catholic Revival and the rise of Ultramontanism If, as has already been shown elsewhere in this volume, the nineteenth century was an age of religious revival as much as the age of 'the secularisation of the

European mind', French Catholicismwas a notable case in point. Between 1815 and 1880 Catholic Christianity in Francewas completely transformed from the ruinous state towhich theRevolution had reduced it.The entire infrastructure was rebuilt, starting with the diocesan clergy,whowere recruited in impressive

pinnacled fl`eches to the west, south and north, by a solid central spire rising above the crossing, and by a regular succession of buttresses crowned with protruding gargoyles. The nearest Viollet got to designing a real cathedral was his completion of the thirteenth-century Notre-Dame at Clermont-

Ferrand, but his finest non-secular achievement is the church of Saint-Denisde- l'Estr´ee, in the Parisian suburb of Saint-Denis (1864-6). The church has a wide nave and is vaulted throughout, though it has lost its original decorative scheme. Amongst the most prominent of Viollet's pupils was Paul Abadie

John H. Nicholson and Samuel Hill, who met by chance at the Central Hotel in Boscobel,Wisconsin, formed a society to provide easy access to Scripture that came to be called the 'Gideons' and that has distributed hundreds of millions of Bibles all over the world.

Fiction, hymns and poetry employing biblical themes were staples of popular publishing. In the visual arts, biblical materials provided inspiration for German immigrants embellishing needlework with Fraktur print, nineteenthcentury lithographers like Currier and Ives, countless painters at countless

Willem II they began to reassert their identity, with the help of publicists such as J. le Sage ten Broek (1775-1847), and later J. A. Alberdink Thijm (1820-89). Since the Reformation there had been no Roman Catholic episcopal hierarchy in the Netherlands - the faithfulwere served by clergy answerable to the Propaganda

Fide inRome, and formed a 'mission area'.Asuccession of concordats between Rome and the Dutch government were tortuously arranged, but before the mid-century the organisation of Roman Catholicism in the Netherlands was both weak and complicated.

This book is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published 2006 Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication data

both enthusiasts for Spinoza. 4 Young, Religion and enlightenment. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Theology and the revolt against the Enlightenment

Five responses to the Enlightenment challenge A traditional and widespread view of the nineteenth century is that Protestantism succumbed to a compromise with secular culture and ideals whereas Catholicism held out robustly but vainly against secular culture with the palladium

new cathedral of Sainte-Marie-Majeure (1852-93), designed by L´eon Vaudoyer (1803-72) and his pupil Henri-Jacques Esp´erandieu (1829-74), and, on a hill on the other side of the port, Esp´erandieu's ungainly Notre-Dame-de-la-Garde (1853-64). The spacious cathedral, an admixture of Byzantine, Siennese and

Florentine elements, dwarfs its medieval predecessor which was allowed to remain in its shadow. As in England, the French Gothic Revival went hand-in-hand with a campaign to restore the remaining architectural heritage to its former glory. The

'cathedral of nature', and some of its architectural features gave expression to such ecclesiastical pretensions.52 The institutional tug-of-war, in extremecases, divided the scientificcommunity, with Christian scientists founding bulwarks against anti-ecclesiastical colleagues.

For example, in 1907 the Lutheran biologist Eberhard Dennert (1861- 1942), supported by the botanist and Darwin-critic Johannes Reinke (1843- 1921) and many other scientific as well as non-scientific academics, founded the Kepler Union, to counteract the Monist League, established in 1906 at the

the Protestant Inner Mission to the Catholic Volksverein, turned to the state to protect Christian standards of morality, as exemplified in their campaigns for new obscenity and prostitution laws. The Kaiserreich's Christian orientation also manifested itself in colonial politics.

For such prominent advocates of the Germanimperial mission as Friedrich Fabri, director of the Rhenish Mission in Barmen(Germany's largest Protestant mission), the acquisition of colonieswas a moral necessity and a Christian duty. Both the Catholic and the Protestantcommunities had a significant missionary

at K¨oniggr¨atz seem the confessional triumph of which nationalists later boasted. More critically in this time of heightened religious tension, the Bund's demise meant that the German states were now free to alter their policies on confessional parity.

For this very reason, the Catholic deputies to the North German parliament wanted the new constitution to guarantee religious freedom. The liberal majority, however, branded this plea for toleration as disloyalty to the nation and voted down the Catholics' motions. Although Catholics held a

implied the marginalisation of these territories on all possible levels. The network of schools, Russian exclusively from the last decade of the century, further dwindled, and increasingly illiteracy prevailed. Outside some progressive industrial towns such as L ´od´z or Warsaw traditional poverty was dominant.

Force reigned in the place of law, and widespread corruption often gave opportunity to buy a favourable decision from the authorities. Parishes were strictly controlled; a parish priest did not, for example, have the right to leave his place of residence without the permission of the Russian police. Resistance was

the Prussian provincial assemblies in 1847 the influential conservative Protestant theologian Friedrich Julius Stahl successfully argued that Prussia should not grant Jews full civil rights, for 'itwould violate the principles of a Christian state, if non-Christians were allowed to hold public offices'.3

Forging the German nation-state Well into the 1840s, German conservatives emphasised the Christian character of monarchical rule to hinder political and social change. Dissatisfaction with the status quo, however, was rising. The industrial and cultured middle class

arose modern Pentecostalism. Soon after William J. Seymour (1870- 1922), an African-American preacher, founded the Apostolic Faith Gospel Mission in 1906 at an abandoned Methodist church on Azusa Street in Los Angeles, the message he had learned about the sign gifts of the Holy Spirit from Charles

FoxParham (1873-1929) and other holiness evangelists created a local sensation. Hispanics, blacks and Caucasians streamed to Azusa Street, and theywere soon joined by a wide array of international visitors, who were eager to experience physical healing, ecstaticworship and the gift of tongues. Out of the sanctified

The Scottish situation differed fundamentally from the Irish and theWelsh ones in that, although there was initially intense rivalry between the divided Presbyterian churches, therewas no privileged alien religious establishment to stir religious nationalist feelings. Spurned though itwas by the founders of the

Free Church, the Church of Scotland was an undeniably Scottish institution, while Episcopalians in Scotlandwere a small minority,who in any case also had an indigenous tradition behind them. Certainly the Free Church was to some extent a cradle for proto-nationalism: under the editorship of Hugh Miller its

W¨urzburg and Viennawere important traditional centres of German Catholic thought, and the Romantic-Idealisticmovement led to an enhanced awareness of the positive role of the Catholic Church in medieval Europe and encouraged many leading Protestant intellectuals to convert to Roman Catholicism.

Friedrich Schlegel and his wife DorotheaVeit (daughter of the great Enlightenment philosopher Moses Mendelssohn) converted to Catholicism and moved from Protestant Berlin to Catholic Vienna. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

St Symphorian of 1834 for the cathedral at Autun. It was, however, in Rome, and among another group of foreign artists, that an artistic revolt against academic convention and neo-Classical forms first became evident. Where German Protestant artists, such as Caspar David

Friedrich, found a profound expression of their religious perceptions through landscape, certain of their compatriots, many of them Italian-based Catholics, sought inspiration from artistic sources which pre-dated the High Renaissance. A group of Romantically minded painters formed the 'Lukasbund' (or

believer's baptism by immersion rather than infant baptism. The Particular Baptistswere originally, like the Independents, believers in predestination, but the Calvinism of the majority faded gradually during the century. By 1891 it had thus become possible for them to unite with the New Connexion of

General Baptists whose members, like the Methodists, upheld the Arminian belief in the availability of salvation for all. In 1851 the various branches of the Baptists together attracted 2.9 per cent of the population. Unlike the Independents and Baptists, the Quakers, officially known as the Society of Friends,

to combine faith with knowledge, tradition and freedom. Mark Pattison in his superbly learned essay 'Tendencies of religious thought in England, 1688-1750' in Essays and reviews wrote that 'theology had almost died outwhen it received a new impulse and a new direction from Coleridge'.10 Coleridge introduced

German critical ideas into England in a moderate and cautious fashion. At the same time he was able to revive the native tradition of the Cambridge Platonists and William Law. He thus inaugurated a shift in English theology that marked much of the nineteenth century. Its temper became more Greek

property was best protected where it was most widely distributed; hence the word 'distributism' to describe the English version of his doctrine, arising from his reference to a justice distributive to all. His ideal society most closely resembled those of northern Italy, France, Spain and Portugal, and parts of

Germany and Austria, with an abundance of small property owners of farms and homes and businesses, whereas socialism and unbridled capitalism both defied social harmony and the natural law. Catholic electorates and politicians had now been given a fighting practical

have been turned into a memorial with different connotations from those that first inspired it. The mid-century idea that the Gothic was a specifically Christian style, variously expressed by Pugin in England, Viollet in France and Reichensperger in

Germany, became intertwined with the notion that it was also a national style evolved in distinctive ways in medieval England, France and the Germanic lands. In the mid-nineteenth century, Gothic became associated not only with neglected national achievement but with the essence of national identity. In

Catholic revivalism in worship and devotion 'timid', 'apologetic' or 'incomplete',9 the implication being that only fully 'Roman' Catholicism was true Catholicism. G´erard Cholvy and Yves-Marie Hilaire, many of whose arguments have been presented in English by Ralph

Gibson, have likewise written with regret of the replacement of a multitude of idiosyncratic French saints - whose images were often associated with curative and semi-magical powers - with the anodyne, mass-produced plaster andterracotta statues of Counter-Reformationsaints for sale near Saint-Sulpice

appointed the Neapolitan composer Paisiello as his new musical director of the chapel. Extremely well paid in his new post and the envy of his jealous French contemporaries, Paisiello composed large quantities of church music for his employer including masses and motets, but failed to succeed at the

Grand Op´era, where his own brand of Italian opera seria conflicted with the emerging new operatic styles of M´ehul, Le Sueur, Cherubini and Spontini. Disenchanted with his artistic predicament in Paris, Paisiello left France in the spring of 1804, having already composed a lavish setting of the Te Deum

the population included just under 212 million Hungarian Calvinists (14 per cent of the population), 114 million German Lutherans, and over 2 million

Greek Orthodox, most of them Romanians in Transylvania. There was a substantial minority of more than 800,000 Jews and an historic body of nearly 70,000 Unitarians. This mosaic of minorities, the consequence of the absence of Habsburg

successor. Most of Leo's record number of seventy-five encyclicals were purely religious: there were nine on the Rosary alone. They were, however, also global in aspiration and vision, as in his dedication of humanity to the Sacred

Heart in 1899. His handsome face and slim, elegant figure, in itswhite cassock, won hearts, and he even figured, sine permissu, in an English advertisement for Bovril. He insisted, however, on the full observance of royal protocol around his person, as pope-king, despite the loss of his dominions, and he lacked the

The Catholic Church in Spain, 1875 -1 998 (Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 2000). He has edited, with David Higgs, Church and society in Catholic Europe of the eighteenth century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979). Frank Coppa is Professor of History and Director of Doctoral Studies in ModernWorld

History at St John's University in New York. He has written and edited more than a dozen volumes on united Italy and the modern papacy. His work has explored the Risorgimento as well as the counter-Risorgimento, including biographies of Camillo di Cavour as well as Pius IX and Cardinal Giacomo Antonelli. His most recent volumes include The modern

World Press, 2003). Jerzy Kloczowski is Professor of History at the Catholic University of Lublin, Director of the Institute of East-Central Europe in Lublin, Chair of the International Federation of Institutes of East-Central Europe, Chair of the Polish Commission of the Comparative

History of Churches and Vice-Chair of the International Commission of the Comparative History of Churches, and Chair of the Polish Commission for UNESCO. His numerous publications include Ahistory of Polish Christianity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), Chrze´scija´nstwo i historia [Christianity and history] (1990), Mlodsza Europa [The younger

satirical picture of clergy in a highly politicised and factionalised cathedral city rather than an account of spiritual crises or ethical aspirations. Such dilemmas and aspirations are, however, central to the argument of Thomas Hughes's Tom Brown's schooldays (1857), a book written explicitly for boys and shaped by

Hughes's own understanding - which was probably a misunderstanding - of the moral principles of his mentor, Thomas Arnold. The immensely popular Canon FredericWilliam Farrar's Eric, or Little by little (1858) tried to claim the school story for Christianity. Indeed school stories in general became a vehicle

and Poland A: Hungary gabriel adri ´anyi The Hungary which became a co-equal partner with Austria in the Austro-

Hungarian empire in 1867was more than three times larger than the truncated modern state which emerged from the FirstWorldWar, and which excluded 3 million Hungarians. Hungary before 1918 included Slovakia (which became part of Czechoslovakia) and Transylvania, which was transferred in 1918 to

as 'mythical', that is, as presenting what were essentially 'ideas' in narrative form. The Prussian authorities responded by blocking the academic careers of Vatke and Strauss and by ensuring the appointment of orthodox scholars in universities under their control.11

If biblical criticismwas tomakeprogress against the conservatisms of Britain and Germany, it would be by way of moderate criticism that did not overturn accepted belief so radically, and a work that provided the inspiration for such an approach was B. G. Niebuhr's History of Rome.12 In Britain it inspired

to constitute about a seventh of the Catholic population, in what remained an Irish-dominated but otherwise an increasingly multiethnic church with numerous 'national parishes' catering to particular communities, in which continental priests ministered to their coreligionists from Europe.

In an overwhelmingly Protestant nation, the church had to face discrimination and popular persecution, most spectacularly from the 'Know-Nothing' movement; Protestant nativists burnt down two churches and the diocesan seminary in Philadelphia in 1844. Prejudice against the Irish was exacerbated

After the revolutionary era, American churches promoting reasonably orthodox beliefs flourished, precisely because they adapted so energetically to the republican freedoms won by the War for Independence. But by 1860 the mixture of religious and political freedom had taken on a sobering aspect.

In both the North and the South, evangelical Christians, who held that the Bible was true and who trusted their own understandings of Scripture above all other religious authorities, constituted the most influential religious presence. Religionwas nowat a higher point of public influence than at any time in

heirs of the Enlightenment in politics, and they continued the secularisation of the Dutch state. Having been dictated to by Erastian governments in the first half of the century, the Reformed Church was now being cut off from the state in the second half.

In opposition to these changes were first and foremost the strict orthodox Calvinist groups, organised in congregations which wanted little to do with a church hierarchy or indeed with other parts of society in general. They were known as the 'blackstockings', the 'weighty' or 'heavy' ones. Their numbers

example. The most important point is the great range of variation in the levels of religious practice both within and between different countries. The explanation for these variations may be on the supply side asmuch as on the demand side.

In other words, the shortage of clergy and church buildings in rapidly growing areas, whether towns or industrial villages, certainly created conditions in which the proportion of the population attending church fell dramatically. This explains the emphasis on church building in the Church of England in the

commitment to ultra-royalist politics: Bishop Clausel de Montals of Chartres (1769-1857)was the last of a dying breed. Indeed, the Gallican establishmentwas increasingly sympathetic to liberalism, whether religious or political, above all in the key episcopal see of Paris.

In the era of a resurgent papacy, however, the days of Gallicanismwere numbered. The future lay with the new, militant, and above allRoman, Catholicism of Pius IX. From the outset of the nineteenth century, powerful arguments against Gallicanism gained currency in intellectual circles as a result of the

draft Liberatore said that it had to be sufficient to meet the simple needs of a worker and his family. The text was reworked by the Dominican theologian Cardinal Zigliara, who refused to go so far because a just wage had to be paid principally forwork done, without reference to the social status of theworker.

In the event the question remained clouded, because the encyclical also stated that 'awage ought to be sufficient to support a frugal andwell-behavedworker' and further spoke of theworker receiving 'awage sufficient to support himself and his wife and children in moderate comfort'. After the publication of Rerum

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 john wolffe proportion of Anglicans only increased slightly from 10.7 per cent in 1834 to 11.9 per cent in 1861.49

In the late 1860s pressure for disestablishment was building, but it only became inevitable when in March 1868 the Liberal leader W. E. Gladstone placed it at the centre of his attack on the Conservative government and won the subsequent general election on that basis. Although, thirty years before,

the Catholic Church in Nova Scotia, most notably through Thomas Louis Connolly (archbishop 1859-76), a champion of Canadian Federation. The first bishop of New Brunswick,William Dollard (1843-51), was also Irish, as were his two successors. The province of Ontario could claim fourteen

Irish-born bishops in the nineteenth century, the most distinguished being John Joseph Lynch, archbishop of Toronto, from County Monaghan (bishop 1860-70; archbishop 1870-88), who succeeded a French aristocrat, the comte de Charbonnel; at one point Ontario had five Irish-born bishops. In Quebec,

37 Prela to Antonelli, 9 and 14 June 1853,ASV, SSE, 1853, rubrica 242, fascicolo 3, sottofascicoli 19, 24. 38 Carlen (ed.), The papal encyclicals, vol. i, pp. 331-3. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

Italy: the church and the Risorgimento unconditional commitment to bring Piedmont into the Crimean War. This cynical compromise confirmed Pio Nono's conviction that nationalism and anticlericalism were synonymous, and he opposed both.

Victorian England (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), and has contributed to a number of surveys of modern religious history. She is currently completing a political history of Czechoslovakia, to be published by Hambledon and London, as well as planning a history of modern British attitudes towards the supernatural.

Janice Holmes is Lecturer in Irish History at the University of Ulster, Coleraine. Her specialisms include religious revivals, female ministry and Irish Presbyterianism. She has edited, with Diane Urquhart, Coming into the light: the work, politics and religion of women in Ulster, 1840-1940 (Belfast: Institute of Irish Studies, 1994) and published Religious revivals in

very thorough and scholarly piece of work which, while it paid attention to Colenso, Darwin and German biblical criticism, was uncompromisingly apologetic and traditional. Fundamental to Wordsworth's approach was the decisive authority of the New Testament, and in particular the teaching of

Jesus, in matters of criticism. The truth of Jonah's having been swallowed by a whale was confirmed by Jesus's reference to it as prefiguring his death and resurrection (Matthew 12:40), while 2 Peter 2:16, which referred to Baalam's speaking ass, guaranteed the truth of that story from Numbers 22:28-30.33

built churches. Dedicated priests, lay brothers and nuns staffed these churches, even as they oversaw the development of schools, insurance societies, youth organisations, newspapers and other accoutrements of civilisation. The second generation of American bishops included leaders like Irishborn

John England (1786-1842) of Charleston, South Carolina, who directly addressed the persistent Protestant charge that no church owing allegiance to the pope could ever be truly loyal to the United States. While eager to maintain traditional spiritual authority, England assured his fellow Americans that the

Australia and New Zealand, sectarian politics was dominated by the largely ineffective Catholic claim for public funding for their schools. Thesewere only founded and maintained by the self-sacrifice of religious orders of Irish origin, though there were also new indigenous orders, most notably the Sisters of St

Joseph, founded by the first Antipodean canonised saint, the Scots St Mary MacKillop. Other areas of some Irish settlement within the empire include South Africa. The small number of early Irish immigrants, especially those who arrived in

had broken into time. This means that truth is not immanent for humanity but can only be received as a gift from without. In order to bridge the chasm between God and man, God must become man and enter in time. This is fulfilled in the paradox of the incarnation of the eternal Godhead in time.

Kierkegaard used the delightful image of the king who must disguise himself in order towoo the humble maiden. The upshot of Kierkegaard's theology is a radical rejection of Hegelian rationalism: discontinuity rather than continuity between finite and infinite, and paradox rather than mediation.

as a triple alliance of church, slavery and monarchy as the major obstacles to national progress, and believed, however unjustly, that they would sink or swim together. The religion of the people

Large numbers of Latin Americans deserted the Catholic Church in the nineteenth century.Reason deposed faithamongthe professional classes,while positivism provided an intellectual alternative to Christian doctrines. The decline of religious practice, however, was a story not only of lapsed Catholics but

Barth. He is also a difficult figure to judge because of his use of pseudonyms. His work represents a link between the counter-Enlightenment polemics of Hamann and the attacks on Protestant liberalism among dialectical theologians via his critique of the Hegelianism of his Danish contemporary Hans

Lassen Martensen. Kierkegaard distinguished between three 'stages' of human existence: the aesthetic, the ethical and the religious. He also insisted upon the Christian doctrine of the Fall as implying the impossibility of the realisation of a truly

fac¸ade is dominated by a centrally placed bell-tower surmounted by a complex spire. His church of the Sacr´e-Coeur at Moulins (1849 onwards) has, like his Paris church of Saint-Jean-Baptiste-de-Belleville (1854-9), a twin-towered fac¸ade, though that at Moulins has far finer proportions.

Lassus's colleague and chief collaborator,Viollet-le-Duc, acquired a Europewide reputation through his great scholarly enterprises the Dictionnaire raisonn´e de l'architecture franc¸aise du XIe au XVIe si`ecle (1854-68, 1875) and the Dictionnaire raisonn´e du mobilier franc¸aise de l'´epoque carolingienne `a la renaissance

religion: aids to reflection and the mirror of the spirit (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000). xi Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

List of contributors Mary Heimann is Senior Lecturer in History at the University of Strathclyde, and associate editor, with responsibility for Catholic entries, for the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004). She is the author of Catholic devotion in

of the Christian conduct of science, involving a study of Christian scientists, their scientific accomplishments, and the importance of religious upbringing and beliefs for the character of scientific subjects and theories. This approach was followed as early as the closing decades of the period 1815-1914, when a

Lutheran theologian at the University of Greifswald, OttoZ¨ockler (1833-1906), produced histwo-volumeGottesZeugenimReichderNatur (1881),andwhenfrom the Catholic side Das Christentum und die Vertreter der neueren Naturwissenschaft (1903; English trans. 1911; new edition 1995), by the Jesuit church historian Karl

Of the many composers who contributed tunes - Gauntlett, Barnby, S. S. Wesley, Sullivan, Goss, E. J. Hopkins, H. Smart, Stainer and Dykes - it was Dykes above all who seemed to encapsulate the archetypal art form and whose contributions were more abundant than any of his contemporaries.

Melodies such as 'Dominus regit me' ('The King of love my shepherd is')were attractive for their yearning contours and sequential phrases, but what truly distinguished Dykes's work was the quality of his harmony, part-writing and bold structure. Dykes had been a keen Cambridge musician, a founder of the

Wesley's Methodism in the Church of England. However, from an early stage there were also those who were sufficiently critical of the existing churches that they set up alternative structures, for example the Moravian Brotherhood under Count Zinzendorf. Whatwas increasingly discovered, even byWesley's

Methodists, was that there were certain areas where people were hearing the gospel for the first time. Almost inevitably, though gradually, this led to the gathering of such people into separate churches. Thus the followers ofWesley and Whitefield were effectively separated from the Church of England before

being.36 He argued that on its own the voluntary support of religion could never Christianise Britain because the poor would never know their need of Christianity, let alone be prepared to pay for the provision of Christian ministry, until an awareness of their spiritual need had been awakened in them.37

Moreover the clergy of the established churches served and spoke for 'the unfranchised multitude', seeking 'the moral well-being of that mighty host whoswarmandoverspread the ground-floor of ourcommonwealth'.38 Despite fashionable interest in Chalmers's lectures, his appeal for state assistance continued

nineteenth-century literature, the novel. Dickens's description of the implicit Christian moral base of his work could equally be applied to that of Jane Austen, the daughter and sister of clergymen, Charlotte Bront¨e, the daughter and wife of clergymen, Mrs Gaskell, the wife of a Unitarian minister, and

Nathaniel Hawthorne. It could even describemuch of thework of that devout agnostic among the mid-Victorian novelists, George Eliot. Explicit religious conviction often fared badly, especially Protestant Nonconformity, which was 'everywhere spoken against' in fiction, nowhere more so than in Dickens, with

and processions, which had been as much for worldly amusement as for religious inspiration, were almost defunct by 1850. They were replaced by Marianic sodalities and congregations, firmly under priestly control, and new kinds of pilgrimage with a much more exclusively religious emphasis.48

Nevertheless healing was as much a purpose of pilgrimage as religious devotion; and although Lourdes overtook other places in popularity, it did not displace them.49 This was part of the 'compromise' which the official church made with popular religion in the nineteenth century.

addressed in Rerum Novarum. But these identities were specifically Catholic or 38 Van Sas, 'De mythe Nederland', p. 24. 39 'De rede van dr. Kuyper (1897)', in J. C. Boogman and C. A. Tamse (eds.), Emancipatie in Nederland: de ontvoogding van burgerij en confessionelen in de negentiende eeuw (The Hague:

Nijhoff, 1978), pp. 179-81. 40 Van Koppen, De geuzen, pp. 232-3. 41 Kossmann, 'Some questions', p. 12. 42 Raedts, 'Katholieken op zoek', p. 720.

of their most successful men turned philanthropy into a business. Samuel Morley, a Congregational textile millionaire who became an MP, conducted as large a correspondence on charitable giving as on his commercial affairs.16 Philanthropy in its various forms was one of the best advertisements for

Nonconformity. It was these factors - favourable social circumstances, an appeal to both sexes, educational provision, insistent evangelism and sustained charitable work - that ensured the growth of Nonconformity in England and Wales.

by students, who arranged spectacular assemblies with hundreds of participants from the whole of Scandinavia. This pan-Scandinavianism was a sort of nationalism with cultural and political goals. Its cultural goal was closer cultural exchange and co-operation between Denmark, Sweden and

Norway, while the political goal was union under the same king or a military alliance. Finland, however, stood on the sidelines because of its relations to Russia. Owing to the national conflict with Germany over Schleswig-Holstein, the Danes were strongly united upon an agreed political goal. For this reason

unity of the church, allowing one association to communicate with another, it violated the Catholic conception of a hierarchical authority descending from the pope down.TheLawalso repudiated Catholic teaching that, ideally, church and state should be allied. Pius condemned the Lawof Separation in Vehementer

Nos and Gravissimo in 1906. Remarkably, the French church, in obedience to Pius, refused to comply with the Law. The bishops surrendered their palaces, the dioceses their offices and seminaries, the parishes their presbyteries and churches, the cur´es (now

the nineteenth century a mythic vision of a 'culture war' between les deux Francewhichwould last throughout the nineteenth century, and even beyond, though only after 1879 would it once again involve hostile action on the part of a republican state against the forces of organised religion.

Of course, to highlight the persistence of the culture war is by no means to deny that there were people on both sides of the divide, Catholics and liberals, who regretted the conflict over religion and who continued to work for reconciliation between the church and a modern polity. Still lesswould one

that this historical process culminated in the replacement of metaphysics by observational and properly predictive science. Comte developed a complex institutional and ritual replacement for Christianity, which has been wittily described as 'Catholicism minus Christianity'.18

One might see the career of Hugues-F´elicit´e Robert de Lamennais (1782- 1854) as a bridge between the radical Ultramontanism of de Maistre and the religion of humanity of Comte. Lamennais started his career by being vigorously anti-Enlightenment rationalism, anti-Protestant and anti-Gallican. He

as inferior and, therefore, suitable audiences forwomen's ministry, than of any change in theological opinion concerning women's right to preach. With women occupying more public roles than ever, it was not surprising that changes began to occur within the wider Protestant community.

One of the most significant developments was the formation of the Salvation Army. William and Catherine Booth, deeply influenced by the holiness and revivalist movements of the mid-nineteenth century, in 1865 decided to start their own work, in which women were granted full preaching authority on

impeded Strachan's push for an Anglican establishment, tempers cooled and former antagonists began to drift closer to each other. Increasingly, Methodists worked at shoring up society directly, as indicated by Ryerson's move from the Methodist ministry to become director of public education in

Ontario. Anglicans came gradually to give up pretensions to establishment and sought informal ways to promote their vision of a Christian society. By mid-century, Methodists and Anglicans had begun to co-operate with Presbyterians in using education, informal suasion with government, frequently

Thus there is a difference between popular irreligion and that of the more educated classes. Some evidence suggests that nineteenth-century interest in paganism came more from academics or other professional people seeking to revive something they regarded as past, than from the survival of pagan groups.

Orders of Druids, for example, were instituted in the nineteenth century as part of an attempt to revive tradition, particularly inWales. The questions of how 'popular' such developments were, and how far what happened was the 'invention of tradition', need further research.

advocated the 'Wellhausen' view.43 Myrberg's successor in Uppsala in 1892, Waldemar Rudin, was more open to critical scholarship although shaken by Fries's History. He played a leading part in blocking Fries's appointment to a lectureship in Uppsala. It was left to Erik Stave, who succeeded Rudin as

Ordinary Professor in 1900, to initiate the acceptance of the results of Old Testament criticism. An important development in French Roman Catholic scholarship was the founding, in 1890, of the Ecole Pratique d' Etudes Bibliques in Jerusalem and

wars, as the Austrian foreign minister ( later chancellor) Prince Metternich, the 'coachman of Europe', guided the continent back into its ancient political paths. Catholicism remained the most popular religion in Europe - there were about 100 million Catholics to 40 million Protestants and 40 million

Orthodox - but the 'Congress system' left the continent dominated by the non-Catholic powers (Great Britain, Prussia and Russia) with millions of Irish, GermanandPolish Catholics under their rule.These Catholics might feelmore affinity with radical politics, even revolution, than with the status quo. Yet the

Easter or thereabouts. There was also a difference between countries: on the one hand those where historically the church was strongly implanted, on the other hand those where religion was endemically weak. So Mexico was more Catholic than Honduras, Paraguay than Uruguay. The common people of

Paraguay, inheritors of a Jesuit past and victims of a recent war, practised religion with a fervour that inspired a Vatican observer to report in 1878 that Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Latin America: the church and national independence

the period is profoundly visionary Romantic - influenced by the noumenal seas, mountains and lakes envisaged in theRomanticism of the Ancient Mariner, through the paintings of Caspar David Friedrich, to the fin de si`ecle Impressionists between the caf´es of Montmartre and the great boulevards of Proustian

Paris. Coleridge's vertiginously speculative Biographia literaria, full of German Idealism and speculative neo-Platonism, begins a period which ends with the pragmatic sceptical mood of Loisy's L'´evangile et l'´eglise and the realism of Zola Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

traditions and devotion to state power and social order. Yet the church did not remain aloof from the issues of the time and its action on the ground sometimes carried a clearer message than its words from the pulpit. In the period 1800-54 the church was an active agent in the demise of slavery in

Peru, as it began to intervene decisively in the relationship between slaves and masters. To defend the integrity of slave marriage the church opposed the break up of slave families and moved to limit the right of slave owners to prevent marriages between slaves. Moreover, masters who attempted to sell

been put forward by the Scottish Presbyterian Thomas Chalmers (1780-1847), in his Evidence and authority of the Christian Revelation (1814). Bucklandwas supported and followed by a large number of scientists and theologians, among them the Nonconformist divine and naturalist John Pye Smith (1775-1851).18

Placing geological history before the hexaemeron presented a theological problem, however, in that carnivorousness and death - traditionally seen as 16 J. H. Kurtz, Bibel und Astronomie, 5th edn (Berlin:Wohlgemuth, 1865), p. 82. 17 W. Buckland, Geology and mineralogy considered with reference to natural theology, 3rd edn,

Madison. His works include: Guntur district, 1788-1848: a history of local influence and central authority (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1965), Land control and social structure in Indian history (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1969, 1978), Land tenure and peasant in South Asia (New Delhi: Manohar, 1977, 1981), Delhi through the ages (New Delhi: Oxford University

Press, 1986, 1993) and History and belief: the foundations of historical understanding (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1996). Co-general editor, with Brian Stanley, of the Studies in the History of Christian Missions series, including Christians, cultural interactions, and India's religious traditions (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2002) and Christians and missionaries in

thatwhich the Protestant churches had known since the Reformation: subject to close state regulation and supervision. German Protestantismwas also affected by the newpolitical geography, for several states nowfound themselves home to a variety of Protestant traditions.

Propelled by a sense that the old reasons for intraconfessional division were no longer valid, Protestants in Baden, Nassau and the Hesses created new, united state churches. King Frederick William III adopted a similar strategy, but in fusing the Lutheran and Reformed churches in old (pre-1815) Prussia by

1914 these were more often to be found among congregations and sisters who worked with the most socially marginalised, or on the edges of empire.34 34 It should be noted that this chapter has employed the terms 'religious order' or 'order' to include religious congregations as well as religious orders in the strict canonical sense.

Properly speaking the terms 'religious order' and 'religious congregation' are distinctive in canon law, although not in popular parlance, just as the terms 'nun' and 'sister' are distinctive in canon lawbut are not commonly distinguished by Catholics or others. Nuns are members of religious orders taking solemn vows and living an enclosed life, sisters

after 1864, the medium and smaller states and even most of the Protestant state churches joined the großdeutsch ranks. The German princes continued to fear Prussia, and the churches regarded as sacrilege secular Protestants' portrayals of kleindeutsch nationalism as a religious, and specifically Protestant cause.

Prussia's quick defeat of Austria in 1866 greatly clarified the German question. The German Confederation was dissolved and Austria excluded from Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Christianity and the creation of Germany

and books on the history of Christianity in China in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, among them Christianity in China, from the eighteenth century to the present, ed. (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996), The foreign missionary enterprise at home, co-ed. (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2003), 'Chinese Protestant Christianity today', in The China

Quarterly 174 ( June 2003), and 'A tradition of state dominance', in Jason Kindopp and Carol Lee Hamrin (eds.), God and Caesar in China (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2004). David Bebbington is Professor of History at the University of Stirling. He has written

'Protestant' (evangelisch) for theword 'Roman', Stoecker also asserted that creating this newGermanywas not simply a matter of 'blood and iron' or even of establishing acceptable constitutional relationships among the member states. In a very fundamental way it entailed resolving a question left open since the

Reformation: what kind of Christian nation would Germany be? Christianity exercised a telling influence on the creation of modern Germany. After 1815 confessional pluralism existed in most of the major German states, compelling each one to develop new legal and social policies to deal

strongly Ultramontane: his best-known bookwas called The triumph of the Holy See (1799). On his election there was a rising in the Romagna which Austria crushed at the pope's request, leading the liberal government of Louis-Philippe in France, supported by England, to organise a Memorandum signed by the

Roman ambassadors of the great powers demanding reforms in his administration. Gregory gave the rebels an amnesty which was followed by a further revolt and Austrian occupation. The three most famous liberal Catholics of Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

Theology and the revolt against the Enlightenment and Ibsen. The pragmatism of the fin de si`ecle was also linked to the expansion of the industrial revolution within Europe and the evident prosperity of both France and Germany.

Romantic Platonic monism This visionary elementwhich marks the early period of Romanticism is linked to a revival of speculative Platonism in the early nineteenth century, marked by grand interpretations of nature. T¨ubingen - the university that produced

than cognition (i.e. metaphysics) or action (i.e. ethics). The Enlightenment philosophers (e.g. Locke) assumed that reason can and should criticise revelation. But for Schleiermacher reason is a species of revelation. The entire universe for Schleiermacher is the self-revelation of God. Reason, within this

Romantic/neo-Spinozistic context, is dependent upon revelation. Furthermore, religion is not to be understood as the awareness of duty as a divine command, i.e. as the consciousness of the binding and sacral nature of the moral law.Onthe contrary, religion is defined not as 'autonomy' but as 'dependence'.

a revival of Thomist thought that lasted into the twentieth century. Leo's philosophy of society is derived from Aquinas's doctrine of natural law, the eternal law as imprinted on the human mind, which was accessible in principle to the reason of all, but had the church for its guardian and protector.

Rome therefore claimed a new universal importance for everyone as the custodian of the one right political and social philosophy. This philosophy, though medieval in inspiration,was designed for the needs of a living Catholicworld. In the 1870s, the extension of the franchise and of education

as they were of the opinion that a valid definition could not be reached in the absence of the necessary consensus moralis unanimis. Although their objections failed, the contributions of the fifteenHungarian attendees at the Councilwere not a wasted effort. The Hungarian government's approach to its bishops in

Rome, threatening the sequestration of the church's entire wealth, achieved nothing, but the government did reinstate the 'right of placet': the bishops could not promulgate any announcements from Rome - including the resolutions of the Council - without state permission. On two occasions this led

Pontife (1820) which drew broadly on Burney's eponymous collection; it madeavailable a range of Italian a cappellaworks toaFrenchpublic largely unfamiliar with early church music, a familiarity reinforced by the performance of Renaissance and Baroque music by students of his own school, the Institution

Royale de Musique Classique et Religieuse (opened in 1818).With lack of funds, however, Choron's school declined and itwas only after public concern was expressed for the low standards of musical attainment in church that the French government agreed financially to support a reopening of the institution

common touch and easy personal charmof his predecessor and successor. His hopewas for a European Christendom renewed, with a just social order, under papal guidance, with clear teaching and astute diplomacy for its realisation. Leo's successor Pius X (1835-1914; ruled 1903-14) was born Giuseppe Melchiorre

Sarto at Riese, in theVeneto. His parentswere a local cursore ormunicipal messenger and a seamstress, with eight offspring. Sartowas curate for nine years in the Treviso diocese, and only in 1867 became a parish priest. In 1884, he was made bishop of Mantua, and in 1893, cardinal and patriarch of Venice.

2 Anderson, Imagined communities. 3 Bloom, Personal identity, p. 52. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Scandinavia: Lutheranism and national identity

Scandinavia, Norden and Lutheranism Literally, Scandinavia is a peninsula consisting of Sweden and Norway, but Denmarkis usually also included. 'Norden',however, also includes Finland, the ˚A

led to conflicts. In Schleswig-Holstein, for example, German language and culture mainly dominated Holstein. The same could be said about southern Schleswig, while the northern part had a Danish-speaking population. Middle Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

Scandinavia: Lutheranism and national identity Schleswig, however, had a mixed Danish and German culture and an almost bilingual population. In the west on the coast of the North Sea there lived a Friesian-speaking minority. This situation led to tensions in the 1830s, and the

At the beginning of the nineteenth century a new political configuration emerged,which superseded the formerbitter enmity ofSweden and Denmark. Nowthe threat to theNordic region came fromRussia in the east and Germany in the south. At thesametime, therewas a growingconsciousness of acommon

Scandinavian or Nordic identity, based on cultural heritage and history. In this concept the idea of a common Lutheran identity became one of the pillars, and in the 1850s and 1860s the first Scandinavian church assemblies were arranged. From around 1830 a pan-Scandinavian movement emerged, supported originally

on the same biblical resources that abolitionists used to appeal for reform. In 1840 the Anti-Slavery Society itself divided between those who wanted to extend reforms to include women's rights and those who wanted to remain focused on slavery.

Schism among the national Protestant denominationswas an even stronger blow. In 1837, questions over slavery played a small part in dividing the Presbyterian church between a New School and an Old School. More extensive was the schism that divided the Baptist mission agency into southern and

remote from the coercive and bureaucratic government of the state church Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 dag thorkildsen as the powerless and non-influential Free Church. A 'folk church' implied to

Schleiermacher an alliance between people and church against a repressive state, and in a Volkskirche full freedom of individual faith should rule. Later Volkskirche was reshaped in the programme for home mission which Johann HinrichWichern (1808-81) presented in 1848 to rechristianise the people

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 douglas hedley from the later Schleiermacher of The Christian faith (1821-2, 1830-1), his dogmatic great work. His name means literally the 'veil maker'; and indeed

Schleiermacher is a complex and contradictory figure. On the one hand he criticises both rationalism and supernaturalism, and develops an intriguing theory of religion that combines elements from Spinoza's speculative pantheism and F. H. Jacobi's philosophy of faith. For Schleiermacher God becomes

provided a creative impetus for composers such as Mendelssohn and musicologists such as J. A. Spitta and R. von Liliencron. As president of the editorial commission of the Denkm¨aler deutscher Tonkunst, Liliencron did much to contribute to the revival of early German masters (notably Senfl, Praetorius,

Sch¨utz and Bach), but, unlike the southern German churches, where earlymusicwas fulsomely embraced as a liturgical vehicle, the scholarly products of the north Germans were restricted to the more structured liturgies of cathedrals or to the concert halls. Such limitations did not, however, prevent

constitutional linkages between church, state and nation as they had existed before 1828. At the same time, however, the considerable energy shown by both Anglicans and Presbyterians in renewing and expanding their churches ensured that they retained a strong presence at the grass-roots in England,

Scotland and the north of Ireland. The context though was now usually one not of monopoly but of competition, sometimes with each other, sometimes with other varieties of Protestantism, notably Methodism, sometimes with Roman Catholicism. In Scotland, although the Disruption proved a body

Seceders, Presbyterians who believed that the Church of Scotland was not sustaining its doctrinal or behavioural standards with sufficient rigour, and the Relief Church, a haven for those harassed by the church authorities for wishing to call ministers of their own evangelical frame of mind.The two small

Seceder denominations split around the opening of the nineteenth century, the more evangelical being called 'New Lights'. These grew rapidly, united with each other in 1820 to form the United Secession Church and eventually merged with the Relief Church to create the United Presbyterian Church in

Vienna had, without Hungary's participation, established two ecclesiastical provinces - Zagreb for the Croats in 1852 and Fogaras for the UniateRomanians in 1853 - in order to build up a counterbalance to the troublesome Hungarians, and Vienna also appointed several bishops who proceeded to promote

Slovak and German interests. At the same time as the settlement in 1867, Law xliv was passed, which promised the ethnic minorities equality, independent administration and cultural autonomy. However, pan-Slavic or pan-Germanic Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

number of Baptist churches (over 11,000) as Congregational and Episcopal combined (respectively, about 1,500 and 2,000). A full roster of others contributed to the evangelical surge. Alexander Campbell (1788-1866),who immigrated from Northern Ireland, and BartonW.

Stone (1772-1844), who had trained for the Presbyterian ministry before helping with a memorable revival at Cane Ridge, Kentucky, in August 1801, led a 2 Minutes of the annual conferences of the Methodist Episcopal Church (New York: T. Mason and G. Lane, 1840-61).

of the prophets, together with the radical implications this had for the history of Israel. An early advocate of the priority of the prophets was the Alsace scholar Edouard Reuss, who taught in the Protestant Theological Faculty in

Strasbourg. His opinions dated from 1834, but he had declined to publish them because of the outcry over Vatke's Biblical theology the following year. Among his theses was the proposition that the prophets of the eighth and seventh centuries had no knowledge of the Mosaic law.19 In Britain, the 1860s saw the

was described in his famous lecture Das Wesen des Christentums (The essence of Christianity, 1900). Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 douglas hedley

The Catholic Modernists were a group largely in France, but there were also distinguished representatives in England and Italy. Dissatisfied with neoscholasticism and intensely aware of Kant, they were particularly associated with Alfred Loisy (1857-1940) and his work L'´evangile et l'´eglise (1902)

the bishops who replaced the nobles. Tension rose nevertheless between the clergy and the new peasant parties, and above all the Polish socialism of the working classes. It was chiefly, however, a matter of popular anticlericalism and rarely - even among the workers - of a truly antireligious attitude.

The Catholic social movement was, moreover, preponderant in several regions, notably Upper Silesia, the most industrial area, among Polishworkers, and in all the Prussian zone.Polish nationalism sought to integrate Catholicism inasmuch as it was an element in the Polish tradition and achieved some

bias in German national rhetoric between 1870 and 1914, Germany never stopped being at heart a Christian state. On this basis, even Catholics could claim membership in the nation, which distinguished their experience both from German Jews and socialists and from French and Italian Catholics.

The Christian state With Napoleon Bonaparte's defeat in 1815, the question of German Europe's future organisation loomed over the Congress of Vienna. During theWars of Liberation (1813-14), nationally minded intellectuals like Ernst Moritz Arndt,

at Leiden (Netherlands). She specialises in Middle Eastern Christianities, with special attention to the history of the Assyrian Church of the East and of western missions in the Middle East.Recentpublications include 'Migration of Middle EasternChristians towestern countries and Protestant missionary activities in the Middle East: a preliminary investigation',

The Journal of Eastern Christian Studies 54, 1-2 (2002), 39-49, and 'Generous devotion: women in the colophons of the Church of the East (1550-1850)', Hugoye: Journal of Syriac Studies 7/1 (2004) (http://syrcom.cua.edu/Hugoye). Mark A. Noll is McManis Professor of Christian Thought at Wheaton College, Illinois.

in having a mass said, or praying before a saint's image on occasion of illness or death in the family or loss of a llama'.11 Yet masses and prayers were Catholic practices, legacies of past evangelisation, and signs of present faith. The Romanisation of the Latin American church

The doctrinal inspiration of the Latin American church in the nineteenth century came from Rome, and standards were set by Pope Pius IX (1846-78), who in December 1864 published the encyclical Quanta Cura, with its annex the Syllabus of Errors.12 Catholics in Latin America easily recognised the 'errors',

The September Convention encouraged Pius to unleash the spiritual weapons in his arsenal, issuing the encyclical Quanta Cura on 8 December 1864, towhichwas appended the Syllabus of Errors, listing eighty errors drawn from previous papal documents, condemning various movements and beliefs.

The encyclical reaffirmed the church's right to educate, the plenitude of papal authority, and the absolute independence of the church vis-`a-vis civil authority. Under ten headings the Syllabus condemned pantheism, naturalism, materialism, absolute as well as moderate rationalism, indifferentism, and false

hostile to religion. But by the last quarter of the nineteenth century, numerous initiatives on a broad frontwere underway, although this 'Catholic revival' produced mixed results. Liberal governments permitted the reintroduction of the male religious orders, although their precise legal status remained ambiguous.

The expansion of the orders provided the church with an invaluable means of expanding its religious, social and educational activities. In Spain, the number of male religious increased from 1,683 in 1860 to 13,359 by 1910, the number of nuns from 18,819 to 46,357 during the same period. In Portugal, the ten

Catholic nationalism in Hungary and Poland and Jews, between Lithuanians and Ukrainians, and to some extent with the Belorussians. Polish political parties that had been organised from the end of the nineteenth century in Galicia tried to widen their activities in all the zones.

The expectation of a world war also increased both hopes and fear of new demands. The Catholic Church preserved its deep social bases, notably in the peasant world. It was from there that the priests now came, and increasingly even

the short-sighted government policy of forcible Magyarisation, which led to unrest in Upper Hungary (present-day Slovakia) and in 1907 even to bloodshed during police action in the diocese of Beszterceb´anya (present-day Banska Bistrica).

The most difficult ethnic problem for the Catholic Church was in Transylvania. In 1900, some 1.8 million Romanians lived there, ofwhom 1,719,336 were Orthodox Christians, administratively structured as a metropolitan see and three eparchies (dioceses). In addition, there were 1,658,298 Catholic Romanians

censure, if resentfully. The application of the anti-Modernist measures varied. Pascendi required dioceses to set up Vigilance Committees, but not all did so. Von H¨ugel was protected inWestminster by Archbishop Bourne. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

The papacy The enthusiasts forModernism have nowbeen undermined by the exposure of their dogmatic assumptions by postmodernity. Pius may not have got the balance right, in hunting down Modernists; but from an orthodox viewpoint,

beyond liberal middle-class elites to the Catholic masses resulted in the emergence of new populist political parties and social institutions. Catholic newspapers, peasant co-operatives, banks, youth organisations, schools and Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

The papacy parishes marshalled the faithful, in Italy under the aegis of the Opera dei Congressi, while religious orders and foreign missions boomed. From the 1880s, populist cardinals in the English-speaking world - Manning in Westminster,

Julian: or, scenes in Judea (1856),which described gospel events through the letters of its fictional protagonist. Later titles, with even greater success, included General Lew Wallace's Ben Hur (1880) and Henryk Sienkiewicz's Quo Vadis? (1896).

The paradigmatic author of religious fiction in the nineteenth century was Harriet Beecher Stowe (1811-96), whose Uncle Tom's cabin (1852) constructed a polemic against slavery by focusing on the Christian integrity of its African- American characters. Stowe had many imitators, including Orestes Brownson,

the negotiated concordat to cover Hungary. However, it became clear that Emperor Franz Joseph I was only prepared to ratify the concordat (which would dispose of the last remnants of Josephinism) on condition that the agreement be extended to cover all the lands of his realm, including Hungary.

The pope backed down, and the Hungarian bishops had to accept the concordat. However, since the concordat had been concluded illegally because of the suspension of the Hungarian constitution, the Hungarian bishops allowed it to lapse from the church's side after the political settlement with Austria in

130,600, with ten towns over 10,000. The Swedish population more than doubled in the nineteenth century, but in 1900 nearly 80 per cent of them still lived on farms or in villages. The rural growth was sustained by a more intensive agriculture of subdivided farms, often growing potatoes (not unlike Ireland).

The result was the development of a rural proletariat, and the disappearance of many communal festivals with magical overtones and fertility rites, leaving only the national festivals of Midsummer,Walpurgis Night (the eve of 1 May), both with some witchcraft associations, and Christmas, which was still half

and Ethiopian Orthodox rivals, did they appear to gain something of a foothold; but even there it was only by closing their eyes to many practices considered 'heathen' by European Christians, and by tolerating considerable devotional diversity, that Catholicism, in any form, was able to take root.14

The same pattern of failure was even more marked in China, the primary target of Catholic missionary endeavour during the first four decades of the nineteenth century, where the practice of Christianity remained illegal until after the First Opium War (1839-42). Although concessions were afterwards

into existence inAustrian Galicia. Cracowand Lvov (today Lviv in the Ukraine) played extremely important roles for the Polish elites in all three zones. At the same time, the Academy of Sciences at Cracow became a national centre for Polish science and thought.

The universities also possessed faculties of theology, and the crucial issue of the formation of priests became for several reasons a very difficult and delicate matter in the nineteenth century. The seminaries, strictly controlled by the states, often offered a mediocre practical formation, particularly in

embedded organisations. A proportion, certainly no more than 10 per cent overall, were contemplative nuns belonging to the long-established Benedictine, Carmelite,Augustinian and other monastic orders that continued to grow steadily throughout this period and to open daughter houses in new places.

The vast majority, however, were religious sisters in one of the hundreds of congregations founded or refounded for the active or apostolic religious life in Europe and the NewWorld after 1800. And whilst almost all of these women were Roman Catholics, for the first time since the Reformation conventual

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 mark a. noll 'Restoration' movement that turned in exasperation away from confessions, synods and inherited traditions in order to follow 'no creed but the Bible'.

Their programme of antidenominational ecumenism led, in typical American fashion, to the creation in 1831 of a denominational-like fellowship known simply as the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ). By 1860 there were nearly 2,100 Disciples churches concentrated in the upper South and the new states

called 'the female Spurgeon'.13 In the United States, public female ministry in the middle decades of the nineteenth century was evident in a variety of different contexts and received support and encouragement from widely diverse theological perspectives.

Theological liberalism, in the formof the Unitarian and Universalist churches, acted as a sympathetic and supportive environment for white, middle-class women. Active in the early women's rights movement, these denominations were the first officially to ordain women, calling Olympia Brown to a Universalist

Protestant presence were few after the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685, though the Reformed Church began to grow again after the Revolution introduced religious toleration. The Netherlands also contained a mixed Catholic and Protestant population.

There was a Catholic majority in Belgium, and after the revolution of 1830 it became the centre of liberal Catholicism. Roman Catholics were also increasing in numbers in Holland. They had become full citizens as a result of the reforms during the French occupation, and politically they supported Liberal

reform, were not forwarded from Vienna to Rome. It was only in 1827 that Franz I gave permission to the bishops to comment on a draft that had been completely distorted by the authorities and have it sent on to Rome. The Hungarian bishops declined to do so.

Thoroughgoing reforms in the churchwere all the more necessary because the powerful current of liberalism had already swept across western Europe in the early decades of the nineteenth century, and soon reached Hungary as well. In the wake of the new spirit of the age, the Hungarian parliament,

condemned the 'sacrilegious' seizure, invoking the major excommunication for all those who had perpetrated the invasion, the usurpation and the occupation of the papal domain, as well as those who had aided or counselled this 'pernicious' action.52

To reassure Catholics, as well as the Powers, in December 1870 the Italians introduced a Lawof Guaranteeswhich recognised the inviolability of the pope, while investing him with the attributes of a sovereign. As financial compensation for the loss of his territory, he was pledged annually and in perpetuity

of the Conservative-controlled House of Lords, but the Parliament Act of 1911 removed their ability to frustrate the will of the Commons indefinitely. It therefore seemed probable that the Liberal government of H. H. Asquith would eventually be able to force through a Home Rule measure. In 1912,

Ulster Protestant resistance accordingly took a new turn with the signing of the Covenant. This document, with a format resonant with biblical and Presbyterian tradition, along with a parallel Declaration forwomen,was signed by nearly half a million people, over a quarter of the population of the province.

camp some naturalistic or materialistic metaphysics formed the basis of the evaluation. Christianity was either radically modified or rejected. 5 Pragmatic: Those who accepted the validity of the Enlightenment critique but limited its scope to the domain of facts as opposed to values.

Ultra-Romantic refusal of the cultured despisers Schleiermacher is often thought of as the 'father of modern theology'. One needs to distinguish the early Romantic Schleiermacher of his Speeches to the cultured despisers (1799), one of the seminal works of German Romanticism,

Finally, in contrast with their German counterparts, Austrian liberals wanted to divest the church of its political authority and public power, not destroy it. Hence, they allowed the church to continue to benefit from state patronage and support, albeit only as a privileged public corporation.

Under the leadership of Karl Lueger, a political organisation rooted in Austrian Catholic culture did emerge to challenge the liberals after 1882: the Christian Social Party. But while Christian Socials defended Catholicism against liberalism and social democracy and exploited parish and church networks

The growth of voluntary religion only one.They held the allegiance ofmanyof the prosperousmerchants, industrialists and professionals in the Dissenting community, but their teachingwas usually too refined and ratiocinative to attract themultitudes. Accordingly the

Unitarians formed one of the few declining sectors of voluntary religion in the nineteenth century: they drew a mere 0.2 per cent of the population at the religious census of 1851. By contrast the Independents, who were increasingly called Congregationalists, expanded greatly to encompass 3.9 per cent in 1851.

in Ungarn (Cologne: B¨ohlau, 2004), Die Ostpolitik des Vatikans 195 8-1978 gegen¨uber Ungarn: der Fall Kardinal Mindszenty (Herne: Sch¨afer, 2003), Kleine Kirchengeschichte Ungarns (Herne: Sch¨afer, 2003), Proh´aszka ´es a r´omai index (Budapest, 2002) and Geschichte der Kirche Osteuropas im 20. Jahrhundert (Paderborn: Sch¨oningh, 1992).

Urs Altermatt has been Professor of Contemporary History at the University of Fribourg, Switzerland, since 1980, and Rector since 2003. He has been Visiting Professor at various central and eastern European universities (Cracow, Budapest, Sarajevo and Sofia). His numerous publications on modern European and Swiss political, social and

constitution Sapiento Consilio of 1906 his passion for administrative detail - his 'constructive and simplifying genius' - and his choice of servants to carry it through (Merry del Val, Cardinal Gaetano de Lai and the Spanish Vives y Tuto, known for his industry as Vives fa tutto) restructured the thirty-seven

Vatican agencies and dicasteries as eleven congregations, three tribunals and five offices. Churches in largely Protestant countries or under Protestant rule were taken from the administration of the Sacred Congregation of Propaganda Fide, where they had been for centuries: Holland, England, Scotland, Ireland,

newspaper, TheWitness, was prominent in stating national grievances against England, while James Begg, one of its leading ministers, was a prominent member of the National Association for the Vindication of Scottish Rights, founded in 1853.64 In general, however, Scottish political nationalism in the

Victorian era was both more secular and, for that very reason, less powerful than its Irish or Welsh counterparts. Presbyterianism though remained an important force in Scottish culture and society, and despite the Disruption the Church of Scotland parish remained central to civil as well as ecclesiastical

Re-Formation and Expansion c.1 500-c.1 660 edited by ronnie po-chia hsia Enlightenment, Reawakening and Revolution 1 660-181 5 edited by stewart j. brown and timothy tackett

World Christianities c.181 5 -c.1914 edited by brian stanley and sheridan gilley World Christianities c.1914-c.2000 edited by hugh mcleod

prohibited the blessing of a marriage unless the childrenwere to be guaranteed a Catholic baptism and upbringing. The ensuing fury in the parliament forced the Habsburg court to send a bishop as an emissary to Rome, and after tough negotiations Bishop J´ozsef Lonovics succeeded in persuading Pope Gregory

XVI to alter the ruling of the Council of Trent (the Instructio Lambruschiniana) with respect to Hungary, to permit the so-called 'passiva assistencia' of blessing mixed marriages, and to recognise the validity ('illicitum sed validum') of mixed marriages solemnised in the presence of Protestant clergy. These papal

Actionmovements of the inter-war period. Catholic nationalists, too, still cherished a Catholic vision of the nation and, as the strongest adherents to the union sacr´ee, were loud in its defence during the GreatWar. Even at the height of the anticlerical onslaught on the church, most French people continued to receive

a Christian burial: in the cemeteries, Thomas Kselman has suggested, 'the French eventually worked out an understanding of death that accommodated Christian belief and symbol with a devotion to family, village and nation'.7 Not even Vichy, however, would undo the undoubted triumph of la¨ıcit´e.

represented a pivotal, if ultimately unsuccessful facet of this effort. It was triggered by two developments: the declaration of papal infallibility at the First Vatican Council, which raised new questions about Catholics' political loyalties, and Catholic successes in the 1871 Reichstag elections, which created

a major Catholic bloc in the new parliament. Faced with this potential oppositional force, Bismarck decided to launch a pre-emptive strike. A pious man himself, the chancellor had no problems with Catholicism per se. But Bismarck fervently believed that churches should not meddle in politics.

allocated resources was especially acute in the face of the rapid industrialisation of the south, while its hostile, or at best indifferent, attitude to theWelsh language meant it was alienated from the mainstream of Welsh popular culture. Nonconformity on the other hand had the flexibility rapidly to develop

a strong presence in industrialising settlements and a readiness not only to adopt the medium ofWelsh but to become a central channel for the maintenance and diffusion of Welsh culture in the Victorian era. The centrality of Nonconformity toWelsh national identitywas reinforced in 1847, by outraged

who, following the principles laid down by Pugin and Viollet, held that its reduced cathedralesque form was inappropriate to a building that was not a cathedral. In Berlin, after 1870 the capital of the restored German Reich, the want of

a substantial Lutheran church worthy of the imperial dignity of the Hohenzollerns was keenly felt. A Classical box of a church had been constructed next to the royal palace in 1747-50 which had been adapted and unsuccessfully enhanced according to the designs of Schinkel in 1816-17. A grand new

Catholicism' or 'Gallicanism' in the nineteenth centurymay at first appear, their very functionalism ought to put us on our guard: real life is seldom so tidy as to consist merely of the straightforward imposition of 'power' by one group over another. On paper, the Catholic Church may indeed appear as

a tightly structured hierarchical organisation with a chain of command not unlike that which exists in an army. In practice, however, the model is highly misleading, since pope, cardinals, bishops and priests can hardly impose their tastes on their flocks, who remain perfectly free to ignore the spiritual recommendations

government, particularly in relation to education and poor relief.65 From the later nineteenth century onwards there was a gradual movement towards Presbyterian reunion, associated with changes in the relationship between the Church of Scotland and the state. The Patronage Act of 1874

abolished lay patronage, the key grievance that had givenrise to the Disruption, and thus in the longer term cleared the way towards reunion, although in the short term demands for disestablishment intensified. In 1900 the Free Church and the United Presbyterians came together to formthe United Free Church.A

(1792-1873) and Angelina Grimk´e (1805-79) became active advocates against slavery after they moved from their native South Carolina to Philadelphia. Angelina's tract, An appeal to the Christian women of the South (1836), won recognition in the abolitionist movement but also caused conservatives to worry

about the dissolution of family order. When such public advocacy came under fire, Sarah responded with biblical, political and philosophical arguments in Letters on the equality of the sexes, and the condition of women (1838). Other women, like the revivalist Harriet Livermore, who in 1827 was the first woman to

the wars of the 1860s and 1870s, and the development of competition for empire, changed attitudes.The churches generally supported the Hague Peace Conferences of 1899 and 1907. In July 1914 a meeting of theWorld Alliance for Promoting International Friendship among the Churches was brought to an

abrupt end by the outbreak of war, and its members returned to their countries in sealed trains. Although the churchmen involved in this enterprise may be criticised for their naivety, it has to be remembered that they were no less surprised than many of the population of Europe at the turn of events that

female preaching were, for the most part, marginal players on the American Protestant stage and the recognition which they granted women during this time was quite restrictive and grudgingly given. Official recognition of exceptional individuals, like Olympia Brown, did not indicate a denominational

acceptance of female ministry nor did it necessarily pave the way for other women to follow. Female Universalist clergy at the turn of the century still found themselves 'silenced' and 'impotent' within the overwhelmingly male 13 Quoted in Anderson, 'Women preachers in mid-Victorian Britain', p. 471.

dag thorkildsen In Norway an influential revival movement occurred at the same time as in Denmark. Hans Nielsen Hauge (1771-1824) had a mystical experience in 1796 which gave him a vocation to preach to others. He was arrested in 1804

accused of serious crimes, and was kept in prison for almost ten years. The imprisonment broke his health and made him more co-operative with the established church. In the longer term his plight gave him mythical status as the martyr of the Norwegian laity, and the patron saint of what has been

orders, and in particular to the female religious orders: between 1800 and 1880 almost 400 new female orders were founded and some 200,000 women took religious vows. These were overwhelmingly congr´eganistes rather than religieuses, that is members not of enclosed orders like the Carmelites but

active professional women engaged in teaching, nursing and social work (the archetype being the Little Sisters of the Poor, founded by Jeanne Jugan in the 1840s). Male recruits were fewer, but it remains significant nevertheless that in addition to the return of former well-established orders such as the

as anathemas against their enemies. The clergy were divided but many, especially among the lower clergy who were predominantly creole (American-born), supported the cause of independence. Some priests played leading roles in the struggle, many more were

activists in the rebel ranks, and numerous volunteers served as chaplains in the armies of liberation. In Mexico the early insurgencywas dominated by priests, two in particular: Miguel Hidalgo, a country priest of progressive views, and Jos´e Mar´ıa Morelos, another reformist and a natural guerrilla leader. On their

alongside the provincial schools of Ontario (still self-consciously Protestant), and to allowsome support for Catholic (and French) schools in Manitoba, and then also Alberta and Saskatchewan when these provinces joined the Dominion in 1905. The strength of Catholic culture in Quebec and the successful

activity of political leaders like Laurier meant that Canada never developed the strict separation between tax-supported public education and privately funded religious schools that came to characterise primary education in the United States.

domestic sphere. At the more liberal end of this scale, the Bible endorses women's spiritual equality with men, and the numerous examples of biblical female leadership givewomen the right to occupy formal positions within the church hierarchy. From this perspective, female ministry means public leadership

activity, such as being an elder or deacon, voting in church assemblies, and in particular, operating as a preacher, evangelist and minister. Forwomen in nineteenth-century Protestantism, service-oriented ministry was a growth industry. As the number of charitable and philanthropic organisations

church', 'folk church' and 'national church' to describe the Nordic churches. Their meaning and function differ in the various nations. The Church of Denmark may be called a state church, since the Danish parliament deals with ecclesiastical legislation and a government ministry takes care of the

administration of the church. But the term'state church' is also used to describe the Danish church before 1849, before the free constitution put an end to it. After 1849 it is preferable to use the expression the 'Danish folk church', although the content of this concept has been disputed. During the debate

Sch¨opfungsgeschichte (2 vols., 1867, 1872),22 as well as Reusch. In addition to the harmonisers, therewere thosewho opposed the results of modern science, and insisted on a traditional, literal interpretation of Genesis. The entire geological column as well as the palaeontological record had accumulated

after the six days of creation or, more precisely, after the fall of man, and was generally attributed to the deluge.23 The publications by this group of literalists formed the intellectual roots of twentieth-century fundamentalist creationism.24

on the republican side moderates were reluctant to make any concessions to the church, lest they be seen as the dupes of a clerical manoeuvre, as radical republicans alleged the Ralliement to be. The fall-out from the Dreyfus Affair sealed the fate of the Ralliement. Once

again Catholics were seen to be on the wrong side of the political divide, largely because of the high-profile role played by the Assumptionist order and its widely read, and rabidly anti-Semitic, newspaper La Croix in the campaign against the Jewish army captain Alfred Dreyfus, falsely convicted of treason.

Catholics felt their way towards a political alliance with the orthodox Protestants under Kuyper: despite their antipathies, the two groups often desired the samethings in politics, like state subsidies for religious education, the extension of the suffrage to include their lower-middle-class supporters, and protection

against the growing, intrusive power of the secular state. The political alliance with the orthodox Calvinistswas constructed on the Catholic side by Herman 37 Vis and Janse (eds.), Staf en storm. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

new initiatives which would move French Catholics on from their traditional attachment to the alliance of throne and altar. In Lower Brittany, supposedly one of the most backward and 'clerical' regions in France, social Catholics championed a regionalist but non-separatist version of the republican ideal

against the secular, 'Jacobin' and unitary conception of the nation. Elsewhere, in other strongly Catholic regions, such as the southern Massif Central, Savoy, Franche-Comt´e and Lorraine, it was eminently clear that the predominantly Catholic electorswere prepared to endorse theRepublic, despite its anticlerical

institution-buildingonan unprecedented scale, with its requirement for leadership, organisation and financial management and the opportunity it provided for large numbers of women from powerless sectors of society to combine the pursuit of their own salvation with an effective and sustained collective

agency. Taken together, these developments created a newera in the overall history of the religious life, just as the monastic and mendicant movements had done in earlier centuries. Whatwas novel in the nineteenth centurywas not somuch

reputation (which, sadly, has not endured to the same extent as his brother's in the province of secular music). Michael Haydn's sacred output drewthe approbation of E. T. A. Hoffmann, whose Alte und neue Kirchenmusik (1814) proved to be influential on the Cecilians

along with A. F. J. Thibaut's widely read U¨ ber Reinheit der Tonkunst (1825) and Sailer's Von dem Bunde der Religion mit der Kunst (1839). The Cecilian movement sought to re-create a style of sacred music that was equal to the purity, devotion and 'unworldliness' of Palestrina, a composer who enjoyed iconic

Armagh (1849-52) and then of Dublin (1852-78), apostolic delegate in Ireland with full authority from Rome, and from 1865 the first Irish cardinal. Cullen came to recommend the appointment of most of the bishops of the Irish diaspora, as it is now commonly known, and a stream of priests and religious

also left Ireland to minister to their countrymen abroad, as the new territories slowly developed native Catholic institutions of their own. This Irish empire of the spirit, compared by Catholics to the British Empire of the flesh, was rooted in the nineteenth-century Catholic Revival in Ireland

demonstration of the interaction of religious energies with the social and political needs of the diaspora in the varied environments inwhich it found a home. The Catholic Church was quite the most striking legacy of the Irish emigration to the United States and the British empire, and while other Catholics

also made their contribution to the church's growth, the nineteenth-century Irish determined much in its shape and structure to the present day. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Catholic nationalism in Greater Hungary

Yet, it was too late to turn back the clock. With the exception of Austria, most German princes - including Frederick William - ruled constitutionally after 1850. Significantly, the constitutional provisions for legislative institutions and elections opened up German political life as never before. Long term, this

also undermined rulers' efforts to revive censorship and restrictions on political associations. Moreover, the princes granted the Christian churches much of the freedom promised by the stillborn imperial constitution of 1849. The Prussian constitution of 1850 gave the Catholic and the Protestant churches significant

military service like everyone else. The legislative culture war unleashed in 1879, however, stopped well short of a full-scale assault on religion. Ferry and his fellow opportunist republicans retained a profound respect for the rights of the individual conscience andwere

also wary of offending the religious sensibilities of voters. Notwithstanding the availability of free state schooling, around 20 per cent of parents preferred to send their children to Catholic primary schools. A higher percentage - nearer 50 per cent - continued to opt for private (mainly Catholic) secondary

differences that would set Homo sapiens apart from the animal world and that might prove to be 'organs of the soul'. At G¨ottingen, RudolphWagner (1805- 64), who was professor of anatomy in succession to Blumenbach, curated and augmented the famous collection of human skulls which his predecessor had

amassed. Like his namesake and friend AndreasWagner,RudolphWagnerwas concerned with the origin and distribution of human races across the surface of the globe.36 BothWagners followed Blumenbach as well as the Heidelberg anatomist Friedrich Tiedemann (1781-1861) in arguing for the biblical belief in

townspeople.40 In Sweden a similar movement was represented initially by the Readers, who read religious tracts in house groups, again inspired by pietism and the Moravians. They were involved in mission work in the far north of Sweden. Methodism was established in Stockholm by George Scott,

an Edinburgh-born preacher in 1830, and subsequently led by Carl O. Rosenius (1816-68), some of whose followers later formed the Swedish Covenant Church. Hence inSwedensomeof those influenced by revival remained within the established Lutheran Church, but others in effect left.41 The Swedish state

Europe and was the spur for a series of related, if less ambitious, projects in Catholic Germany and in the Austrian empire (the towers of the cathedral at Regensburg were finished in 1869; the medieval cathedral at Prague was completed in 1892; that at Olomouc was reconstructed between 1883

and 1890, while the cathedral at Brno had its flanking towers rebuilt in 1906; St Matthias, the 'Coronation Church' in Budapest,was transformed by Frigyes Schulek from 1874 to 1896). Perhaps the most significant of the large-scale new Catholic churches is the impressive Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception

century. The denominational patterns of the British settler colonies reproduced those of the British Isles, though mingling the distributions of England and Scotland. The balance of Anglicans, Presbyterians, Methodists, Congregationalists

and Baptists varied, but itwas rare for any of these traditions to bewholly absent. There was even a province, Quebec, where the Catholic dominance of Ireland was replicated. In Nova Scotia the legacy of the revivalist Henry Alline gave the ascendancy to Baptists, but elsewhere in Canada Anglicans,

the Catholic hierarchy in the mission fields in Africa and Asia pioneered by the French, and in the United States and the British empire, as the church grew and flourished through European and especially Irish emigration. The pope built railways in the Papal States,was an admirer of English manufactures,

and commissioned an English screwsteamship called The Immaculate Conception from a Thameside dockyard. Ideological liberalism was something else, and the persecution of the church by anticlerical liberals called from him in 1864 the encyclical Quanta Cura and its accompanying Syllabus of Errors,

John Sirgood, a former bootmaker. Nicknamed the Cokelers, they grew to around 2,000 people at Sirgood's death in 1885. They formed a holiness body whose theology approximated to that of Wesley, but they had no affiliation to Methodism. They specialised in artless testimonies during their services

and composed simple hymns that were transmitted down the generations in manuscript. Believing that union with Christ meant solidarity in economic as well as spiritual life, they ran village stores on the co-operative principle. Union with Christ, however, was also interpreted as discouraging marriage,

Christian form of ethical existence. The sinner cannot sustain a genuinely ethical form of existence because of sin. In this sense a move from the merely ethical to the religious sphere is necessary, and Kierkegaard employed the image of Abraham,who vividly demonstrates the incompatibility of the ethical

and divine commands in his dilemma over the sacrifice of Isaac. The exact status of the Abraham and Isaac story within Fear and trembling in 1843 is difficult to establish because it remains very unclear to what extent Kierkegaard can be identified with a position proposed by the pseudonym.

priests and churches.The rateswere up to 70 per cent in the towns, but thiswas well below the rates of 90 per cent which prevailed for most of the twentieth century.1 Indeed Sean Connolly has argued that much rural religious practice before the Famine, for large numbers, was of a premodern kind, being lay

and family controlled, and based upon the home, the holy well, weddings, wakes and the 'patterns' or pilgrimages to a local saint, which could be rowdy occasions sometimes degenerating into drunkenness and violence.2 Emmet Larkin, the most prolific historian of the Irish Catholic Church, has suggested

The reconciliatory schemata provided science with considerable freedom to pursue its investigations of the physical world. Simultaneously, biblical literalismwasweakened, towhich, from the theological side, textual and higher criticism contributed. The reinterpretation of the Mosaic accounts of creation

and flood, triggered by geology, linked up with results from the historical study of the Pentateuch, the archaeological study of Israel and the Near East, and the anthropological study of Old and New Testament religion. More radical than the revisions that were forced on many believers by

This historymust be considered within the more general framework of the history of the national groupings of central-eastern Europe. The territory is that of the three great states formed in the Middle Ages - Hungary, Bohemia and Poland - the last named being linked from the end of the fourteenth century,

and formally joined in 1569, with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, including Belorussia and almost all the Ukraine. This entire area was dominated in the nineteenth century by the three empires mentioned above: Tsarist Russia, Prussia, which would succeed in dominating Germany, and the Austria of the

on German citizenship after 1871: Jews and socialists. Because Catholics were Christians, nationalists could countenance their participation in such institutions as the civil service and the army, whereas they rejected that of Jews and 'godless' socialists. Catholics and Protestants also agreed that socialist materialism

and irreligion posed a major threat to German society.However, they preferred to fight socialism separately. Because of the Kulturkampf, Catholicswere loath to support particularist legislation like the 1878 anti-socialist law. Instead they expanded their activities among the working classes, organising trade

strand of patristic thought, with much emphasis upon divine immanence and teleology. Idealistic mediation of philosophy and theology Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831) was a contemporary of Schleiermacher

and is the real father of modern theology. The major developments in nineteenth-century Germantheologywere directly inspired by, or products of, the Hegelian school: the explosive The life of Jesus of David Friedrich Strauss, the monumental work in doctrinal history of the founder of the T¨ubingen

women who sought these roles consistently viewed their ministry in terms of 'service' and argued that they desired ministerial positions only because they wished to serve their God and His people better. With a conception of public ministry that was based more on 'the possession of rank and authority'

and less on the exercise of 'servanthood',24 women were unlikely to achieve their ambitions. That many of their successors have done so in the twentieth century is a testimony to the persistence, determination and faith of these early female pioneers.

La Chenaie in Brittany which between the 1820s and the early 1830s acted as a powerful magnet for some of the brightest and most idealistic of the younger clergy. Though Lamennaiswould personally undergo an extraordinary intellectual

and political evolution, and eventually leave the church altogether, none of his disciples followed him into the wilderness. On the contrary, most remained more committed than ever to his original vision of a Catholic Christianity centred on Rome rather than on Paris and became leading activists in a dynamic

of N. F. S. Grundtvig (1783-1872).43 There has been much discussion of the extent to which the revivals reflected or were assisted by agrarian economic change, as farmers came to own their own land, but without any clear conclusion, since the revival affected large and small farmers in both wealthy

and poor regions. The Danish Inner Mission, founded by laymen in 1853 but under clerical control from 1861, spread from Zealand to the whole country; under the influence of Vilhelm Beck it moved in a steadily conservative direction, eventually separating from the more socially radical Copenhagen Inner

mark a. noll nation. By making peace with republican political reasoning, which still scandalised orthodox believers in Europe, the American churches were able to influence the common polity. In turn, republican wariness of arbitrary power

and republican trust in the capacities of self-directed citizens nudged hereditary Calvinism towards accepting a self-determining power of the human will and de-emphasising total divine sovereignty. Similarly, popular forms of common-sense philosophy that had supported political revolution also pushed

also for their souls . . . During the cholera he exerted himself nobly for the people.'3 Brazil and its clergy had a different religious history from the rest of Latin America in the nineteenth century. Two particular institutions, monarchy

and slavery, in both of which the clergy were involved, were inimical to the development of a modern church in an ex-colonial country. The political independence of Brazil brought no independence to the church. The almost absolute power of the Portuguese crown over colonial religion was inherited

nursing, and general home-based support to families affected by illness, death, unemployment or recent childbirth. Many, such as the French Little Sisters of the Assumption and Daughters of Charity of St Vincent de Paul, and the English Little Company of Mary, developed an early formof combined health

and social services, providing poor families with a mix of qualified home nursing, health visiting and home help services. The convent too became part of their apostolate since it was in their own space, especially their chapels, that women religious could most readily influence liturgical and devotional practices,

from the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council ( JCPC), the highest court of appeal in ecclesiastical matters. The court did not attempt specifically to define correct Anglican doctrine, but held that Gorham's position was not inconsistent with the church's published standards, the Thirty-Nine Articles

and the Prayer Book.68 Consequent protests from High Churchmen were founded not merely on the specific doctrinal point, but on the conviction that the involvement of a civil court, the JCPC, compromised the church's Catholic and apostolic identity. Such an outlook led to a number of prominent

order. None of the authors of the encyclical had intended to conjure up visions of ugly mobs rising in revolutionary action, but the widespread impression persisted in hostile circles that Rerum Novarum was little more than a diatribe against socialism and communism. A translation closer to the original Italian

and the official Latin texts is 'The burning desire for change, which for so long has begun to stir up the masses'.18 Like previous popes, Leo rejected socialism as a solution to the ills of the working class, but its condemnation is not the burden of the encyclical,

the sons of Poland, because they speak Ruthenian, Polish or Lithuanian, or because they are of such or such confession.' He added that there was no difference among the peoples who formed this Poland: Poles, Lithuanians, Germans, Ruthenians (Ukrainians and Belorussians in the twentieth century),

and the others, such as Polish Jews and Muslims. There was here a significant democratic programme for the extension of the Polish nation to the wider population, a process of ennoblement of different ethnic groups from their 'inferior' status.The question of the consciousness of the masseswho made up

the Revolution and war, had only meagre funds to support music. Aware of this glaring deficiency, and in contradistinction to the musical trends set by the courts of the head of state, the composer, publisher and teacher Alexandre Choron took up the mantle of promoting sacred works by the Italian masters,

and though publication of this music ultimately failed through lack of public subscription, Choron continued to pursue his interest in 'historical' music. After the Restoration he published his Collection des pi`eces de musique religieuse qui s'ex´ecutent tous les ans `a Rome durant la semaine sainte dans la Chapelle du Souverain

orthodox revivalism and the Norwegian followers of Grundtvig in the second half of the century. While the latter represented a liberal and national church ideology, a religious revival movement under the leadership of Gisle Johnson (1824-92), a professor of theology, represented political conservatism

and traditional Lutheran loyalty to the authorities, which to Johnson meant loyalty to the Swedish-Norwegian king. On account of the Union, cultural nationalism could easily come into conflict with the authorities if it developed into a political nationalism with demands for national self-government. That

and idiosyncratic tradition of bleeding statues as the objects of local cults, does not appear to have spread to the rest of the Catholic world. Popular French spirituality, with its focus on child visionaries and string of claimed apparitions of theVirgin Mary, led to copycat apparitions over the course of the nineteenth

and twentieth centuries, including in places as far afield as Marpingen in Germany (1876), Knock in Ireland (1879) and Fatima in Portugal (1917); but the vast majority of such claimed apparitions remained a distinctively French contribution to Catholic spirituality (La Salette 1846; Lourdes 1858; Pontmain

for nationalist discourse that became especially prominent in later years. In the end, however, Metternich prevailed. Taking advantage of the public outcry against former fraternity student Karl Sand's murder of the reactionary Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

anthony j. steinhoff playwright August von Kotzebue in 1819, Metternich compelled the German Diet to pass the Carlsbad Decrees and theVienna Final Act.With the first measure, Metternich shut down the Burschenschaften and imposed a confederationwide

gymnastic societies, singing clubs and shooting associations, particularly at events like the 1847 L¨ubeck all-German choral festival. And as liberals came 3 Evangelische Kirchenzeitung (1847), p. 657. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

anthony j. steinhoff to view the establishment of a national state as the only way to save Germany from its political, legal and economic backwardness, these organisations served as a quasi-public space in which liberals elaborated and advanced a political

john lynch abolition. But the Brazilian church did not significantly support the abolitionist cause. Joaquim Nabuco, distinguished leader of abolition, had an audience with Pope Leo XIII in 1888 but without positive results, and throughout the

antislavery campaign the Brazilian church remained a spectator of events. According to Nabuco, the Catholic church never raised its voice in favour of emancipation: 'Our clergy's desertion of the role of the Gospel assigned to it was as shameful as it could possibly be.' Reformers criticised what they saw

conscience remained unresolved. By contrast, the conflicts that arose in western Prussia and Bavaria were touchstones for gauging the true extent of confessional parity and religious freedom in the Bund. In the overwhelmingly Catholic Rhineland and Westphalia,

anxiety mounted steadily in the face of the Prussian state's anti-Catholic actions. It brought Protestants from old Prussia to fill government positions, keeping local Catholics out of public employ. Then in 1825, the old Prussian ordinance on mixed marriages was introduced. Accordingly all children from

women - took a much more active part in the creation, re-establishment or support of Catholic schools, convents, confraternities, sodalities and other exclusively Catholic societies, and were thus in a good position to promote particular devotions or pious practices.24 Meanwhile, their social superiors,

anxious to show themselves as trusting, childlike and humble, were often quite as eager to emulate the 'simple' piety of peasants and labourers. It was thus no accident that the contemporary figure to arouse the greatest devotion throughout the whole of the Catholic world, Bernadette Soubirous, was a

Hegel, Schelling and H¨olderlin - had a long humanistic Platonic tradition cross-fertilised by indigenous south-west German mystical-pietist elements. One of the earliest known works by Schelling was a commentary on Plato's Timaeus.The revival of Platonismwas not confined to southern Germany.The

arch-Romantics Friedrich Schlegel and Schleiermacher conceived together the first German translations of Plato, a huge task that Schleiermacher completed. In England S. T. Coleridge is described in the 1780s as unfolding 'the mysteries of Jamblichus, or Plotinus' as a boy at Christ's Hospital.1 This 'Platonism'

Church in Boston (Brattle Square Church, 1871-2) and Unity Church (Unitarian, 1866) and North Congregational Church (1872-3) both at Springfield, Massachussetts. This last structure, an essay in the English Gothic style with neither a chancel nor transepts, has a fine spire. Richardson's reputation as an

architectural innovator was established by the construction of the spacious, pyramidically massed Trinity Church, Boston (1874-7). The church, which cost some $800,000, is built of pink granite ashlar trimmed with brownstone and is crowned by an impressive lantern tower which rises over the crossing.

teleology as a formof dangerous interdenominational libertarianism. What is more, its arguments for the existence of a divine power did not extend to the elements of Christianity: 'It cannot tell us anything of Christianity at all.'47 The reception of Darwin's theory of evolution was equally multi-levelled,

as Alvar Elleg˚ard long ago documented in impressive detail.48 The creation- evolution issue could function as a vehicle of modernisation and church reform, and accordingly was instrumentalised by the liberal wings of denominations. Scottish and American Calvinists form a case in point. James Moore

anticlerical administrations from 1835, and the imprisonment of the archbishop of Cologne in 1837 for his resistance to Prussian legislation on mixed marriages. The pope's opposition to building railways in his states was taken by European liberals to symbolise his hostility to change. This was not wholly fair,

as Gregory reorganised the Vatican and Lateran museums and refounded the Catholic missions, creating more than seventy new dioceses and vicariates apostolic, doubling those in England from four to eight. In the freshly independent states of Latin America and in India, he ignored Spain's patronato real

and given to mildly sacrilegious jokes from Scripture - he wrote for a nun on a Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 sheridan gilley hideous portrait of himself, 'Fear not, it is I' - Piuswas the firstpopetobeknown

as a personality to ordinary Catholics. The greatest propagandist of this 'new' populist Ultramontanismwas a French journalist, LouisVeuillot, its high priest was an ex-Anglican archdeacon, HenryEdward Manning, later second cardinal archbishop ofWestminster, and it created a popular culture through the new

clause to the existing legal prescription that boys were to follow their father's religion and girls their mother's. If Catholic priests ignored this regulation and accepted children into their denomination contrary to the terms of the legislation, they were punished. This stirred up severe unrest both in society

as a whole and among the Catholic clergy, which led to heated debates in parliament and the public arena, as well as to an exchange of letters between Pope Leo XIII and the Emperor Franz Joseph I, and finally to a governmental crisis. In the end, Franz Joseph I, as constitutional monarch, was forced to

of its journal, the Revue Biblique, in 1892. The scholar behind this development was the Dominican priest Marie-Joseph Lagrange who, in the 1890s, undertook an expedition to Sinai, where he became convinced that this wilderness could not have supported the 2 million Israelites who left Egypt at the exodus,

as implied by Exodus 12:37 and other passages. Lagrange realised that these figures were an idealisation, a projection back from a later age, as argued by Wellhausen and those who had preceded and followed him. Although such a view could not be openly expressed at that time in the Roman Catholic

'progress', sawits relationship with the art and its diverse profession decline as other musical genres became the foci for creativity and ambition. The opera house replaced the church as the 'cathedral' of the bourgeoisie, while the concert hall became the home of the new cultural intelligentsia and cognoscenti

as instrumental music assumed a supremacy over vocal. As Julian Rushton has pointed out, 'churcheswere themselves partly responsible for the fact that their liturgies were no longer the natural home of advanced musical art'.1 Eighteenth-century Lutheran music provides an apposite illustration of

century, mainline Protestant denominations on both sides of the Atlantic restricted the exercise of public ministry to men. Anglicans, Presbyterians, Baptists and Congregationalists, and to a certain extent Methodists, officially excludedwomenfrom the ordained clergy and severely restricted their involvement

as lay church leaders. Despite these prohibitions,women throughout the nineteenth century served as itinerant evangelists, deacons, delegates to their denominational conferences, foreign missionaries and temperance speakers. From the mid-1860s American women were being ordained and others were

6 Almeida, Hist´oria da Igreja em Portugal, vol. iii, pp. 133-4; Sim´on Segura, La desamortizaci´on espa˜nola, pp. 84-9. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 william j. callahan

assistance of the faithful'. The sale of their property would serve 'the public convenience' by increasing 'the resources of the state and opening newsources of wealth'.7 The sale of the regulars' property during the 1830s did not end the confiscation

the Sacred Heart and St Joseph. The church promoted pilgrimages. It organised missions. Women and men flocked to the religious brotherhoods and congregations that were (re-)established in growing numbers after 1850.With its emphasis on sentiment, emotion and the miraculous, this renewal appears

at first glance to be a mere restoration of Counter-Reformation and Baroque piety. In fact, it was quite innovative and modern. Priests gradually brought public religious life under their supervision and control.They carefully scripted pilgrimages and processions. They used voluntary associations and newspapers

by a majority of observant Roman Catholics. For most of the eighteenth century, all that had seemed necessary to lead what was generally considered to be a devout lifewas to be baptised; to hear Mass on a Sunday; and to take seriously one's duties of going to confession and receiving the Blessed Sacrament

at least once a year ('at Easter or thereabouts' according to the catechism, but by convention some eight times a year, on the greater church feasts). Mainstream Catholic sermons, just like mainstream Protestant ones, stressed above all the reasonableness and morality of the central tenets of Christianity;

to pass a newset of regulations for the church by convening a church assembly, but his objective was to create a national church based on extremely liberal principles. During the Hungarian War of Independence (1848-9) the bishops made

attempts at mediation both in Vienna and in conversation with the Hungarian government. However, their efforts achieved quite the opposite: they lost the trust of both. Worst of all, the hierarchy itself was split. While the grassroots/ lower echelons of the clergy aligned themselves wholeheartedly with

What was popular religion, or indeed irreligion? The answer to this question often seems more straightforward for Roman Catholics. An emphasis upon the saints, particularly local images of saints, or the Blessed Virgin, and the festivals associated with them, could be more important for many than

attendance at mass. One of the interesting features of the Roman Catholic Church in the nineteenth century was the extent to which it was prepared to embrace a popular Catholicism that it had tended to be officially cautious about in the past.30 Even in Lourdes the local priest, the Abb´e Peyremale, was

between his definition of the dogma of the Immaculate Conception in 1854 and the Syllabus of Errors in which he condemned 'progress, liberalism and modern civilisation', again on the feast of the Immaculate Conception, exactly ten years later to the day. A striking example of this new stress upon clerical

authority and the newardour of devotion occurred in the Church of England in Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Introduction the OxfordMovement, which arose in the University of Oxford in 1833 among

It is no exaggeration to say that in the period 1815 to 1914 the study of the Bible experienced the biggest changes that had ever occurred in its history. This is particularly striking in the case of Britain. The period began with the Albury conferences trying to ascertain which biblical prophecies remained to

be fulfilled. It ended with almost complete acceptance in academic circles of the view of the history of Israelite history and religion classically expressed by Wellhausen. Change was inevitably much less on the New Testament front, but it is noteworthy that some British scholars gave a guarded welcome to

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 The papacy participation and a compromise between Napoleonic and canon law, but the Romagna had been lay since 1800, and its more affluent citizens would never

be happy again with government by priests. The politicani cardinals who supported Consalvi's reforms were outvoted in the conclave of 1823 by the zelanti who elected Consalvi's enemy, the conservative Annibale della Genga as Leo XII (1760-1829; ruled 1823-9). He abolished lay participation in the higher

the sum of 3,225,000 lire, not subject to taxation. Regarding church-state relations the exequatur and placet were abolished, along with other government mechanisms for controlling the publication and execution of ecclesiastical acts, in accordance with Cavour's notion of a separation of church and state. It

became effective in May. Pius repudiated it, refusing to accept any agreement diminishing his rights,whichwere those of God and the Apostolic See.53 In his view, truth and lies, light and darkness, could not be conciliated. Attacking the laws as inspired by atheism, indifference in religious matters and pernicious

Liverpool, Glasgow and Manchester. The Irish-born population peaked in 1861. The first cardinal archbishop ofWestminster in the hierarchy restored in 1850, Nicholas Patrick Wiseman (1802-65), was born in Spain of an Irish merchant family, but he had nothing much that was Irish about him, having

been educated for the priesthood in England and Rome. His successor, Henry Edward Manning, archbishop ofWestminster (1865-92), an Anglican convert, cultivated both his Irish pauper flock and the Irish nationalist leadership in the House of Commons. His first great social work was the temperance crusade,

there were some conflicts, particularly in the areas of education and finance. When the government introduced a bill in parliament to permit marriages between Jews and Christians, and the bishops caused its defeat, Tisza retaliated by reforming the 'panel of magnates' (Magnatentafel): the so-called 'chosen

bishops' lost their seats and were replaced by representatives of the Protestant and Orthodox churches who were loyal supporters of the government. Moreover, the new law made it possible for the monarch to appoint batches of fifty new members of the upper house as and when required (known in

supported such a national movement, knowing . . . it would only lead to the profound abyss of religious incredulity and social dissolution?'26 Papal abandonment of the national crusade provoked resentment among liberals and patriots. The Piedmontese, distraught by their defeat, tended to

blame Rome for the catastrophe. Count Cavour's newspaper Il Risorgimento reported that the pope's 'betrayal' proved crucial, and Italians could only conclude that the national movement and the papal temporal power were incompatible. 27 The hostilitywasmutual. Pius proved suspicious of the Piedmontese,

Irish ones. In the Commons until 1828 all members (except Scottish Presbyterians) were in theory nominally Anglican, although in practice indemnity acts allowed Protestant Nonconformists to take seats. Hence the Commons was perceived as a representative assembly of Anglican laymen, and the legitimate

body for overseeing the church's affairs. Similarly intermingled roles were evident at local level, where the parish, run by the vestry meeting, was the basic unit of civil as well as ecclesiastical government, and numerous clergy served as magistrates.5 These arrangements were reflected in the constitutional

us to do right and avoid sin. To Leo the natural law was the eternal law, and even human law had its origin in God, which meant that civil society had to be deeply rooted in the transcendent. He made one concession to the contemporary scene by saying that freedom of speech and of the press were

both valid provided they remained 'true and honourable'.10 Meanwhile some laymen and bishops had begun to raise their voices on the problems of the toiling masses. Vast numbers of men, women and children bartered their labour for awage and toiled in grimy factories, mines and other

voluntary associations which tried to assist the poor and provided a framework for vast numbers of ordered and sober lives, and the churches' massive contributions to family welfare, medicine and education. Certain kinds of response to secularisation and liberalism cut across denominational

boundaries. In the aftermath of the French Revolution and later in the nineteenth century, with the advent of secular socialism, religious practice was weakened among men rather than women, and, especially in Roman Catholicism, there was a feminisation of religion in many places, contributing

itself. In the victorious North concern for containing slavery gave way to a fixation on inner spirituality and to coping with industrialisation, the creation of large bureaucracies in government and industry, and the movement of people from farms to cities. For the defeated South, religion grew stronger,

but at a price. In the wake of the War's economic and cultural devastation, evangelical denominations offered profound consolation. Yet they were also complicit in the passage of Jim Crowlaws against blacks and the dreadfulwave of lynchings that began in the 1870s and lasted for more than fifty years.

1 Numbers, 'Science and religion', p. 70. 2 Moore, The post-Darwinian controversies, pp. 14, 111-13. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Christianity and the sciences

but of religion within science.3 The opposite tendency, that is the workings of science within religion, also helped shape the discourse, theologians taking account of geology in their commentaries on Genesis. Both groups - leading Christian scientists and theologians - were concerned that the book

pagan.26 In the diocese of Skara customary attendance at parish communion dropped from four times a year to once after 1830.27 The new rural poor, especially young men and female domestics, were no longer attending the parish church. There was not a significant increase in the number of clergy

but, since Scandinavia had enjoyed very favourable ratios of clergy to people in the eighteenth century, the ratio was still comparable to that in Germany by the end of the century. However, in northern Sweden and Norway parishes were very large and the difference between those and parishes in the south

became more eclectic in their tastes, adding selected foreign devotions to their own, more traditional, favourites. It undoubtedly also had something to do with the sharp increase in interdenominational competition, a change which appears to have been sparked by early nineteenth-century missionary endeavoursoverseas,

butwas sustained,fromabout the middle of the century, through the widespread use of revivalist techniques at home, among Protestants and Catholics alike.23 Above all, changes in the tone of Catholic devotion and worship in the

the Roman Catholic Church was the largest church in Holland by 1930. The number of those with no explicit religious affiliation was very slow to grow and was only 2.3 per cent in 1899.23 Given that the balance between agricultural and industrial population had reached an 'economically advanced' level

by 1700 (rather than 1820 as in the United Kingdom), Holland, with a high level 21 Ibid., p. 504. 22 Vlekke, Evolution of the Dutch nation, pp. 309-20; Kossmann, The Low Countries, pp. 289-96, 302-7; Bornewasser, 'Thorbecke and the churches', pp. 146-69. On Kuyper, see below,

29 Wintle, Pillars of Piety, pp. 1-10 and passim. See also Kossmann, The Low Countries; Van Rooden, Religieuze regimes; and Bank and Van Buuren, 1900, chapters 9 and 10. 30 G. Groen van Prinsterer, Ongeloof en revolutie: een reeks van historische voorlezingen, 4th edn (Amsterdam: Van Bottenburg, 1940) (original edition 1847; abridged English translation

by Harry van Dyke, Groen Van Prinsterer: lectures on unbelief and revolution ( Jordan Station, Ontario:Wedge Publishing Foundation, 1989)). Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 u. altermatt, f. metzger and m. wintle

Subalpino (Turin: Pomba Editori, 1850), p. 77. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Italy: the church and the Risorgimento Pius had come to the conclusion that the Turin governmentwas dominated

by antireligious sentiments; its mania for expansion in Italy was perceived as a threat to the pope's temporal and spiritual power. The pope complained that the foes of Catholicism used nationalism to wage a war against the Apostolic See. His denunciations were ignored by Cavour. 'With us the Court of Rome

The struggle to unify Italy had been decisive for the papacy. When Leo XIII succeeded Pius IX in 1878 he reluctantly accepted his situation as the 'prisoner in the Vatican' and constantly expressed his disapproval of the loss of his states in Italy, but changed circumstances freed him to use his authority unfettered

by temporal affairs. Moreover, the new doctrine of papal infallibility immeasurably increased papal power yetwas so overwhelming in its implications that it has been used only once since its definition in 1870. Yet, even without its use, infallibility added an indefinable dimension to papal teaching. When the pope

areas without places of worship of their own denomination. Nonconformists supported Bible women and literature colporteurs, they held cottage meetings and theatre services, they sponsored city missions and American evangelists. A popular technique towards the end of the century, much favoured

by the Salvation Army, was to hold an open-air meeting in the hope of attracting passers-by to a subsequent evening service. The after-meeting, which followed the evening service, was another method of encouraging conversions. Those who were anxious about their souls were invited to stay behind;

Andalusia, Extremadura and Las Manchas, where the parishes were much larger and the majority of the rural population were landless labourers rather than peasant proprietors, regular mass attendance was much lower. Frances Lannon's summary is true for many countries: 'Catholic practice was affected

by the following factors: region, size of settlement, the ownership of property, occupation, age, and sex'.4 Spain also had a high number of priests, but although it was overwhelmingly rural, the clergy were concentrated in the towns, not least because of the relatively high number in cathedral and associated

john molony In the Catholic tradition, the contours of Christian social thought in the nineteenth century were increasingly defined by the content of papal encyclicals. An encyclical is a letter, usually addressed to the Catholic bishops of theworld,

by which a pope attempts to strengthen the unity of the church in its belief and discipline. He may also apply that belief to the day-to-day affairs of the human race and therefore pronounce on social, economic and political problems. The first pope to revive the ancient practice of issuing encyclicals was

without a sense of church connection. The consequent religious vacuum and indifferencewas partially being filled by Dissent. As described in chapter 4, this period saw an enormous expansion in evangelical voluntary religion, which with its more flexible structures and

capacity to harness lay congregational energies could rapidly establish a presence in hitherto unchurched or poorly churched locations. The result though was an increasing awareness that the national churcheswere no longer virtual monopoly providers of religious services, and hence that existing constitutional

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Musical trends and the western church education and a cappella performance in the later nineteenth century, and the foundation of the Regensburger Domspatzen (the Regensburg cathedral

choir), with boys and men, which was (and remains) well known throughout Catholic Europe. With the powerful endorsement of successive popes, the Cecilian reforms were also embraced in France (Choron and Niedermeyer), Italy (Basili,

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 THE CAMBRIDGE HISTORY OF CHRISTIANITY WORLD CHRISTIANITIES

c .1815-c.1914 * VOLUME 8 *

their ecclesiastical work, even that of G. G. Scott looks tame and dutifully conventional. Only Scott's finest work, All Souls, Haley Hill, Halifax (1855-9), St Mary's Episcopal Cathedral, Edinburgh (1874-9) and certain of the fittings he designed for the many English medieval cathedrals whose fabric he restored,

can stand comparison with the work of his rivals. The major commissions to Butterfield, Street and Pearson for designs for new churches came from clients sympathetic to the Oxford Movement. Butterfield's early masterpiece, the church of All Saints, Margaret Street (1839-59),

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 the cambridge history of CHRISTIANITY The Cambridge History of Christianity offers a comprehensive

chronological account of the development of Christianity in all its aspects - theological, intellectual, social, political, regional, global - from its beginnings to the present day. Each volume makes a substantial contribution in its own right to the scholarship of its period

be identical with that of the creation days; and, second, a literal meaning of the word 'day' had to give way to a symbolic one. Nevertheless, the 'day-age' view was widely adopted by the diluvialists, as it accommodated their belief that the historic deluge of Noah and the most recent of Cuvier's geological

cataclysms had been one and the same event. The second schema - the exegesis of restitution or 'ruin and restoration' - focused on the first two verses of the Mosaic hexaemeron. The first verse, 'In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth', is not a prospective

the words of Hugh McNeile, one of its leading advocates, a matter of 'nationalism in religion'.42 Further factors here were the influence of evangelicalism, which at this period developed a more explicitly anti-Catholic strand, and a rising tide of Irish migration to Britain in the 1830s and 1840s, all of which

caused anti-Catholic movements to become more organised and assertive. The Protestant Associationwas formed in 1835, the National Club, to promote Protestant interests in parliament, in 1845, the Scottish Reformation Society in 1850 and the Protestant Alliance in 1851.43 Events too fuelled Protestant feeling:

aim of rooting out Modernists. Merry del Val himself thought by 1911 that it had gone too far. The anti-Modernist movement ceased with the death of Pius in 1914; on his first morning at his desk, the new pope, Benedict XV, is said to have found a letter denouncing him as a Modernist. Benedict promptly

censured the Sodalitium Pianum in 1914, and again in 1921. Benigni ended as Mussolini's spy in the Vatican mail room. The anti-Modernist oath, however, remained until the 1960s. The papal condemnation of Modernism isolated the heretics from the great orthodox Catholic scholars, who submitted to papal

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Switzerland and the Netherlands Basel, Schaffhausen, Appenzell Outer-Rhodes, Vaud, Neuchˆatel and Geneva doubled: by 1888, almost asmany Catholics lived in these cantons as in Catholic

central Switzerland; by 1900 their numbers exceeded those in the latter region. The increasingly bi-confessional situation in many regions, and especially in some towns, caused social and political friction, but, not least through intermarriage, was leading also to an increasing ecumenism in everyday life and a

Clerical and lay elites played a crucial role, and occupied positions of power in the Catholic milieu, producing and mediating cultural codes and descriptions of society. The only Catholic associational structure which had survived the civil war, the Schweizerische Studentenverein, founded in 1841, became a

central network for Catholic elites. In the second half of the nineteenth century a number of more or less interrelated networks can be observed which differed in their attitudes towards the liberal state and Ultramontanism. Whereas in homogeneously Protestant cantons Catholic organisations were rare, in

understanding of the remarkable diversity of Christian engagements with the sciences.10 The nineteenth-century harmonisation schemata were first and foremost a reaction to the then new perspective of geological time and history, and

centred on the meaning of the Genesis stories of creation and deluge. As a Catholic theologian at Maynooth, Gerald Molloy (1834-1906), commented: 'The rapid progress of Physical Science, in modern times, has given rise to not a few objections against the truths of Revelation. Of these objections there

andworkersmust be united in corporations serving theirmutual interests and resolving their differences. Furthermore, he was convinced that the vitals of capitalism had to be cut by prohibiting usury. These ideas were rooted in the guilds of the Middle Ages and in the church's insistence until the eighteenth

century on the evil of usury. The question of usury, however, was incapable of resurrection without the abolition of capitalism. It was difficult to envisage what would take its place except socialism, which Leo had repeatedly rejected in his previous encyclicals.11

there would be appeals to those who had been touched to lift a hand; workers would move among the congregation to offer spiritual guidance. Many conversions, furthermore, took place in revivals, which were specially common among Methodists. When a revival broke out in the early years of the

century, a whole community might be seized by religious anxiety. These eventswere often noisy affairs, commonly marked by clapping, screaming and jumping, and sometimes by physical phenomena such as shaking or falling down. Suddenly, ran one Methodist minister's memory of a Cornish revival

was working for a safe and protected place within a broader society in which various groups would lead their own, pillarised lives. Kuyper proclaimed, 'I exalt multiformity, and hail in it a higher stage of development.'28 The religious affiliation of the Dutch population towards the end of the nineteenth

century, according to the census of 1899, is shown in Table 20.1. The figures make clear that the Calvinists of the Dutch Reformed Church dominated, especially if the orthodox Calvinists are added to them. However, within most of the officially recognised denominational groups, there was to be found a

Thus two deeply contradictory ideas of 'Polishness'must be carefully distinguished in the nineteenth century, and theywere bequeathed to the twentieth century. The case of the political Polish nation is comparable with that of Hungary, which not only had kept its traditional position up to the nineteenth

century, but by the 1860s, after the accords withVienna, had achieved the status of a virtual independent state, though some nationswere nowin revolt against its authority. The case of the Slovaks is comparable to that of the Lithuanians, while the Croats and Romanians of Transylvania were in an intermediate

in 1848 in the 'springtime of the European peoples'. But it was only the collapse of the three ruling empires in the years 1917-18 that demonstrated the profound strength of national movements and at the same time the difficulties of constructing a new order. In fact, only after the paroxysms of the twentieth

century, culminating in the events of 1989, has a new map of the nation-states of central-eastern Europe emerged, together with aspirations to find a place in the European Union.With our long perspective, we can better understand theweakness of the great powers of the nineteenth century, and appreciate the

minister. In this way the world of religion became more localised. At the same time the increasing dependence on the local minister meant that any slackening in recruitment for the ministry was the seed for a future crisis. In different ways and over different periods this was realised in the twentieth

century. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 p a r t ii ∗

jeremy dibble To appreciate the part played by churchmusic in the nineteenth century, specifically in continental Europe and Britain, it is vital to acknowledge a number of key issues, most of them inherited from the second half of the eighteenth

century. The new secular age, heralded by the philosophical developments of the Enlightenment and major events such as American Independence and the French Revolution, signalled a sea-change in music's function within society, and the church, once the principal patron, and indeed custodian, of musical

God, discontinuity, and the priority of existence over essence The revolt against Hegel in the nineteenth centurywas deeply indebted to the later Schelling's critique of Hegel. Though Hegel is not usually thought of as a 'Romantic', especially not in Germany, he may be considered as the root of

certain anti-Idealistic tendencies or movements in the later part of the period. Schelling has been called the 'Prince of Romantics' and there is a sense in which this apparently protean philosopher focused upon two themes and obsessions throughout his life which are characteristically Romantic: myth

of voluntary religion on the continent, though naturally diverse in expression, was frequently intimately associated with the evangelical faith of the British Isles. In all the lands where Free Churches became a powerful force, growth was

challenged by a variety of factors. Many facets of popular culture came into 19 See chapter 20 below. 20 See chapter 13 below. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

More often, the post-Westphalia conditions required Catholics and Protestants to live side by side. The presence of the Roman Catholic Church was much more apparent in the west of Germany than in Prussia, apart from that part of East Prussia that had originally been Poland. Another reason for the

change in the balance of Catholic and Protestant was the high level of Protestant emigration from Germany: between 1871 and 1897 2.2 million Protestants 19 Everitt, The pattern of rural dissent; Thompson, 'The churches and society in nineteenthcentury England'.

In national circles in Turin, clericalism was denounced as the vanguard of absolutism and the enemy of Italian nationalism. By this time, even Gioberti concluded that the union of the temporal and spiritual power of the papacy was disastrous for both, as well as national unification. The parties of the left

charged that Pius had conspired with theAustrians to annul their constitutional regime.30 In Turin, Agostino Depretis insisted on curbing Catholic privileges and clerical abuses. Among other things he proposed that the ministry appropriate ecclesiastical benefices, suppress some of the religious orders, sequester

the sick, running bazaars, Sunday school teaching and, perhaps above all, district visiting. The area round the chapels was commonly divided into districts with each assigned to a visitor to maintain regular contact, to offer spiritual support and to solicit financial contributions. Since the chapel was often the

chief focus of female sociability in a community, the fact that women were customarily a majority of members, usually by a ratio of something like two to one, is not surprising. Among the attenders who did not assume the responsibilities of membership, however, the proportion of men was consistently

levels of ability along with a few masters (like Edward Hicks who in the midnineteenth century painted several versions ofThe Peaceable Kingdom). After the mass-marketing of religious objects began after the CivilWar, both Catholics and Protestants purchased immense quantities of pictures, statues, games,

children's toys, greeting cards, calendars and business cards decorated with biblical motifs. The Victorian era was the great age of the decorative family Bible whose massive size, graphic illustrations, blank pages for recording family births,

mind. The long quest for a diocesan reorganisation finally produced results in 1882 when the government and Pope Leo XIII agreed to suppress five of the kingdom's nineteen dioceses.9 The regalism of liberal governments proved especially disruptive for the

church between 1834 and 1843 in Spain and between 1833 and 1840 in Portugal. For the first time in Spain, a violent urban anticlericalism moved by hostility towards the religious orders emerged during the summer of 1834. In Madrid, crowds murdered seventy-eight religious, some of whom were stabbed to

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 sheridan gilley much a part of the Ultramontane movement as the great bishops, journalists and theologians who espoused it, as papal prestige and authority over the

church flourished by ways and means which Rome itself had often done little to inspire. Yet neo-Ultramontanismwas also sustained by a succession of strong, attractive papal personalitieswho, in the Catholic view,were martyrs. Pius VII,who

the Holy Spirit at Millport, Great Cumbrae, in Scotland (1849-51) stands in contrast to his more restrained design for the Anglican cathedral in Melbourne, Australia (1878-86). Butterfield's delight in the potential of red brick banded with black was shared by George Edmund Street in the design of his fine

church of St James-the-Less, Westminster (1859-61). It too is grouped with a school, but its most striking exterior feature is its campanile tower. Although much of the detailing is derived from French and Italian sources, the effect of the church's original interior is of massy richness, enhanced by a remarkable

Europe. At the same time they expressed newrelations between state, people and church. As a simplification, one may say that 'Free Church' and 'state church' are contradictory concepts which refer to different conceptions of the organisation of the church, whilst the terms 'folk church' and 'national

church' also have a qualitative dimension. Among the more recent concepts, that of 'state church' expressed most clearly a continuity with premodern society. Although the concept was new, its content had roots going back to the age of Constantine. In the post-

to be the golden age of Irish missions. The religious energies of the Irish church at home and abroad came essentially from the neo-Ultramontane movement to exalt papal authority over the Catholic Church, with a strong devotional life and with a high doctrine of

church, priest and sacrament, though a minority of Irish bishops, MacHale and Morarty of Kerry in Ireland and most of the Americans,were technically inopportunists opposed to the definition of papal infallibility at the First Vatican Council in 1870. Edward Fitzgerald, of Little Rock, Arkansas, was one of only

workers and their families. All branches of Methodism, for example, had a majority drawn from the working classes throughout the Victorian period.10 The rapid growth of industrial settlements, especially in the first half of the century, actually benefited voluntary religion at the expense of the established

church. Whereas the Church of England was fettered by legal complications in the erection of new places of worship, Nonconformity had no equivalent problem. Meanwhile in the countryside, although there were parishes where it was impossible to persuade Anglican squires to sell land for Dissenting

sculptural tower and the inventive colour scheme of its altarless interior there also figure highly individual theories which link the mysteries of Solomon's Temple to a Pauline ideal of Christianised Hellenism. In contrast to the Lutheran north and Presbyterian Scotland, Catholic

churches in England and Ireland constructed immediately before or after the Emancipation Act of 1829 tended to be unobtrusive neo-Classical boxes (e.g. St Mary's pro-Cathedral, Dublin, 1815-25, generally accredited to John Sweetman, or St Edmund, Bury St Edmunds, 1837, by Charles Day). The

spire which dominates the surrounding townscape, but its glory is the rich interior glowing with reds, greens and blues and lit by some of the architect's finest stained glass: Pugin actively fostered a new generation of innovative craftsmen working in stone, wood, glass and ceramics. None of Pugin's other

churches rivals the splendour of St Giles's. Limited budgets curtailed both decorative experiment and true architectural substance in four of his English Catholic cathedrals built in anticipation of the restoration of the hierarchy: St Chad's, Birmingham (in north Germanic red brick, 1839-41), St Barnabas,

33 Wordsworth, Genesis, 2nd edn (London: Rivingtons, 1866), p. xxxii. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 History and the Bible loss by Adam. When it is considered that a highly intelligent and competent

churchman with such views would be an influential bishop until 1885, it is easy to see how hard biblical criticism had to battle in order to gain any headway. So far, nothing has been said in this chapter about the New Testament,

and the ministrations of religion were more dependent on individual priests. Yet peasant commitment to the church was never in doubt. The Mexican Indians, in the past neglected and sometimes exploited by the church, were more inclined to accept the legitimacy of the clergy's authority than that of

civil officials and politicians. The peasants of central Mexico, like the church, were victims of liberal policy and they resented attacks on their lands and fiestas, and other menaces of modernisation. They were the natural allies of the church, though the church hardly reciprocated or gave them the priests

advocated by the Piedmontese and Italianswas condemned in errors 45 and 47.The critique of the errors of the liberalism of the day caused the greatest controversy, and especially the condemnation of the final error, which called for the Roman pontiff to reconcile himself with progress, liberalism and recent

civilisation.47 Pius considered convoking a council to deal with the contemporary dilemma, and on 6 December 1864, two days before issuing the Syllabus of Errors, asked the cardinals in curia to weigh the possibility. Encouraged by

household of faith, pp. 113-33. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 mary heimann were persuaded to turn Catholic, overwhelming resistance to the exclusivist

claims of Christianity meant that most missionaries, Catholic or Protestant, were forced to lower their sights to the attempted infusion of vaguely defined 'Christian values' into traditional Indian society, and ultimately forced to accept syncretism at the expense of doctrinal rigour.13

that the sciences went through a process of institutionalisation and professionalisation, accompanied by a growing resentment about the pervasiveness of the ecclesiastical hold over the nation's institutions. Not just 'cognitive dissonance' but 'institutional dissonance' produced tensions which led to border

clashes of science with traditional estates of cultural authority, including the churches. Many scientists strove for a fundamental redistribution of this authority in society, so as to acquire for themselves a major share of it. Frank Turner has highlighted the importance of the professional dimension in the

kept their place throughout the national movement, sometimes even, among the rich, against the interests of their class. Marx and Engels wrote in high praise of the Polish nobles in struggling for the people's freedom against the forces of reaction. This large, impoverished nobility formed the basis of a new

class, the intelligentsia, which from the second half of the century aspired to guide the Polish spirit. This democratic intelligentsia, open to individuals from the lower classes and to the general elevation of these classes, entered into both partnership and competition with the Polish clergy,whoweremuch

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 douglas hedley respectively those of permanence and progression: the landowning interest on the one hand, and the mercantile, manufacturing, distributive and professional

classes on the other. The 'clerisy' - the broader body of those priests, teachers and scholars - Coleridge thought of as the cultivating force of the nation. Mill noted admiringly that this dynamic concept of the constitution was far more radical than the Whiggish allegiance to the predominance of

Widespread resistance to these measures compelled Bismarck and his allies to escalate the attack. New legislation allowed the state to suspend or exile priests who refused to obey the May Laws. Government officials could also seize church property and, after 1875, suspend financial support from recalcitrant

clergy (the 'bread-basket' law). The toll of these measures was considerable. As of 1878, only three of eight Prussian dioceses still had bishops, some 1,125 of 4,600 parishes were vacant, and nearly 1,800 priests ended up in jail or in exile. Approximately 16 million Reichsmarks appropriated to the Catholic

married slaves outside the city of Lima, or who sexually abused their female slaves, might find themselves attacked not only by their slaves but also by the church. The Peruvian Indians traditionally suffered from many exploiters, including

clerics, whose extortionate behaviour frequently went far beyond the just collection of fees. But the church was not responsible for liberal legislation, which abolished Indian community lands and opened them to market forces, often cheating the Indians of their land without giving them true independence.

nation was a central strand in their sense of identity, which was the main reason why Protestantism did not constitute structures similar to the Catholic milieu. As a political and cultural minority, Catholics stood in opposition to the new liberal nation-state and its political system, while identifying more or less

closely with the old nation (the old Eidgenossenschaft). Since Catholics created conceptions of the nation of their own, two competing, partially overlapping communicative communities can be observed - a national one dominated by liberal and Protestant conceptions, and a Catholic one.24

anthony j. steinhoff Catholics created an ever-widening array of social, cultural, charitable and economic organisations to meet their special, confessional needs: from literary and sporting societies to teachers' organisations, credit unions and women's

clubs. Significantly, this 'ghettoisation' also encouraged a nationalisation of Catholicism. Catholics abandoned their großdeutsch and particularist mentalities, thinking and acting instead in terms of the kleindeutsch nation. This posture

schoolgirls known as the 'Children of Mary',were designed to guide Catholics through particularly tricky stages of life. Still others, such as the Society of St Vincent de Paul, existed primarily to help the poor; or, like the Association of the Cross or Temperance Guild of Our Lady and St John the Baptist, to

combat a specific social problem - alcoholism in this case - but from a distinctively Catholic angle. The vast majority of devotional societies, however, which consisted of a bewildering variety of Rosary, Blessed Sacrament, Sacred Heart, Holy Family, Immaculate Conception, Immaculate Heart,Way of the

on revival (1835), which depicted evangelism as a science to be programmed for definite results, if only believers would exert themselves appropriately. Conservatives who challenged the wisdom of such theological adjustments were led by Charles Hodge (1797-1878) of Princeton Seminary,whose writings

conceded only a little to the spirit of the new American age. In the late 1840s, Horace Bushnell (1802-72) of Hartford abandoned 'common-sense' theology for an alternative at once both more evangelical and more liberal. When Alexis de Tocqueville visited the United States in the early 1830s, he

of organicism, analogy, and thematic and tonal symbols to form a more complex ecclesiastical Gesamtkunstwerk in which elements of time, architectural space, liturgy, music and words coalesced into an artistic entity greater than the sum of its parts. Stanford repeated this with his even more symphonically

conceived Evening Service in A Op. 10, written for St Paul's Cathedral in 1880, but his masterpieces are his Service inGOp. 81 (1902), drawing on the German lieder tradition, and the elusively complex Service in C Op. 115 (1909) which Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Christian social thought to rule was not connected with any specific form of government, all must rule with 'even-handed justice'. Catholics were exhorted to 'take a role in the

conduct of public affairs', but to remember that 'the origin of the public power is to be sought for in God Himself, and not in the multitude'. This stricture was not necessarily anti-democratic: Leowas simply restating the fundamental principle of the divine origin of power, rather than denying its earthly source.

Germany (notably Wackernagel's Das deutsche Kirchenlied von der ¨altesten Zeit bis zu Anfang des 17. Jahrhunderts of 1864) and Scandinavia. This tradition, vibrant under pietist influence in the eighteenth century, inspired JohnWesley and the Methodists in England and (especially)Wales, with the result that dissenting

congregations began to reject the established metrical psalmody still practised in Anglican parish churches, and hymns became increasingly popular at Sunday worship and at open-air meetings. As the use of hymnody spread, two of its most seminal exponents, IsaacWatts and CharlesWesley, emerged as

overtook its IrishandWelsh counterparts.Twofurther factorswere alsoimportant. First there was the success of the ongoing process of reformand pastoral renewal, at the grass-roots as well as at the legislative level. The late Victorian church was substantially more effective in meeting the spiritual needs of its

congregations than its Georgian predecessor had been. The creation of six new dioceses in the 1870s and 1880s helped to strengthen a sense of local and regional identification with the church, notably in relation to the dioceses of Liverpool, Truro (Cornwall) and Newcastle upon Tyne (Northumberland).

The Whigs were Erastians who saw the state as fully justified in changing the nature of the church establishment if it could thereby be made better to serve its essential purposes as they perceived them. In particular they wanted to make it more comprehensive in its appeal and more acceptable to those who

conscientiously differed from it.18 Such viewswere also shared by some leading liberal Anglican clergymen, notably Richard Whately, whom Grey appointed archbishop of Dublin in 1831, and by Thomas Arnold, headmaster of Rugby School. In his pamphlet Principles of church reform, published in January 1833,

was in any case very different after the profound transformation of the nineteenth century. The population had doubled since 1860, and now comprised some 20 million Poles in place of 1 million in 1800. This was the second generation of people free from serfdom and with rising aspirations. National

consciousness increased enormously. But at the same time, difficulties of every sort and social and national discontent increased considerably. There was also growing tension between the peoples of the former federation: between Poles Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

programme to modern society. Despite the fact that in his earlier days he had not hesitated to voice strong anti-Catholic views, in 1889 Kuyper allied with Roman Catholics to provide state support for confessional, as well as state, schools. The result of this was a de facto pluralism, in which the essentially

conservative voices of Protestantism and Catholicism allied together. Ironically it was Kuyper's allies, the Roman Catholics under H. J. A. M. Schaepman (1844-1903), who developed a system of Catholic trade unions, despite episcopal opposition, after Leo XIII's Rerum Novarum in 1891. The 1912 Poor Law

later Victorian England church architects such as George Gilbert Scott jun. (1839-97) and George Frederick Bodley (1827-1907) rejected 'muscular' French thirteenth-century models in favour of what was known as 'English Second Pointed' (the 'refined' style of the fourteenth century). It is in this 'national'

context that the distinctiveness of the ByzantineWestminster Cathedral should be seen. Early in the century, owing to the persuasive prose of Edward Gibbon's Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 andrew sanders

associated with special mental powers, by means of which humans rise above animality, representing the image of God. Huxley denied that an anatomical chasm exists between animals and humans, arguing, in Evidence as to man's place in nature (1863), that, on the

contrary, there is a close animal-human proximity, supporting the theory that mankind and the higher apes are related by descent. The use of Gauss's brain was turned into its opposite by Huxley's followers, who argued that its large size and intricate convolutions showed that he was further removed from a

until as late as 1873, relatively few indigenous Christian sects came into being until after the Second World War; even then, Catholicism continued to be generally regarded as an alien creed unsuitable for transplantation into traditional Japanese culture. Only in territories which had been under European

control for considerably longer - as in the cases of the northern part 13 For a fuller analysis of Catholic missions in nineteenth-century India, see chapter 29 below. 14 Hastings, African Catholicism, pp. 75-6.

primary theatre for the Kulturkampf drama was Prussia. The stage for conflict was set with Bismarck's appointment of the liberal Adalbert Falk as minister for education and cultural affairs in February 1872. That March, the Prussian parliament placed the supervision of all schools under state instead of clerical

control. One year later, it passed the 'May Laws', giving the state extensive control over priests' training and appointment. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Christianity and the creation of Germany

now-demolished St Willibrordus-buiten-de-Veste, Amsterdam, 1854-66). The interior of St Catherine's is remarkable for its startling polychromy, though as his career developed Cuijpers's use of coloured brick and tile became both more subdued and more subtle in its effect. He also moved away from the

conventional 'cath´edrale id´eale' plan towards an experiment with central planning. The great church of the Sacred Heart (the 'Vondelkerk') in Amsterdam (1870; now secularised) boldly combines a basilican nave with an octagonal crossing. Its interior is remarkable for the use of banded bricks of differing

as a matter of charity. The elaboration of the concept of social justice was, of necessity, merely foreshadowed in the pages of Rerum Novarum, and its further development awaited the twentieth century. Indeed in one country, Australia, the ferment

created by the encyclical was already reflected in legislation by 1907 where a 'fair and reasonable' wage was judged to be one that provided for a man, his wife and his children so that they might live in 'a condition of frugal comfort estimated by current human standards'.24 That the words used by

creation and the major periods of earth history, giving the word 'day' the meaning of 'age'. This view had been authoritatively expressed well before 1815, by Jean Andr´e Deluc (1727-1817), a Genevan Calvinist who had moved to London. In one of a series of published letters, he pointed out that the days of

creation could not have been periods of twenty-four hours, because the sun and other celestial bodies were not created until the fourth 'day'.12 Georges Cuvier (1769-1832), a life-long Protestant who worked at the world's largest research establishment at the time, the Mus´eum d'Histoire Naturelle in Paris,

praised Humboldt for having avoided the language of natural theology 'as it is understood in England', the Tory Quarterly Review, the Benthamite Westminster Review and the Congregational British Quarterly Review all sorely missed references to 'the power, wisdom and goodness of God as manifested in the

creation'. To many of Humboldt's British critics, it was inconceivable that a popular exposition of science should be without the stated aim that the study of nature leads up to nature's God. Science and the soul

innovative schools of thought. Even the profoundly conservative Orthodox tradition produced thinkers like Solovyov who engaged with modern culture and thought. Nevertheless, this period is dominated by the response to the Enlightenment

criticism of the dogmas of the Christian religion as unreasonable. The remainder of this chapter will analyse nineteenth-century responses to the Enlightenment according to the following five categories: 1 Ultra-Romantic: Those who rejected the 'Enlightenment' challenge as misguided

amplified.28 Natural theology in decline The cognitive dissonancewhich developed with revealed religion did not exist to the same extent in relation to natural religion. However searching the

criticisms of the design argument by David Hume (1711-76) or by Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) had been, natural theology continued to flourish, especially in the English-speakingworld, and the high point of the tradition occurred during the early decades of the nineteenth century. A new phase of the tradition's

and culture is central for this period. Coleridge's idea of the clerisy exerted its influence upon the great educator Thomas Arnold, with his vision of the Christian gentleman, on Matthew Arnold's espousal of 'culture', and on John Ruskin. Ritschl's rather Kantian view of the Kingdom of God as an ethical and

cultural ideal led to the formation of a strong emphasis upon the harmony of Christianity and culture. This Kulturprotestantismus provoked the bitter opposition of Franz Overbeck (1837-1905), who insisted upon the radical discontinuity between Christianity and human culture. Overbeck saw Christianity

(1879), the antiphon 'Ecce sacerdos magnum' (1885) and the Mass in E minor for choir and windband (1866, but revised in 1876 and 1882), shocked many hearers by their shameless chromaticism and tonal dissolution, even though those very constituents of plainchant and strict counterpoint were still active

currency in the composer's language. Others such as Johannes Habert spent their lives waging an offensive against the Cecilian proscription of instrumental music in church, and defiantly performed the Viennese symphonic masses in Austrian churches and cathedrals. In Italy, where opera and instrumental

liturgies, hymns and church order were different. This distinction between west and east also had consequences for the relationship between 4 Sørensen and Str˚ath, The cultural construction of Norden. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

dag thorkildsen church and state. The West-Nordic tradition was to a certain degree low church Lutheran with a strong integration of church and state. The once mighty bishops had, as a consequence of the Reformation, been replaced by

expected. But in Portugal the triumphant republican revolution of 1910 saw the clergy's worst fears realised through what Pope Pius X saw as 'an incredible series of excesses and crimes which have been enacted in Portugal for the oppression of the church'.38 The Portuguese church survived better than this

dark assessment suggests. But the new republic abolished the church's financial, educational and legal privileges, and for good measure administered a dose of the regalism that had been part of Portuguese history since the days of absolute monarchy.The civil authorities imitated an old regalist tactic by forbidding

village life. Conditions in southernregions, such as Andalusia and Extremadura inSpain and the Baixo Alentejo in Portugal, were less promising. Parishes were few compared to the north, while in districts of large estates worked by landless

day labourers religious indifference took root. The indefatigable Redemptorist missionary Ram´on Sarabia, who worked extensively in rural Andalusia and Extremadura early in the twentieth century, saw a pattern of low religious observance, the massive abstention of men from religious services

established in the seventeenth century and notably to the model established by the enduringly popular George Herbert. Keble'smuch reprinted collection of poems, The Christian year (1827), was intended to be a verse companion to the Book of Common Prayer, offering meditations for the Sundays and major feast

days of the Church of England. It served to stimulate a renewed interest in the calendar and its distinctive seasonal patterning of the year. Keble's essentially placid, but consistently lucid, verse was to find echoes in the work of one minor Tractarian poet, Isaac Williams (1802-65, the author of The cathedral

social cohesion appears in Chateaubriand's apologetic for Catholic civilisation, in the opposing conservative and liberal Catholic Ultramontane theories of Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 sheridan gilley

de Maistre and the young Lamennais, within the Catholic T¨ubingen School in Germany, and in the OxfordMovement in England. The debt of Romanticism to Plato, Spinoza and even Unitarianism, however, sometimes inclined it to a one-sided immanentism as well as to orthodoxy, as in identifying Christianity

but this was in a diocese where there were more than 300,000 Catholics.48 In reality such movements were significant much more in reinforcing a sense of polarised confrontation with the Roman Catholic Church than in shifting the denominational arithmetic. In the context of serious overall population

decline as a result of the Great Famine of the late 1840s and of emigration, the 46 Bowen, The Protestant crusade, pp. 204-5. 47 Ibid., p. 238. 48 Akenson, The church of Ireland, p. 210.

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 janice holmes and susan o'brien became part of a different past, along with the working-class women who had been made superiors and leaders of mission groups at a young age. The new

demands of the twentieth century were already clear: withmuch greater professionalisation and state regulation in education, health and social care came more inspection, standardisation and cost, and a greater involvement with the state. Therewas still room for vision, taking risks and newinitiatives, but after

a further radicalisation of the conflicts, leading to the civil war of 1847 (the Sonderbundskrieg).These actionswere an expression of the politicisation of religion and the confessionalisation of politics characteristic of the Kulturk¨ampfe between the 1830s and the 1880s. These were, above all, conflicts about the

demarcation of spheres of influence, cultural hegemony and conceptions of political and social order.7 In the 1830s, the Catholic movement was not completely homogeneous in its ideology; a reactionary ultra-Catholic traditionalist direction can be

roles in church government.9 The status that these women had, with their rustic and spontaneous style of preaching, remained vulnerable to criticism, and in the 1830s and 1840s public hostility towards their activity began to mount. Concerns from mainline

denominations about the theological justifications for women's ministry, and the feminist implications of such public preaching, combined with a growing disquiet within the revivalist denominations themselves. Keen to consolidate their numerical expansion, and to inculcate a measure of social respectability,

the transatlantic world, across denominations, regions and decades, women operated in the public religious sphere and exercised what were often perceived to be spiritual gifts deemed appropriate only for men. Defining what this female ministry involved in real terms is a complicated task. It

depends on the observer's theological perspective - how the Scriptures relating to female behaviour ought to be interpreted - and their ecclesiological assumptions:whether or notwomenhave the right to exercise 'authority' (that is, to occupy teaching, sacramental and organisational positions) within the

with that of the Middle Ages. Here the sixteenth-century Reformation was less of an issue than the eighteenth-century Revolution. Nineteenth-century Catholics were readily persuaded that their religious inheritance had been squandered by the aesthetic and philosophical assaults of rationalism and the

depredations of the revolutionaries who had profaned churches and demolished the monasteries. In France church building was in part reparation and in part a reassertion of the place of Catholicism at the heart of the nation. The port of Marseilles is, for example, dominated by two substantial churches: the

Natur und Offenbarung (1855-1910) and the Protestant Natur und Glaube (1897- 1906). The high point of the reconciliation literature was reached with the formidable scholarship of Z¨ockler, renowned also for his work in the areas of Old and New Testament studies, dogmatics and church history. His Geschichte

der Beziehungen zwischen Theologie und Naturwissenschaft, mit besondrer R¨ucksicht auf Sch¨opfungsgeschichte (2 vols., 1877-9) is a classic of the genre and remains valuable as a source book on the subject, along with his Gottes Zeugen im Reich der Natur.5 But also in France, Italy, the Netherlands, Sweden and other continental

a counterpart to the Protestant Zwingliana, founded in 1897.25 23 See Metzger, Die 'Schildwache'. 24 See Altermatt, 'Religion und Nation'; Metzger, 'Die Reformation in der Schweiz'; Urs Altermatt, 'Das Bundesjubil¨aum 1891, dasWallis und die katholische Schweiz', Bl¨atter aus

derWalliser Geschichte 21 (1989), 89-106. 25 See the contributions in Zeitschrift f¨ur Schweizerische Kirchengeschichte 90 (1996). Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 u. altermatt, f. metzger and m. wintle

Old Testament in the form of the history and religion of Babylon, Assyria and Persia, but also demonstrated that the biblical accounts of the creation and the flood had older, Babylonian parallels. The claim, by the German Assyriologist Friedrich Delitzsch in 1901, that everything in the Old Testament

derived from Babylon caused a stormwhich died down when it became clear that such assertions were grossly exaggerated. However, that there was an element of truth in these claims was supported by further discoveries, such as of the laws of Hammurabi in 1901. Hammurabi had been king of

result of a 'strategy carefully managed by Rome' in which 'control' was exercised through 'the daily rituals and practices of Catholics',5 or else linked to a conspiratorial centre based in Geneva,6 scholars with expertise in nineteenthcentury Catholicism in a variety of countries have noted that an increase in

devotions usually described as 'Roman', 'Italianate' or 'Ultramontane' coincided with the withdrawal of Catholiccommunities from non-Catholic society, leading to the creation of what has been called the Catholic 'ghetto'.7 To those who believe that the Catholic Revival was primarily about trying

claims to sanctity; the choosing of bishops thought to be especially sound in piety, obedience and administrative competence; and the promotion of particular religious tracts, pamphlets or books. With only these limited tools at its disposal, the Vatican could hardly create beloved saints or manufacture popular

devotions; nor, according to its own rules, could it condemn devotional practices, however vulgar or peculiar, providing they did not actually contradict church doctrine. Rome could, in short, choose to send out a particular Italian or French missionary order to India or Africa - or, for that matter, to the

concessions did not, however, calm the tense situation, and the issue of religion continued to dominate parliamentary proceedings until 1844. The liberals in Hungary were of a radical bent, and embarked upon a battle against the church, which they considered antiquated; however, they

did not wish to give up their control of it. The bishops, meanwhile, could understand the need for reform, but were afraid that this would radically alter the existing relationship between state and church. They did not want a confrontation, and could not embark on one in the absence of popular

the eschatological interpretation advocated by Schweitzer.49 What had been achievedinacademic scholarship hardly penetrated to the general or churchgoing public, the only noteworthy exception being the commentary on Genesis published by S. R. Driver in 1904.50 This argued that therewas no fundamental

disagreement between the findings of science and biblical scholarship, and that the value and importance of Genesis for the Christian church was enhanced rather than diminished by the discoveries of science and the broader study of religion. On the NewTestament front the acceptance of the priority of Mark's

Italywas reduced from 131 to 50 between 1818 and 1834. Many churches fell into disrepair and needed restoration. There was a sharp decline in recruitment to the priesthood in the early nineteenth century, particularly in the north, where religious practice was generally less strong than in the south. The

disappearance of brotherhoods removed one previously significant aspect of lay religion. The number of canons in cathedrals and collegiate churches also reduced, because of fewer resources. Both these developments made the parish priest more significant.16 In Piedmont contemplative religious orders

most clearly, and although these traditions originated in specific historical and cultural circumstances, they had a universal significance which meant that they could challenge modern readers to decide for or against what was good and true. This was a far cry from the attempts of the Albury conferences to

discover which Old Testament prophecies remained to be fulfilled and was a step along the road to a proper historical treatment of prophecy.14 Ewald's History was a monument of critical scholarship, which drew together work on the sources and fragments of which the Pentateuch, Joshua

Introduction is treated separately and more briefly in the various countries across theworld inwhich it found a home. There has been no attempt by the editors to impose their own views upon contributors. Contrary opinions will be found in the two

discussions of the separation of church and state in France. The editors have not interfered simply because they have considered a matter of interpretation to be mistaken. Clio, the muse of history, is seldom definitive, for historical judgement as to the wisdom or desirability of a course or movement will vary

Nordic region, though there was a consciousness of belonging to the wider Protestant world. From the end of the sixteenth century Lutheranism was the only faith that was allowed, with the exception of foreign visitors. However, therewas a clear

distinction betweenWest- and East-Norden, since these two blocs represented different types of Lutheranism. In Sweden-Finland, the whole Book of Concord was the basis of the Lutheran confession, while inWest-Norden only the Confessio Augustana and Luther's Minor Catechism were included. Furthermore,

was a syncretistic strand (Spinoza was an important component), often deeply theological in its interests and obsessions, monistic and systematic in its ambitions. The nerve and tendency of drive of this Platonising monism was towards

divine immanence. Eighteenth-century theology is often characterised by a strict division between natural and supernatural; nineteenth-century theology blurred the edges between the two. The radically transcendent Deity and a strongly forensic and mechanistic view of Christianity centred around the

writings of the likes of Joseph de Maistre and, in his first incarnation, the abb´e F´elicit´e de Lamennais (1782-1854).The latter's Essai sur l'indiff´erence en mati`ere de religion (1817)was a particularly influential text, refuting the notion of religious pluralism and defending the church's right to support from the state to uphold

divine truth (as expounded by the church) in the face of 'error'. A romantic Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 james f. mCmillan and charismatic figure, Lamennais established a kind of counter-seminary at

Adolf von Harnack's opus maximum, the magnificent Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte (History of dogma, 1886-9), was the inversion of the magisterial work of Baur. Whereas Baur saw (in Hegelian terms) a rational and progressive unfolding in the doctrines of Christianity of ideas implicit in the earliest

documents, Harnack (1851-1930) perceived a decline from the original insight of primitive Christianity and the effect of the Greek spirit on the soil of the gospel. Harnack sawthe link between Christianity and Platonism as essentially a compound of alien elements. The original content of primitive Christianity

(1838-68) andFrancescoGrandi (1831-91) for the ancient Basilica of San Lorenzo fuori le Mura in Rome (1869-70). This was severely damaged in the bombardment of 1943 and not restored, though the rich mosaic decoration of the mortuary chapel constructed in 1881 for the remains of Pius IX survives at the

east end of the basilica. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Musical trends and the western church: a collision of the 'ancient' and 'modern'

weakened but still accustomed to rule the Polish soul. From the end of the nineteenth century, thiswould become a grave problem in Polish religious life and culture. The difficulties of forming Polish universities against the strategies of three

dominant countries naturally caused repercussions in all. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, it was thanks to Russian politics that the university of Vilnius (now the capital of Lithuania) became for several years probably the most dynamic intellectual centre in central-eastern or eastern Europe.

janice holmes Next day, Sunday, July 31 [1763], I told him I had been that morning at a meeting of the people called Quakers,where I had heard awoman preach. JOHNSON. 'Sir, a woman's preaching is like a dog's walking on his hinder legs. It is not

done well; but you are surprised to find it done at all.'1 Samuel Johnson's remark on the Quaker custom of allowingwomen to preach has become one of the most famous comments on female ministry in English literature.Yet his is by no means an isolated opinion. Observers throughout the

Novarum, Cardinal Goosens, archbishop of Malines, put the question to Rome as to whether natural justice was violated if an employer did not pay a family wage. The carefully elaborated answer, vetted by Leo, said that in a just wage there was an inherent and exact balance between the wage paid and the work

done. This ruled out the inclusion of the family on the grounds of justice, leaving it to the charity of employers, or to state intervention, to include the needs of the family in the wage.23 Few idealists, and certainly not Liberatore, would have imagined that employers would feel obliged to pay a family wage

At theWittenberg churchCongress of 1848 Johann HeinrichWichern (1808- 81) from Hamburg declared that the church should be involved in resolving social problems; and he foundedthe Inner Mission inGermany,which provided many cr`eches, kindergartens, children's homes, and homes for prostitutes,

drunkards, epileptics and the mentally handicapped. Through this movement deaconesses served the church in a variety ofways. A similar movement began in Denmark in September 1853, founded by a small group of laymen, and led by a formersmith, Jens Larsen (1804-74),whobecamea paid missionary. It took off

son of a Lincolnshire clergyman, was moved to write his great elegy by the premature death in 1833 of his close friend and mentor Arthur Hallam. It grew from a series of lyrics expressive of acute and seemingly inconsolable grief (lyrics which Tennyson characterises as 'The sad mechanic exercise / Like

dull narcotics, numbing pain'). These lyrics were gradually subsumed into a larger structure which explores the nature of mourning and which seeks to place Hallam's death in the context of an evolutionary process which links human love and human aspiration to the wonder of the Divine Incarnation

George Brandes includes Nietzsche (1844-1900) with the legacy of Kierkegaard.17 Kierkegaard was opposed to complacent Christendom: Abraham in Fear and trembling is in a sense beyond bourgeois 'good and evil'. But Nietzsche relished the breaking of norms and one can see this in his

early work The birth of tragedy. Nietzsche admired Homeric Greece with its embrace of violence and misery, and his emphasis upon the Dionysian as opposed to Apollonian culture which had attracted German Hellenists since Winckelmann and Schiller. One can see in the opposition between Dionysius

various demands, and their mistrust or even fear of neighbouring peoples. For historical reasons that were still visible in the nineteenth century, the ethnic, cultural and religiousmap of central-eastern Europe is a rich and exceptionally diverse mosaic that made it difficult to find solutions for the future, but all too

easy for empires to play their traditional game of divide and rule. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Catholic nationalism in Hungary and Poland The importance of the national question in central Europe became obvious

the creation of 'Catholic autonomy' as the solution to these problems. This was to be a kind of self-administration for the church, in the shape of an organisation of clergy and laypeople that would regulate all the church's affairs including schools, societies, property, etc., with the exception of strictly

ecclesiastical and dogmatic matters. After lengthy deliberations, which were accompanied by strongly worded campaigns in the press both for and against, a draft was finally completed in 1869. However, a parliamentary committee put it on hold (ad acta), and itwas only taken up again in 1893.The failure of the

Fulfilling this expectation proved impossible. Spanish and Portuguese liberals carried out a political revolution, but their ideas on civil-ecclesiastical relations fell within the regalist tradition of eighteenth-century absolute monarchy. This was not only a question of control over episcopal appointments and

ecclesiastical resources, it also involved the direct involvement of the state in virtually every sphere of the church's activities, even those of a pastoral nature. In Spain, for example, the Cortes of 1820 proposed a radical parochial 2 Quoted in Cuenca Toribio, 'La Iglesia sevillana', pp. 155-6.

(1892-1903), who came from an English gentry family. As in Scotland, where the hierarchy of bishopswas restored in 1878, and the Irish membership of the church was in an even larger majority, the leadership of the Catholic Church in England remained in the hands of native Catholics, blunting the

edge of the kind of identification of faith and fatherland which occurred in Irish communities elsewhere. The original convict settlement in the colony in Sydney, Australia, included a good number of Irish, including the first priests, transported after the 1798

Cecilian orbit) and Franz X.Witt who, with Michael Haller, composed works for publication (and which came recommended as part of the Cecilian movement's promulgation through their journals). Witt's most important contribution, however, lay in his proselytisation of the Cecilian goals, through his

editing of several key Cecilian journals, his seminal publication Der Zustand der katholischen Kirchenmusik zun¨achst in Altbayern (1865), and the founding of the Allgemeiner Deutscher C¨acilienverein in 1868. As a result of the work of Proske, Haberl and Witt, Regensberg became the centre of scholarship,

fore in campaigning for legislation to restrict the hours of work for children (and women) in factories. Nevertheless while there was a general emphasis on education (and often the provision of church schools), there was not in the period before 1914 any concerted feeling that the age limit for compulsory

education should be raised. The inevitable fact of children's employment was taken for granted. Similarly it was generally assumed that a woman's place was in the home. This lay behindmuch of the concern to rescue women from prostitution, and

with the great European states. This was most successful in Germany, where it was in Bismarck's interest to cultivate relations with the Catholic party, the Zentrum, and bring the Kulturkampf to an end. The 1880s, however, sawa new anticlerical attack upon the French church's role in public life, especially in

education, and Leo's efforts to 'rally' the monarchist French Catholics to the Third Republic fell foul of the resurgence of anticlericalism over the Dreyfus affair, and could not prevent the dissolution or expulsion of the French religious orders in 1901. Leo also ineffectively intervened at British prompting in

ofwhom remained close to the sisters and convent culturewhen they married and had families. Colleges were particularly significant in the development of the professional life of sisters themselves because of the government accreditation and inspection that was required. Building on their strengths in teacher

education, several orders moved into providing more broadly based higher education for degrees, such as Trinity College,Washington, opened by Notre Dame de Namur in 1900, and the affiliation by the same order in England to the newly chartered University of Liverpool in 1903.

later in the century.The revivalistswere influenced by contacts with Germany, Britain and the United States; the last was particularly important because of the levels of Swedish emigration,which reached a peak in the thirty years after 1880. Full religious freedom was guaranteed by a law of 1873. However, the

effects of the revivalwere generally socially conservative, providing some kind of consolation for the break-up of traditional agricultural communities, and to some extent it broke down barriers between classes. Swedish towns were more widely dispersed than in Britain, Belgium or Germany, and tended to be

while religious communities which could not prove themselves to be socially 'useful', or which had developed a reputation for excessive attachment to the pope, dwindled in membership and were sometimes forcibly closed down. Biblical miracles, unless considered fundamental to doctrine, tended to be

either side-stepped or explained away by Catholic theologians; traditional legends surrounding the lives of the saints were treated with equal fastidiousness, so that St Francis of Assisi, for example, had come to be regarded by the self-consciously enlightened as 'a harmless enthusiast, pious and sincere, but

that with the eclipse of the Irish-speaking culture which was strongest among the victims of the Famine, a traumatised populationwas susceptible to a 'Devotional Revolution' encouraged by Archbishop Cullen, through the celebration of the cults of theVirgin and saints and popular devotions in English, and by an

elaborate ritual in newrichly decorated and appointed shrine churches, fed by newservice books, prayer cards and English Catholic hymnody, and exploring the senses through candles and flowers, elaborate marble altars and precious altar furniture, coloured vestments and frontals, and the odours of beeswax

year, the congregation received Vatican permission for its Indian Affiliated Sisters, a group established in the 1860s and canonically incorporated into the congregation in 1909, to be admitted to permanent vows and religious status. This history, particular and complex in its detail, typified the individual

elements that made up the general and larger history of new religious orders in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. During the hundred years from the end of the Napoleonic wars to the start of the First World War as many as 400,000 women became religious

clashed with liberal regimes and lost much of its public power. Throughout the century the church expanded and the faithful multiplied. Priests and prelates The church reflected secular society. Bishops and higher clergy were of the

elites, alongside landowners, businessmen and bureaucrats. Many of the lower clergy belonged to the poor. The church inherited from its colonial past great wealth in real estate and revenue from annuities. But there were inequalities of income between upper and lower clergy, between wealthy city benefices

unleashed antipopery riots and bigotry at all levels of society, and led to the fall of the liberal government. However, the combination of the hierarchy with the newconstitution of 1848,which made all the churches equal and gave more votes to the Roman Catholics, provided the legal basis for a Roman Catholic

emancipation movement in the second half of the nineteenth century. There was a boom in recruitment for monasteries and seminaries, Roman Catholic clubs sprang up everywhere, and (like the other pillars in the making) the institutions of Catholicism contributed to a burgeoning Dutch civil society. The

in the transatlantic Protestant world, in particular, the United States and Great Britain. There has been a strong interest in women's ministries in these countries, especially in America, but the availability of similar research for Protestant women in Europe and farther afield is much more limited. The

emergence of Protestant women's leadership in the new Christian communities of Africa and Asia has been a very recent development and is outside the timescale of this survey.3 Public female ministry in nineteenth-century Britain and the United States

Gunkel was a member of what became known as the 'history of religions' school ('die religionsgeschichtliche Schule'), a group of scholars based originallyinG ¨ottingenwho, withoutgivinguptheircommitmentto the uniqueness of the Bible, believed that it should be investigated from the standpoint of the

emergence of the Jewish and Christian faithcommunities from their particular historical and religious settings. In the case of the OldTestament this meant the cultures of Babylon and Persia as disclosed by the Assyriological discoveries. For the New Testament it meant Jewish apocalyptic and, towards the end of

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 john rogerson gave a natural explanation for the development of the human race.29 In the earlier part of the century various efforts had been made to reconcile the newly

emerging sciences such as geology with traditional interpretations of the Bible and the 'design theology' of William Paley, which deduced the existence of God as designer from the alleged perfection of the naturalworld as a designer's artefact.30 Paley's view was based upon belief in the fixity of species, a view

(1816), reached their peak effectiveness in the 1830s, by which time they had inspired the formation of many others, including the American Sunday-School Union (1824) and the American Anti-Slavery Society (1833). Voluntary agencies co-ordinated programmes of social welfare, promoted higher education,

encouraged literacy and advanced foreign contacts through missionswhen no other national organisations, governmental or private, were taking up such tasks. Inadvertently, the expanding evangelical denominations and the burgeoning

at the extremes, communism, though again with powerful differences from one place to another. In both Europe and North America, Protestant pastoral outreach, social Christianity and Christian Socialism attempted to address this, as did the social teaching of the Catholic Church enunciated by Leo XIII in his

encyclical Rerum Novarum, and the great growth of Catholic self-help organisations in the last quarter of the nineteenth century. There is much here for the secular humanitarian to commend, as in the evangelical crusade against the slave trade and the condemnation of slavery by the papacy, the great many

relations with the church reflected the divisions of liberal opinion. For the Moderate and Progressive parties of mid-nineteenth-century Spain and the Regenerator and Historical parties of Portugal, the question of the church and the degree of state control over its affairs remained a central concern. At the

end of the day, the changes imposed by Spanish and Portuguese liberalism, whether in an aggressive or a moderate version, undermined the ecclesiastical establishment of the eighteenth century. Identified with absolute monarchy, 1 Although therewere differences between Spain and Portugal, therewas also 'a strong parallelism'

different ways by the French Ultramontanes and by Coleridge and the more religious English Romantic strand. Many of the visions and proposals were startling for institutional Christianity, but one should not overlook its immense cultural prestige and power at the

end of the nineteenth century in England and Germany. In Germany Adolf von Harnack was privy to the inner circle of the emperor, whereas in England the future archbishop of CanterburyWilliamTemplewas an honorary chaplain to the king in 1915.This is an indication of the still very close links between theologians

the mid-1850s followed the layout of a medieval parish church, with a nave distinguished from a deep chancel. There was a shift from the old Anglican emphasis on a dominant pulpit towards the liturgical significance of the altar. In many churches the revival of church music demanded choir stalls at the east

end rather than a western choir-gallery. This new layout is evident in the elaborate reconstruction of Leeds parish church between 1838 and 1841 by the minor architect R. D. Chantrell under the aegis of the vicar, W. F. Hook. To readers of The Ecclesiologist the style of the church might have seemed 'impure',

in perspective. The moderate liberals, the Moderate Party in Spain and the Regenerator Party in Portugal, by no means abandoned regalism as a principle of government, although they tempered it considerably. Nor did they have any intention of restoring to the church its former property holdings and

endowments. Moreover, the opposition parties of the mid-nineteenth century, the absolutist cause. Thirteen were identified as cism´aticos. Franquelims (ed.), O Concelho de Vila do Conde, p. 17. 18 Jud´as Jos´e Romo Gamboa, Independencia constante de la Iglesia hispana y necesidad de un

sophists. The encyclical censured the growing menace of the secret societies, which opposed God and princes, denouncing them as a threat to church and state.6 Pius thus tied the papacy to the restoration regimes, and the price paid for their moral and military support was the animosity of their

enemies. Pius VIII was distressed that the July 1830 revolution in France struck at the church as well as the monarchy, but shied from sanctioning Lamennais's call for the separation of church and state. To make matters worse, at the end

lands by the state and the system of state payment of priests were effective instruments of control, as was the suppression of convents considered to be too independent and linked to the native population. The state's intentions were very clear: the Catholic Church - like any other church - was obliged to

enforce aneworderandto persuade the population to accept theirnewregimes as being according to the will of God. Those who took part in resistance, above all in armed insurrections, were regularly denounced to the papacy as revolutionaries seeking to destroy the divine order of things. It is interesting

amateur parish choirs, began to invest in their choirs with a fresh vigour and professional idealism. This is perhaps best signified by the appointment of John Stainer as organist of St Paul's Cathedral in 1872. Building on the reforms already under way, Stainer (once Ouseley's assistant at Tenbury) honed and

enlarged the St Paul's choir, ill-disciplined under the regime of his predecessor John Goss, into a well-regimented choral instrument which rapidly became the paradigm for other cathedral institutions. Reforms, under Ouseley and Sterndale Bennett, also took place in the ancient university music degrees

writings of Herder, J. F. Reichardt, K. A. von Mastiaux, Friedrich and August Wilhelm von Schlegel and J. A. P. Schulz, whose ideas chimed with the Fuxian stile antico ('the Palestrina style') of composers such as C. P. E. Bach and especially Michael Haydn. The latter, in his sacred works, demonstrated a singular

enthusiasm for archaic musical techniques including canon, fugue, imitation, use of cantus firmi, andmuch effective yet practicably accessible homophonic writing (particularly in the Gradual settings). Theseworks not only made him popular within the nineteenth-century Catholic Church but also ensured his

churchmanship, therewere also moral failures like the continuation of slavery in the United States to the 1860s or the destitution of urban populations at the end of the century. If both the United States and Canada opened settlement to many kinds of Christians, the mere expanse of geography could not

entirely eliminate ongoing religious antagonism that sometimes flared into violence. If liberating the churches from European dependence on the state gave them extraordinary influence in constructing two national cultures, that same condition left churches fragmented and confused in responding to the

Rumour spread that Louis Napoleon had promised the Piedmontese that hewould eventually champion their cause, a commitment he later confirmed. Antonelli was convinced that so long as things remained quiet in Europe, Habsburg arms could preserve the status quo.36 Rome feared that Napoleon III

envisioned a war against Russia as a means of reorganising Europe along national lines. Despite the pleas of Pope Pius IX for peace, by the spring of 1854 the British and French were ranged against the Russians in the Crimean War. Cavour, who joined the anti-Russian coalition, hoped that the Habsburg

4 Lannon, Privilege, persecution, and prophecy, p. 10. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Popular religion and irreligion in countryside and town use was made of the regular clergy to organise parish missions, almost along

evangelical lines.5 However, from the Napoleonic era reform became primarily associated with secular criticism of the church, and the clergy became sharply more conservative. The Napoleonic era was the first disruption in the unquestioned

the Middle Ages. For evangelicals therewas the converse necessity to maintain the Protestant identity of the Church of England through emphasis on the Reformation heritage and simplicity in both the content and environment of worship. For them the established church was the providential means for the

evangelisation of the nation, calling individuals to personal conversion. The Broad Church tradition associated with Thomas Arnold emphasised above all the comprehensiveness of the national church, and for that very reason played down the importance of the theological and liturgical issues that were crucial

Enlightenment douglas hedley British security, power and imperial expansion between Waterloo and 1914 meant that many English writers saw the period as a golden age. However,

even Englishmen were deeply worried throughout this period about radical upheavals. Europe was convulsed and lacerated by revolutions and wars throughout the nineteenth century: the unsatisfactory rule of the reactionary Metternich; the revolutions of 1848, followed by the unification of Germany

the reception of new entrants sought to assure their eventual disappearance. The closure of about 2,000 monasteries and friaries in Spain and 448 in Portugal undermined a centuries-old clerical infrastructure. At the time of dissolution, the orders were scarcely models of religious vitality. For years,

even under absolute monarchy, critics accused them of failing to observe the austerity and discipline intended by their founders. Liberal reformers shared these concerns and argued that the number of religiouswas far in excess of that required to meet pastoral needs. Liberal hostility towards the regulars rested

subjects to defend the fatherland 'without difference of race or religion'. In one stroke, he sought to set aside the divisions that almost forty years of exclusivist, Protestant nationalism had sown. Nevertheless, the speech left little doubt that Germany would still fight the war as a Christian nation. 'Following the

example of our fathers, staunch and true . . . humble before God, but with the joy of battle in the face of the enemy, we trust in the Almighty to strengthen our defence and guide us to good issue.'6 It was this image of a Christian Germany that chaplains and ministers, at home and at the front, repeated

Lutherans to the old world, or a general adaptation to western Victorian culture. Yet the American environment also made a difference in several spheres. Scripture Of the ancient religious authorities carried to the newworld, only the Biblewas

exempted from America's profound suspicion of the past. Historic allegiance to Scripture merged easily with the newdemocratic ethos, and literacy became the only requirement for harvesting the Bible's spiritual fruit. The explosion of cheap print in the United States' early national period meant that the means

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Scandinavia: Lutheranism and national identity that religious faith is a voluntary and personal matter. For this reason religious affiliation could not be linked to citizenship. Freedom of religionwas gradually

extended during the second part of the nineteenth century, and during the first two decades of the following century the legislation that made baptism, confirmation and participation in communion compulsory was abolished. A similar development took place in Denmark after the constitution of 1849,

of competing conceptions of the nation. By creating a multi-cultural network of ideological and political loyalties, which cut across the linguistic frontiers and assured the cohesion of the multi-lingual state, the Kulturk¨ampfe of the middle decades of the nineteenth century reduced the importance of the linguistic

factor. Although the Kulturk¨ampfe had weakened by the 1880s, ideological solidarities had assumed such fundamental discursive and organisational structures that they remained constitutive of the Swiss party system until the second half of the twentieth century.

ancient&modern (1861) edited by Henry Baker withW. H.Monkasmusical editor. This publication, more than any other, sold thousands of copies, was soon expanded in further editions of 1868 and 1875 and helped to promulgate the 'Victorian' hymn (now led by the choir and organ) as a universally admired,

fashionable and distinctive artistic genre. Moreover, its success encouraged other denominations to publish their own 'official' hymn books with musical editors of stature to give their publications a sense of prestige, as revealed by the Church hymns (1871, edited by Sullivan), the High Anglican Hymnary

For a brief moment, the revolution of February 1848 appeared to hold out the tantalising prospect of reconciliation between the church and a Republic that was not unsympathetic to religious sensibilities. Many on the republican left preached a social gospel in which the image of 'Christ the revolutionary'

featured prominently. On the Catholic side, even Louis Veuillot was prepared to give the new regime the benefit of the doubt, as was the liberal Catholic Montalembert, while there was even a Christian democrat circle headed by Fr´ed´eric Ozanam, the abb´e Maret and the Dominican Henri Lacordairewhich

of almost eighty between 1800 and 1900, in Italy the figure for the same period was 183, and in the Quebec province of Canada alone twenty-six foundations were made between 1837 and 1914. The Church of England, too, experienced this proliferation, with the establishment of ninety separate sisterhoods in the

fifty years following 1845. Although the separate foundations had much in common one with another, including the influence of an Ignatian approach to religious life and a model of organisation drawn from France, they remained as hundreds of distinct organisations with specific histories and characteristics.

and sale of ecclesiastical property. It continued, albeit episodically, in Spain until 1859 and in Portugal until 1869. By the time it was over, the church had lost the vast endowments, including those of the diocesan clergy, that had sustained it for centuries. It also saw the other bedrock of ecclesiastical

finances, the tithe, abolished. In return for the loss of ecclesiastical property and the tithe, liberal governments undertook to sustain the diocesan clergy, although such support was stingy at best. In Spain, following the 1851 concordat, priests received their incomes directly from the national budget; in

in 1853 as the Ecole Niedermeyer, named after its leader Louis Niedermeyer, a Swiss educationist and composer.The mission of Niedermeyerwas to revitalise France's atrophying church music tradition and the maˆıtrises. Moreover, in addition to a basic education, pupils at the school were to gain a

firm grounding in plainchant and its accompaniment, a broad knowledge of Palestrina, and, at the organ, a thorough understanding of the methods of J. S. Bach. Niedermeyer collaborated with Joseph d'Ortigue in the publication of his Trait´e th´eorique et pratique de l'accompagnement du plainchant (1857) in

so, by what procedure this could be expressed; for non-established churches, whilst it was easier, at least in principle, to challenge positions taken by the civil government, the procedure for doing so still had to be clear. Thus in Great Britain,whilst the various Methodist Conferences had a clear procedure

for expressing their mind, they also all had a 'no politics' rule, which was a self-denying ordinance in this area; the Congregational and Baptist Unions, on the other hand, felt freer to pass resolutions on such matters, but they did not bind local congregations. The alternative strategy is to consider the thought of

position in the Nordic nations. Nevertheless, the concept of a church as a state church meant something new. It implied that state and church were different units with distinct purposes: respectively the salus publica and eternal values. But to realise its purpose the state needed the church, because it gave reasons

for morality. These views actualised two problems: freedom of religion and church government. In Norway, for example, the new concept of a state church arose in the periodbetween the liberal constitution of 1814 and the liberalisation of religious

organising principle for Christian fellowship, Daniel Sidney Warner in 1881 led a group out of the national Methodist denominations to form the Church of God (Anderson, Indiana). A few years later Phineas F. Bresee (1838-1916) started a new congregation in Los Angeles, which proved to be a precipitate

for others who in 1907 organised the Church of the Nazarene. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 mark a. noll From the holiness movement, as an extrapolation with worldwide significance,

Davidson went to Edward VII to voice his concerns: The King said repeatedly, 'I see. What you want to protect is the Nonconformist conscience.' I said he might put it so without being far wrong.Anyhow, it was a near shave, and the blunder might have turned out to be a real misfortune

for the Protestant and oldfashioned outcry would have set back the hopes of our getting such prayers generally used.77 What is interesting about this incident is Davidson's acknowledgement of the continuing 'old-fashioned' strength of Protestantism, alongside a personal

after the RevolutionaryWar and the immigration of several thousand United Empire Loyalists. Once settlement began, however, a rush of land-hungry immigrants from the new United States threatened to overrun the province. In the Constitution Act of 1791 public lands (the ClergyReserves)were set aside

for the support of Protestant ministers, and two years later Jacob Mountain (1749-1825) was appointed the first Anglican bishop. Mountain assumed that the Clergy Reserves would be used to create a replica of the English state church system, but was disappointed when new world religious pluralism

education and the attempt to place seminaries under state control. Convinced that awarwas beingwaged against the church, in the decade between the second restoration and the proclamation of the Italian Kingdom in 1861, Pio Nono issued more than a dozen condemnations of Cavour and his colleagues responsible

for unification. He did more than denounce the Piedmontese aggression and extension of their anticlerical legislation to other parts of the peninsula, assailing the modern doctrineswhich encouraged non-Catholic cults, and permitted the press to subvert the faith and undermine the church.45 Trusting in

The United Kingdom Alliance brought members of many different churches together. However, from the 1860s ministers in London and other large industrial towns developed the same kind of temperance groups within their congregations as the Church of England. They were also prepared to campaign

for various kinds of social legislation in parliament. The preoccupation with temperance assisted this, because only by legislation could the availability 30 Westcott spent the summer of 1867 studying Comte's Politique positive, and his essay 'Aspects of positivism in relation to Christianity', published in the Contemporary Review

The education of girls was a particular target of the republicans, who were convinced that women's greater allegiance to organised religion was both a source of division in families and a barrier to the spread of the republican ideal. Accordingly, legislation of 1879-80 established teacher training colleges

for women teachers and a network of state secondary schools for girls. Other measures designed to take forwardthe secularising agenda included the divorce lawof 1884,which ended the ban on divorce imposed by the restored Bourbons in 1816, and a conscription law which obliged seminary students to do their

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Musical trends and the western church demands of polyphony. It was a situation exacerbated by Motu Proprio which, in attempting to stem the secular musical practices of many Italian churches,

forbade women to sing in church choirs, much to the chagrin of more liberal Catholic organists such as Konrad Swertz (Cork),who resigned and emigrated to the USA in disgust. In France, church music experienced a major hiatus after the Revolution in

anticlericalism emerged as the one banner under which the burgeoning but disparate republican movement could unite. For, if the triumph of Ultramontanism in the French church was an affront to the liberal mind, so too was the church's consistent identification with the

forces of political reaction. Time and again - under the Restoration, after the June Days of 1848, during the Second Empire and under the 'Moral Order' of the 1870s - the church sided with the enemies of liberalism and republicanism. Anticlericalism, at one level, was a response to what the French left,

Scandinavia: Lutheranism and national identity Europe. It created an active and productive ethos, combined with self-discipline and self-constraint, which often led to an improvement in living conditions. Some revivalists became rather wealthy, and revivalism was important in the

formation of a middle class. Thus the revivalists were early modernisers and represented an ethos that has been regarded as a prerequisite for a liberal democracy. This religious revivalism has often been interpreted as a popular reaction to

society when the interdenominational laws were passed finally shook the remnant of the Catholic camp out of its lethargy. Political events convinced Count N´andor Zichy that a political party was needed in order to defend Catholic interests, and so, in 1895, a Catholic People's Party ('Neppart') was

founded on the model of the German Bavarian People's Party. In 1896 it already had seventeen MPs, and in 1901 the number rose to twenty-five. The party's manifesto included not only the revision of the interdenominational laws, but also a number of social laws in the spirit of the encyclical Rerum Novarum

Nietzsche's concern with genealogy links him to thinkers like Durkheim and Freud. Nietzsche was drawing upon the brilliant but eccentric figure of Schopenhauer. In his U¨ ber die vierfache Wurzel des Satzes vom zureichenden Grunde (The

fourfold root of the principle of sufficient causality, 1813) Schopenhauer pursued the Kantian idea of the phenomenal realm generated by the employment of intuitions and categories, which ultimately are reducible to the category of causality. In 1819 with his Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung (The world as

Norway and in Denmark in the 1840s,when the laws regulating lay assemblies were abolished in 1842 (in Norway) and 1849 (in Denmark). In Sweden and in Finland, however, the politics of religious unity were sustained through the nineteenth century. Here the main issue was not freedom of religion but the

freedom of the church to govern itself. In Sweden full religious freedom was not guaranteed to everyone by law until 1951. It is important to stress that the development of revivalmovements implied an end to the religious unity of the state, and opened society to modern pluralism. In thisway religious revivalism

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Theology and the revolt against the Enlightenment ultimate spiritual values, whose essence consisted in the imitation of Christ's death and resurrection in the life of the believer: death to sin and separation

from God, and rebirth to union with the Divine in the Spirit. Jowett fused Christian, Platonic and Hegelian ideas in a manner that exerted enormous influence in England at the end of the nineteenth century. The speculative rupture of the later Schelling and Kierkegaard:

America's Anglo-Saxon stock and subverting American liberties. The most pressing religious difficulties for an immigrant church were the strains created by immigration itself, especially with themultiplication of ethnic origins. Early came Irish and Germans, later large numbers were added

from Poland, Lithuania, Hungary, Croatia, Czechoslovakia and Italy. The organisation of parishes, and of ecclesiastical thinking, around ethnic loyalties maintained the centrality of the church for uprooted populations, but also created internal friction. Meanwhile, great sacrifices by localcommunities

An event that caused a considerable stir in ecclesiastical circles was the publication, in 1829-30, of Henry Milman's The history of the Jews.6 Its appearance reflected the interest in the Jews which the conclusion of the Napoleonic wars had engendered in Britain, and its three volumes covered Jewish history

from its Old Testament beginnings to Napoleonic times. As a piece of critical scholarship, it was innocent of the historical criticism that was developing in Germany, and given that it never questioned the historical accuracy of the Old Testament it should not have aroused controversy. Yet its first volume,

both British and American evangelicals increasingly insisted on an educated clergy and urged women to teach from within the domestic sphere. In response, some female preachers moved into denominations which allowed them to continue their ministry. But by far the larger number simply withdrew

from public ministry altogether and accepted their greatly reduced religious roles.10 The mid-nineteenth century was not, as has often been portrayed, a period in which women's public ministry ceased. However, there does seem to be a

and the complete History constitutes a major work of academic reference. Far from being merely a history of Western European Christianity and its offshoots, the History aims to provide a global perspective. Eastern and Coptic Christianity are given full consideration

from the early period onwards, and later, African, Far Eastern, NewWorld, South Asian and other non-European developments in Christianity receive proper coverage. The volumes cover popular piety and non-formal expressions of Christian faith, and treat the

Christianity meet; Ferngren (ed.), The history of science and religion. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Christianity and the sciences England, and, indeed, throughout Europe generally, as that which is derived

from the interesting and startling discoveries of Geology.'11 There were three basic reconciliatory exegeses of the hexaemeron, namely the concordist or 'day-age' interpretation, the restitution or 'gap interpretation' and the idealist version. The first of these saw a concordance between the Mosaic days of

8 Newman, Apologia, p. 387. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 douglas hedley origin, there is a parallel between Kant's and Newman's derivation of faith

from the sense of obligation to a divine lawgiver and judge in conscience (see the University sermons, 1843). Newman's idea of doctrinal development (see his Essay on the development of Christian doctrine, 1845), by which Christian doctrine has grown through the organic Spirit-guided unfolding of its original idea

civil and ecclesiastical structures were even more seamlessly interwoven than in England: the board of heritors (landowners) supported education as well as the church; the kirk session (minister and elders) was responsible for poor relief and the moral regulation of the parish in addition to specifically religious

functions.10 Presbyterianism was also a major religious force in the north of Ireland, having been brought by Scottish settlers in the seventeenth century. Although Presbyterians only made up 8.1 per cent of the total population of Ireland, 96 per cent of them were concentrated in the province of Ulster, and

Women preachers and the new Orders number of female 'officers' grew; by 1884 there were more than 1,000. When concerns were raised about the propriety of female officers celebrating communion, the Armyabandoned the practice rather than restrictwomen's ministerial

functions.20 The obvious success of these 'Hallalujah Lasses' stimulated other mainline denominations to attempt a similar work. None of them was prepared to give women the same level of ministerial autonomy, but they did see the value of an organised, and trained, body of female evangelists. British

is claimed that Pius X enforced an 'integral' intransigent Catholicism hostile to modernity, in his handling of the French church, and his condemnation of Modernism. Would Pius, by following Leo's policies, have spared French Catholicism

further persecution? The dilemma facing French anticlericals like the prime minister Emile Combes was that abolishing the Napoleonic concordat of 1802 and disestablishing the church would destroy the state's control of her and throw her into the arms of Rome. Combes's fall left the introduction of the

ethical socialism, namely the Christian variety'.32 Although in most respects he was a political conservative, Martensen's book attracted attention because of the positive views of socialism it contained. Professor HaraldWestergaard and Henry Ussing, a minister in the Church of Our Lady in Copenhagen, both

gave lectures in the late 1880s suggesting that Christianity could and should tackle the social problem; bothwere involved in a group to build newchurches in Copenhagen in order to reduce the size of parishes to 10,000 inhabitants; twelve new churches were built in less than ten years from 1890. Fernando

proved intractable. At the start of the War of 1812, there were only fortyfour clergymen ministering to the 75,000 inhabitants of Upper Canada. That war had a momentous effect in solidifying loyalty to Britain, weaning Upper Canadians from their American connections and energising Protestants for the

great work of taming the Canadian frontier. The conflict also set the stage for a surprising rapprochement between a conservative, establishmentarian vision for Canadian Protestant life and a more individualistic, entrepreneurial one - represented, respectively, by the Scottish-born Anglican John Strachan (1778-

particularly in the period 1830 to 1880. Mass attendance rose, as did the number of Easter communicants, though under the impact of the anticlerical policies of the Third Republic after 1879 there was some serious, though by no means universal, backsliding, which may have been partially compensated for by

greater commitment on the part of the pratiquants. Especially in the first half of the nineteenth century, the Catholic Revival owed much to missionary activity, conducted mainly by the religious orders and often directed at children. During the Restoration period (1814-30), missions

14 Chadwick, A history of the popes, pp. 469-83. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Popular religion and irreligion in countryside and town and monasteries and conventswerewell filled.15 However, the Napoleonic era

had a more drastic effect on Italy than on Iberia. Monks and nuns were driven from their monasteries and convents, and many never returned, though some former monks became secular priests. This enabled the popes to reorganise religious orders in Italy after 1814. Similarly the number of dioceses in southern

several countries, and which would result in something like the rehabilitation of the radical views of deWette.18 DeWette, it will be remembered, had argued that the system of priesthood and sacrifice described in the Pentateuch was a late development, and that it

had been preceded by a period in which there were many sanctuaries and no centralised priesthood or sacrificial regulations. To sum up the matter crudely, did the law (including the regulations about priesthood or sacrifice) precede the prophets, or did the prophets precede the law? Ewald's approach favoured

Holy See had caused a backlash of anticlericalism, helped to demoralise the church in America, and debased the currency of papal encyclicals. The church in accepting independence also accepted its conservative character, and so it paid little heed to the claims of Indians and blacks. The church

had ceased to be a colonial institution but retained traces of a colonial mentality. Yet independencewas an opportunity aswell as a challenge. The American church, free from the suffocating grasp of the Bourbon state, could now look directly to Rome for leadership and authority; at first it looked in vain, but

humble peasant girl whose very appeal lay in her reputation for uncalculating simplicity; or that the set devotions taken to be emblematic of the age were those with the direct, sentimental and unsophisticated appeal of 'reparations to the Sacred Heart' or 'devotions to the Holy Family'. As a pious clich´e of the day

had it, to followa simple, folksy practice like the rosarywas good both for those towhomthe devotion naturally appealed and also for those towhomit did not, since itwas better than nothing for thosewhowere incapable of a more sophisticated piety and humbling for thosewho might otherwise suffer from spiritual

Italians (1843), defended the ideal of a united Italy under a papal presidency. Gioberti influenced Giovanni Maria Mastai Ferretti, the cardinal bishop of Imola, and the conclave of 1846 elected him pope, under the name of Pius IX, Pio Nono (1792-1878; ruled 1846-78), the longest-reigning pope in history. Pius

had pleaded with the rebels in 1831 and had given a safe conduct to the young carbonaro Louis Napoleon. He announced an amnesty for political prisoners and the appointment of a consultative lay council. When a dove alighted on his coach, it seemed to liberals that heaven had come to earth.

in his conception of the pope as the parish priest of Christendom. The Italians loved him as one of them. Born a subject of the Austrian empire,where Italian nationalism was anti-imperial rather than antipapal, he had little of the feeling in the oldPapal States that to be a good Catholicwas to be a bad Italian. Pius still

had to protest at the loss of the States of the church, but told a Catholic layman 'that if Victor Emmanuel were to offer to abandon Rome to him he would at once reply, "Stay where you are"'. 'Members of the Curia were allowed to collaborate publicly with State officials; deputies and senators of the kingdom

from northern Europe, declined to vote for the final form of the decree, in Pastor Aeternus, although only two voted against it. The concomitant definition on papal jurisdiction over thewhole churchwas also far reaching, and the withdrawal of the European states from control of the church during the next

half-century made it realisable. But the outbreak in 1870 of the Franco-Prussian war caused the departure of the French garrison fromRomeand its occupation by Italy, and with the loss of French protection the Council dispersed with its business incomplete, while the pope retreated from his city as 'the prisoner of

church revival, especially in the increasing popularity in the Protestant world of medieval neo-Gothic for churches and educational institutions, in a widespread, though far from universal, rejection of classicism as reflecting a secular pagan spirit. The resort to Gothic in such modern buildings as town

halls and railway stations was a more general aspect of the Romantic liking for a medieval Catholic style. There was also an impressive Christian musical achievement, in both formal Catholic and Lutheran liturgicalmusic as well as in hymnody and sacred song, though this was beset by diminished resources

propriety' and that 'all ornament should consist of enrichment of the essential construction of the building'. Pugin anticipated that the Catholic Church might respond to his calls for a restoration of medieval architectural forms, but he knew that the church was short of funds and that many of its priests

hankered after the Classical styles they associated with Rome. Pugin found one rich patron in the Catholic sixteenth earl of Shrewsbury, whose money and encouragement helped to build Pugin's ecclesiastical masterpiece, the church of St Giles, Cheadle, in Staffordshire (1841-6). The church has a superb

To assume that the changes in devotional taste and practice which characterised the Catholic Revival stemmed from the Vatican is to credit the Catholic Church with a degree of power no human organisation could conceivably possess. Instead of instigating devotional change, the Vatican appears rather to

have struggled to keep up with the veritable explosion of new forms of piety which were brought to its attention by bishops and priests from around the globe, attempting where possible to weed out the doctrinally suspect from the doctrinally irreproachable - not always with conspicuous success - but

24 Ibid., pp. 154-9. 25 Ibid., pp. 160-7; Machin, Politics and the churches, pp. 32-6. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 john wolffe

having a strong party in the country'.26 Keble's sermon was seen as a rallying cry by others, notably John Henry Newman, and has traditionally been seen as marking the beginning of the Oxford Movement, which in the ensuing years did much both to revive and to divide the Church of England. Keble

these organisations beneath the banner of Catholic Action. Catholics could then be directed by their clergy to vote for Catholic candidates in any party. Catholic votes now benefited moderate Italian liberals, traditionally opposed to the church, but nowmore frightened of the socialists, like the pope

himself. The politics of Pius was complicated by the Catholic 'Modernist' movement, as in Italy Modernism was more political than doctrinal, a plea to the church to embrace social and political reform. Yet here, as with Pius IX, it

1860s. Under the Second Empire of Napoleon III, the emperor was keen to retain the support of the church as an agent of social control. Much to the satisfaction of the clergy and the likes of Veuillot, he initially provided tangible evidence of

his good will, helping to defeat theRomanRepublic and to restore Pius IX to his throne in 1849.He also raised clerical salaries and encouraged the proliferation of church schools, especially those run by female religious orders. If liberal Catholics such as Montalembertwere soon disillusioned - the latter's brochure

the relationship between religion and gender. Other publications include France and women 1789-1914: gender, society and politics (London: Routledge, 2000) and (as editor and contributor) Modern France 1880-2002 (The short Oxford history of France) (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003). He has been awarded a Major Leverhulme Research Fellowship to work on

his next project, War and belief: the GreatWar and the western religious imagination. Franziska Metzger is Assistant in Contemporary History, University of Fribourg. Her publications on religious history and history of historiography include: Die 'Schildwache': Eine integralistisch-rechtskatholische Zeitung 1912-1945 (Fribourg: Universit¨atsverlag, 2000),

power during the era of Ottoman occupation and its limitations after the subsequent Habsburg reconquest, left the Roman Catholic Church a diverse, rich and privileged institution, by far the largest in the country. It bore a special relation to the Hungarian state and nation, but without the kind of

historic monopoly it enjoyed in most countries with a predominantly Catholic tradition. The church's difficulties arose partly from its wealth and privilege, and partly from its need to co-exist with other traditions. During the first half of the nineteenth century, there were few outstanding

opposition to what was regarded as the negative criticism of deWette and his followers. The impact of Ewald's History was, in fact, greater in Britain than in Germany, and it was the main inspiration for A. P. Stanley's Lectures on the

history of the Jewish church, of which the first two series were published in 1863 and 1865.16 While omitting any reference to the complex source and compositional theories on which Ewald's work was based, Stanley gratefully accepted Ewald's resultswhen it suited him, and provided readers with a straightforward

gain acceptance he anticipated theories that were later to hold sway in critical scholarship.15 On the face of it, Ewald's History was not a likely candidate for furthering the critical cause, yet it did so because its reconstruction of Israel's earliest

history was much more positive than what was found in deWette and Vatke. For the former, the stories in Genesis about Abraham, Isaac and Jacob yielded little historical information. Ewald recognised that, in their present form, the stories about the Patriarchs presented them as types of heroes, but he also

Decline and fall of the Roman empire (1776-88), the Byzantine achievement in art asmuch as in politicswas generally disparaged.The GothicRevival had not lost its inventive energy by the 1890s, but the aesthetic climate was more eclectic and open to the idea of an alternative interpretation of Christian architectural

history. If the details of Westminster Cathedral are predominantly Mediterranean in inspiration, their translation to a northern European setting is testimony to a more sympathetic reading of a Christian tradition which stretches beyond the confines of the nation-state and the ecclesiology of the western

the Enlightenment and rationalism, and the continuity between the pietism of the early eighteenth century and the religious revivalism of the nineteenth century has been stressed. An obvious reason is that the authorities used eighteenth-century legislation dealing with pietistic group assemblies in private

homes in an attempt to curb revivalist meetings. In Sweden a low church revivalism in the north and a Free Church movement in other parts had roots going back to eighteenth-century pietism and Moravianism. But at the same time such movements of 'awakening' represented something new. Religious

Wynants, 'Les religieuses de vie active'. 28 Harline, 'Actives and contemplatives' and Rapley, Les d´evotes. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Women preachers and the new Orders

innovation in governance was a major stimulus to the rest: it was certainly a genuine departure from what had been permitted previously. Until the nineteenth century, active communities for women in the Roman Catholic Church had been approved within certain constraints. They could

misguidedly - placed on the Roman Index. The training of clergy in diocesan seminaries continued to follow a Josephinist-mechanical pattern, beginning to change only around 1900 with the introduction of academic subjects including scholastic philosophy, catechesis,

homiletics, sociology and pastoral care for the sick, as well as aids to spiritual formation including retreats, frequent confession and daily communion. Towards the end of the nineteenth century a slowbut steady process of reform of the religious orders also took place. Along with the Dominicans, Carmelites,

two bishops to vote against the definition at the session when it was finally resolved. But even inopportunism was generally loyal to Rome, and it was the international solidarity supplied by Ultramontanism that gave the church unity and coherence againstwhatwere, for most Irish emigrants, informal but

hostile and predominantly Protestant establishments in all their privilege and power. Only in Ireland to 1869, and in Britain itself, were impressive Protestant churches actually established; prejudice took more subtle forms which were just as insidious, and tended to make Catholics enthusiastic voluntarists,

shepherd of his flock, was by no means an entirely mythical figure - witness Jean Vianney, the celebrated cur´e d'Ars - but all too often villagers found cause to grumble about their clergy, as the archives of the Minist`ere des Cultes testify. Popular anticlericalism was fuelled by perceived abuses of clerical authority -

humiliating families by a public refusal of communion, charging too much for a funeral mass, trying to curb dancing and drinking, and a host of other grievances which were inevitable in the face-to-face interchanges of community life. Significantly, from the 1840s, these conflicts increasingly involved the

working guide to Catholicism as a third way which was neither socialist nor liberal. The scheme had its ironies: it was only partly applicable in Italy, where Catholicswere forbidden under the non expedit of 1867 rule to vote in elections, or to co-operate with the spoliatory Italian state. Leo's hostility to revolution

ignored a right affirmed in the Catholic medieval tradition, as some Irish rebels pointed out, and it owed its growth to the extension of the very democracy which, at best, it regarded as one possible system among a number. The political context of this teaching was Leo's attempt to restore relations

from Asia were entering the region, and traditional resistance to religion of all kinds was widespread. In the half-century after the war, religious diversification also intensified. Most important were Roman Catholics who began to exert a significant political

impact in many northern cities. Protestants of non-British background, especially Lutherans from Germany and Scandinavia, proliferated. By 1900 substantial numbers of Eastern Orthodox from Greece and Russia were joining the nation's older Orthodox communities in Alaska and California. And

for Napoleon's coronation in the following December. He was succeeded by Le Sueur, who remained in place until 1830, sharing the position with J. P. E. Martini after the Restoration of the Bourbons in 1816 and with Cherubini after Martini's death in 1816. The Tuileries Chapel was unquestionably the most

important focus of French church music for the first thirty years of the nineteenth century, and its surviving payrolls bear witness to an ever-increasing number of singers and instrumentalists and a lavish repertoire of masses, funeral music, settings of the Stabat Mater and other miscellaneous pieces,

period of 1833-43, when the remaining contemplative monasteries were suppressed from 1835. This had more drastic effects on male congregations than female: about 800 out of nearly 1,100 women's communities survived at the mid-century.6 Sales of monastic property lasted until 1860. Tithes were abolished

in 1837 and the state took over responsibility for payment of the clergy. Clerical incomes fell drastically - nearly half the parishes of the archdiocese of Tarragona lacked priests by 1840, and by 1843 effective clerical numbers were one thirdof that under the ancien r´egime.7 'The parish clergy, profoundly conservative,

George. The division between liberals and conservatives reflected a wider tension over the accommodation of the church to American liberal democratic ideals, pioneered by the convert Isaac Hecker, and resulted in the papal condemnation of the heresy of 'Americanism' in the encyclical Testem Benevolentiae

in 1899. There was an appreciable emigration to Canada, with its open border with its greater neighbour,which supplemented the French church of Quebec with an Anglophone church of Irish and Scottish Catholics. A majority of emigrants

satirical journal Punch). Neither Rossetti nor Millais was a particularly devout manand neither pursued the idea of a dedicatedly religious art (though Millais's superbly inventive series ofwood-block illustrations for The parables of our Lord of 1863 is an exception). Holman Hunt's art retained a more Protestant bias, as

in A converted British family sheltering a Christian missionary from the persecution of the Druids (1849-50), ironically acquired by one of the prime lay supporters of the Oxford Movement, who later purchased Hunt's symbolic painting of Christ as The light of the world (1853-6). This picture was extravagantly praised

liberals were just as imperialist as Spanish conservatives and offered no concessions to independence. They were also aggressively anticlerical, attacking the church, its privileges and its property. The combination of radical liberalism and renewed imperialism was too much even for the royalist bishops

in America, many of whom now lost confidence in the king and began to question the basis of their allegiance. While these events unfolded, the war of independence began to turn in favour of the republicans; at Boyac´a in 1819 the era of the great victories opened and with it the eyes of the prelates.

in which many on the more evangelical side followed Abraham Kuyper in setting up the Free Reformed Church.19 Elsewhere, too, fresh developments were often prompted by Moravians or British evangelicals. In Norway, the Moravians took the lead in creating mission agencies outside the state church;

in Denmark a Scot, Ebenezer Henderson, founded the Copenhagen Bible Society; inSweden itwas an English Methodist preacher in Stockholm, George Scott, who gave much of the impetus that led to the eventual creation of Free Church congregations.20 In parts of Germany, despite the prevailing accommodation

Orthodox churches the same position, and both churches identify themselves qualitatively with the people. In conclusion, one may say that the 'folk church' was stronger in Denmark and in Sweden than in the other Nordic nations. While 'folk church'

in Denmark assumed a liberal low church form in which the church had few administrative bodies of its own, the Swedish tradition of a 'folk church' was conservative high church, stressing ecclesiastical independence. InNorwayand in Finland, revivalist influence ensured that the pietistic tradition ofWichern

the German priest and Haberl pupil Heinrich Bewerunge was appointed to the chair of 'Church Chant and Organ' at St Patrick's College, Maynooth in June 1888. Bewerunge, an important scholar and commentator on matters of Catholic churchmusic, proved to be one of the most significantmusical forces

in Ireland. He was not blind to the merits and cultural contemporaneity of opera in western music, but this admiration was articulated as a means of explicating the need for a distinctivemusical voice for the expression of sacred ethics and doctrinal truths.2 Bewerunge's advocacy of Palestrina and Lassus

in an accord which made broad concessions to the church, as Franz Joseph proclaimed his devotion to the Holy See.34 The deference showed Rome by Madrid and Vienna highlighted the ecclesiastical policies of the Turin government, as well as its nationalist policy

in Italy, which Pius found objectionable. In September 1851, Pius rejected the Piedmontese contention that their school administration had to be under exclusive civil authority. The recently formed journal of the Jesuits, Civilt`a Cattolica, seconded his stance. To further widen the rift, the connubio

Pentateuch was unhistorical, and that its main value was that it expressed the religious beliefs of the period in which it was written, namely, the tenth to ninth centuries bc. DeWette's dismissal was a victory for the conservative and pietistic forces

in Prussia (after a period of unemployment he went to Basel in 1821 where he remained until his death in 1849), but it did not stop other scholars such asWilhelm Gesenius, C. P.W. Gramberg and J. F. L. George from developing de Wette's ideas.10 However, in 1835 two books appeared in Germany which

was no question of papal participation in the process, nor were the clergy consulted, save for a small clerical minority disposed to co-operate with the authorities. The commitment of bishops and priests to a return to absolutism, expressed

in Spain by support for King Ferdinand VII between 1814 and 1820 and 1823 and 1833, and in Portugal for King Miguel between 1828 and 1834, left a legacy of mistrust and suspicion towards the church that quickly surfaced following the death of Ferdinand VII (1833) and the exile of Miguel (1834) after years

from Berlin provoked fierce resistance in the Polish Catholic population. In the Habsburg empire, Catholic absolutism probably had greater success in the Catholic churches than in the Russian and Prussian zones. The position of the UniateChurch - called from then tonowGreek Catholic -was reinforced

in east Galicia among the majority of the Ukrainian population, and in time this church achieved an extremely important position in the Ukrainian national movement. The Polish clergy of the Latin rite were strongly imbued with the Josephinist respect for the state.

among Catholics and attended by controversy, which the papacy tried to control, over traditional plainchant and polyphony and the influence of opera, in the quest for a properly ecclesiastical style. The neo-medievalism so powerful in art and architecture often went hand

in hand with a new romantic nationalism, and if Rome opposed such nationalism in Italy, it found itself strengthened by the new intensity of nationalist Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 sheridan gilley

realised in the first instance through the support of the congregations, with their low-cost labour and high levels of commitment. The spread of some congregations seems literally like wildfire as groups of two or three sisters were sent by the mother house to set themselves up in small convents and teach

in local elementary schools. The Sister Servants of the Immaculate Heart of Mary, an American congregation founded in Michigan in 1845, for example, had sisters teaching in more than a hundred schools across three dioceses by 1914, a pattern that was matched by other congregations in France, Ireland,

illustrates, this growth was particularly problematic for church organisation because it was geographically concentrated. Agricultural parishes such as Kilmany could well have stagnant or even declining population at the very time that urban and industrial ones were seeing overwhelmingly rapid expansion

in numbers. At least for Chalmers his numerous Glasgow parishioners were all accessible to him in a compact overcrowded area. Elsewhere substantial new industrial settlements, their location determined by proximity to water power or to a mine, developed several miles away from any existing churches

to adults took spectacular form, with rousing sermons accompanied by lavish ceremonies - including processions, hymn-singing and, most notably, the erection of huge missionary crosses - all ofwhichwere calculated to make a deep impression on the popular imagination (though they succeeded also

in offending the secular sensibilities of the liberal bourgeoisie). Under the July Monarchy (1830-48) the internal missions lost some of their more provocatively ostentatious character but they continued to be employed by parish priests to reinforce their work of evangelisation. The orders - including the

Rome, however, had other ideas. Pius X, egged on by his equally intransigent secretary of state Cardinal Merry del Val, was convinced that the law would undermine the hierarchical basis of the church and also feared that a tame surrender before the French state would encourage similar anticlerical legislation

in other countries. Accordingly, he forbade the formation of associations cultuelles, with the consequence that until 1924 the church did not exist as a legal entity capable of taking ownership of its own property. In the interim, much of that property was converted to other use: many episcopal palaces

and widespread ignorance of elementary doctrinal knowledge as characteristic of southern Catholicism.27 Although there is less evidence for Portugal, it is reasonable to assume that the low levels of practice observed by religious sociologists for the twentieth century in certain regions can be traced

in part to earlier times.28 The situation in the cities experiencing industrialisation was little better. A Catalan priest commenting on religious observance in Barcelona in the 1850s believed that it once was 'a Christian town' in which 'our churches were filled with men in their workers' shirts'. But

maintained that they contained information about the migrations of peoples who were the forebears of the Hebrews, whose religion could also be reconstructed. Ewald also wrote much more fully and positively than de Wette about the person and work of Moses. The result was that Ewald's History,

in spite of all its elaborate theorising about the compositional processes of the Old Testament - theorising that put it light years away from traditional views that ascribed the Pentateuch to Moses, Joshua to Joshua, etc. - basically upheld the outline of history that the Old Testament contained. Indeed, it

11 Graham, 'Chosen by God', p. 90; Wilson, 'Decline of female itinerant preachers', pp. 17-18. 12 Wilson, '"Constrained by zeal"', pp. 193-4. Holmes, Religious revivals, pp. 127-31, also suggests therewas an underground network of independent Methodist female preaching

in the 1880s. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Women preachers and the new Orders popular that Geraldine Hooper Dening, an Anglican in her mid-twenties, was

nun in appearance, in demeanour and in observation of the communal Office says a great deal about the power of conservatism and the need to meet expectations. The latter was also true for the Anglican sisterhoods, although the centrality of the governance issue within Roman Catholicism had no parallel

in the Anglican church. Instead, the absence of an established framework or an agreed perspective from the church hierarchy about sisterhoods enabled their founders to appropriate the status of 'ecclesiastical superior' for themselves. Sisterhoods were founded in the spirit of private enterprise, often by

spiritual nature of the church was the same as that which had led the Free Church to leave the Church of Scotland in 1843. On the other hand, in 1858 the JCPC ruled, albeit only on a technicality, that the prosecution by evangelicals of the High Churchman George Denison, who had taught the real presence

in the Eucharist, was invalid.69 Then in 1864 the JCPC decided that the liberal teachings of Essays and reviews, published in 1860, were not inconsistent with the formularies of the Church of England. The collective implication of these judgements was that, whatever many of its clergy might want, the

remembered: when the national bonds represented by the great Protestant denominations would all be broken, 'nothing will be left to hold the States together except force'.6 6 John C. Calhoun, The works of John C. Calhoun, vol. iv: Speeches of John C. Calhoun, delivered

in the House of Representatives and the Senate of the United States, ed. Richard K. Crall´e (New York: D. Appleton, 1854), pp. 557-8. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 mark a. noll

decline in prejudices and resulting conflicts. Conflicts between church and state Whereas after the Helvetic Revolution of 1798 the new elites had aimed at secularising the central statewhile maintaining state sovereignty over the church,

in the Mediation Act of 1803 the regulation of freedom of belief and worship was transferred to the cantons. The Federal Treaty of 1815 did not mention religious freedom, but affirmed the preservation of the monasteries, whilst declaring state sovereignty over religious orders and congregations, whose

especially amongst the orthodox Calvinists, and the growth of a system of 'pillarisation' or verzuiling, which involved the institutionalisation of those denominations in a plethora of civil society organisations. This half of the chapter will provide an account of developments in church history and theology

in the Netherlands in the nineteenth century, against a trend towards secularisation and an increasing separation of church and state. A framework will be sought inwhich to locate all the different sects and denominations, and to explain how religion contributed to the famed Dutch 'pillarisation', linked

in form (a 'song without words') and gesture, the early Cantique de Jean Racine Op. 11 of 1865 bears many of the embryonic hallmarks of the composer's intense harmonic vocabulary. The later Messe basse (1881, and revised by Faur´e in 1906) has more of that individual tonal and modal amalgam so recognisable

in the Requiem, first performed at the Madeleine church in 1888 with small orchestra and organ, a boy soprano for the 'Pie Jesu', and the soprano line taken by the children Faur´e trained at the church. In this unconventionalwork (undoubtedly suited best for a liturgical context rather than the concert hall),

challenging polychromatic effects in the interiors of his church of All Saints at Babbacombe in Devon (1865-74) and in the chapel of his Keble College at Oxford (1867-83). He designed two further striking London churches, both for Anglo-Catholic worship. St Alban's, Holborn (1856-62) was largely destroyed

in the Second World War while the interior of St Augustine's, Queen's Gate, Kensington (1870-7) was whitewashed in the 1920s, its original colour scheme having proved offensive to the refined sensibilities of the period. His compact, but splendidly picturesque Cathedral of the Isles with its adjacent College of

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Musical trends and the western church whose study of Sch¨utz, Gabrieli and Lotti profoundly influenced his a cappella motets (notably the Fest- und Gedenkspr¨uche Op. 109), while his Lutheran background

in the chorale, combined with hisworship of Bach, emerged in motets such as Es is das Heil Op. 29 No. 1 andWarumist das Licht gegeben denM¨uhseligen Op. 74 No. 1. The debate about 'ancient' and 'modern' emerged in the English theological

produced a theocratic vision of a new Christian order headed by a powerful pope in opposition to a national church enervated by succumbing to the interests of aworldly and decadent state. The battle cry of the early Lamennaiswas the choice between order or anarchy. As a thinkerwhose main theoretical interest

in the churchwas social and political, andwhose main fearwas the corrosive impact of unbelief, Lamennais, in fact, became increasingly disenchanted with the actual ecclesiastical hierarchy. Hemoved to a more democratic conception of the church and openly encouraged greater liberty and social justice. Eventually

the nation: competing and overlapping identities urs altermatt and franziska metzger In nineteenth-century Europe, the nation became one of the dominant factors

in the construction of collective identities and social organisation. However, in denominationally mixed countries, such as Switzerland, religion remained a significant element in the construction of identity.1 In nineteenth-century Switzerland, religion was one of the most important forces in the creation

including the Remonstrants, the Lutherans and the Mennonites or Baptists (see Table 20.1). These groups were small - 1 or 2 per cent each of the population in 1899, often urban, and (with some exceptions) more wealthy than other groups. They too had their internal struggles, splits and reunions

in the course of the nineteenth century - just as did the Calvinists.36 The battle lines were drawn up on very similar issues, namely in the first place church order and relations with the state; and secondly, new ideas based in human reason and the Enlightenment.

publication of the first five parts of J. W. Colenso's The Pentateuch and Book of Joshua critically examined, and while they did not address the relation of the law and the prophets directly, they had an effect on the thinking of the Dutch scholar Abraham Kuenen,whose publications in the 1860s played a major part

in the development of biblical scholarship. The first volume of Colenso's The Pentateuch and Joshua was a crude attack on the historicity of the biblical account of the exodus and wildernesswanderings, makingmuch of the improbability that some 2 million Hebrews together

and compromise, which linked the highest levels of the pillars together. The leaders or elite of each pillar met each other in all kinds of committees and working groups in order to run the country, while ordinary people could be permitted to live out their lives within the pillars. This vision of Dutch society

in the first half of the twentieth century, often symbolised by four great pillars in a classical pediment, supporting a common roof or superstructure (the governmental apparatus), was presented most famously by Arend Lijphart in 1968.27 Its roots are in large measure to be found in the nineteenth century,

part of the century was the Bible. Although most of the schools built by the British and Foreign School Society, largely Nonconformist in support, and the Wesleyans, who created their own educational network, were handed over to school boards after the Education Act of 1870, the type of religious instruction

in the resulting state-sponsored system differed little in content from that offered in chapel Sunday schools. In an age eager for upward social mobility, the Mutual Improvement Societies sponsored by larger Nonconformist congregations drew in young people for lectures and debates. People of all ages

success, but also aroused opposition. Another cause of increasing tension was the relationship between Polish and Lithuanian Catholics, as well as between Greek Catholics (Uniates) and Roman Catholics in east Galicia. This situation corresponded closely with that

in the whole of central-eastern Europe on the eve of the FirstWorldWar. A summary of religious change in Polish society during the century from 1815 to 1914 must first take account of the strength of a traditional religiosity that was profoundly linked with cultural and national consciousness. The

to stamp out devotional diversity among Catholic communities in order to increase papal and ecclesiastical authority, its legacy can hardly be viewed otherwise than with distaste and regret. Thus Emmet Larkin has presented us with a picture of a clerically led 'devotional revolution' in mid-century Ireland

in which the gradual squeezing out of traditional folk practices, such as the pattern and the wake, went hand in hand with the systematic undermining of a native Gaelic spirituality.8 John Bossy, too, has noted how traditional English Catholic piety, as encapsulated by the recusant Bishop Challoner's

the Catholic Church with trying to destroy Protestantism. To fend off the attack, such Protestants unleashed a torrent of sermons and popular literature that glorified the Protestant past and belittled Catholicism as emotional, superstitious, feminine and foreign. Liberal politicians and middle-class intellectuals,

including the noted historian Heinrich von Sybel, broadened the 4 For a fuller account see chapter 5 above. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 anthony j. steinhoff

to unite his own cause with that of the papacy in a crusade designed explicitly to restore a Christian social order in France. By the advent of the Second Empire, Ultramontanism and political and religious liberalism had parted company and, like many of the bishops, liberal Catholics like Montalembert

increasingly adhered to a neo-Gallican ecclesiology, promoted in the pages of the journal Le Correspondant, which was destined to remain a distinguished but undeniably minor current alongside the Ultramontane mainstream. Byfar themostdecisive factor in assuring the victoryof the Ultramontanesin

growing more from individual spirituality - and individual morality - than from corporate responsibility, by deferring to authority achieved rather than authority inherited, by trusting in personal appropriation of Scripture more than in respectful acceptance of tradition, and by favouring entrepreneurial

innovation over theological depth. As the inner forces paralleling the external organisation of churches, voluntary agencies and educational institutions, spiritual practices constituted the heart of what made the United States and Canada into distinctly Christian, if far from perfect, societies in the century

appearance of Essays and reviews (1860), written by members of the Church of England, and The Pentateuch and the Book of Joshua critically examined (1862), by the bishop of Natal, JohnWilliam Colenso (1814-83), which questioned the Mosaic authorshipandwith that the authenticity of thePentateuch as adivinely

inspired account of history. A protest by fellows - some eminent - of the Royal 22 J. B. Baltzer, Die biblische Sch¨opfungsgeschichte, 2 vols. (Leipzig: Teubner, 1867, 1872), vol. i, pp. 322-54, table ii. 23 Rupke, The great chain of history, pp. 42-50; Reusch, Nature and the Bible, vol. i, pp. 294-310;

f¨ur freies Christentum and, influencedbythe liberalmovement, a number of other social and pedagogical institutionswere established, including the International Red Cross, founded by Henry Dunant in 1863. Between the two poles represented by the traditionalist and the reformist theologians,

intermediary positions, such as that held by the Basel church historian Karl Rudolf Hagenbach, remained in a minority.13 Whereas mainstreamliberal Protestantism found itself represented by political liberalism and integrated in the nation-state and its culture, the conservative

of them Dissenters from the national church, and many others lacking any contact with organised Christianity.3 Such was Chalmers's concern at these unchurched multitudes that in November 1817 he turned a memorial sermon on the tragically early death of the king's granddaughter, Princess Charlotte,

into an appeal for efforts 'to bring this enormous physical strength under the controul of Christian and humanized principle'.4 In Glasgow, as in other burgeoning towns of the British industrial revolution, the national Anglican and Presbyterian churches appeared in imminent danger of losing any tangible

authorities deprived bishops absent from their dioceses for 'political' motives of their incomes and regarded priests accused of Carlist sympathies as conspirators against the state. In 1837, the government prohibited ordinations, while it prepared a radical reorganisation of the diocesan clergy. Bishops either fled

into exile or abandoned their dioceses. By 1840, only eleven of the kingdom's sixty dioceses were being administered by their prelates. In the archdiocese of Tarragona, where battle raged between the supporters of liberalism and Carlism, nearly half of the clergy had abandoned their parishes by 1840.12

Reformation. Because the 1871 imperial constitution made ecclesiastical affairs the prerogative of the individual states and not the imperial government, only a few of the Kulturkampf measures applied empire-wide. The Kanzelparagraph, inserted

into the Imperial Penal Code on 10 December 1871, banned priests from discussing political matters from the pulpit. In 1872 the Reichstag also expelled the Jesuit, Redemptorist and Lazarist orders from Germany. At the state level, noteworthy clashes erupted in Baden, Bavaria and Hesse-Darmstadt, but the

1840s. The Falloux Law ofMay 1850 (named after the liberal Catholic minister of education who sponsored the bill in parliament) gave the church the freedom to expand its secondary school provision, though the state preserved the monopole universitaire at the tertiary level - a concessionwhichwent too far for

intransigent Ultramontanes like Louis Veuillot, who split the parti catholique by demanding nothing less than complete libert´e d'enseignement for the church throughout the educational sector.3 And, as we have seen, it was the veuillotiste current that increasingly dominated French Catholicism in the 1850s and

closely involved with people in new forms of social organisation, a unifying, not a divisive, influence. In Medell´ın, while the church increased its presence and penetrated the lives of the people - in parishes, pious associations, religious communities and public professions of faith - this was not

introverted religion but served a humanitarian purpose, and the result was the growth of numerous philanthropic societies that brought social stability to Antioquia. In Peru the politics of Catholics, clergy and lay,were conformist.The church

the United States and Canada. These were no longer missionary territories, as their churches were come of age. With this passion for order, the pope in the Motu Proprio Arduum Sane Munus began the codification of canon law largely complete at his death, and

issued in 1917 by his successor. Here a genius was to hand in Pietro Gasparri, Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 The papacy afterwards secretary of state to Benedict XV and Pius XI. This codification had

(1891), the establishment of true Catholic autonomy, and the recognition of the legitimate claims of ethnic minorities within the country. However, the manifesto failed to address the most fundamental problem facing Hungary, the long overdue land reforms. Unfortunately the party disintegrated after

it became involved in constitutional wrangling. It officially ceased to exist in 1918, when it merged with the Christian Socialist Party. The complicated question of ethnic minorities also affected the Catholic Church in Hungary. After the War of Independence, the government in

among Nonconformists therewas more support for radical politics.However, once again this was a minority movement rather than formal support. Jabez Bunting's famous remark that 'Methodism is as much opposed to democracy as it is to sin'27 may not have been typical ofmanyworking-class Methodists but

it did represent the leadership's view. The new issue in the nineteenth century was industrialisation, and more particularly the question of poverty, although this may be better articulated as a consequence of rapid population growth and urban expansion,which strained traditional structures ofworkshop labour

Introduction The relationship between church, state and nation in nineteenth-century Francewas shaped in large measure by the legacy of the preceding revolutionary era. The French Revolution had begun with the blessing of the church but

it ended in a seismic rupture. Whereas the clerg´e patriote of 1789 had looked to religion to bind the nation together, within a fewyears religion had developed into the single greatest source of national discord. The Jacobins proclaimed the Republic one and indivisible, but their onslaught on Catholic Christianity

the revolution and the ensuing war, a substantial proportion of the bishops maintained their allegiance to the old system. Both parties in the conflict, the Hungarian government and the Viennese court, demanded huge material and moral support from the bishops. Partly unwilling and partly unable to supply

it, the chief pastors fell out of favour with both sides. After the revolution had been suppressed with the help of Russian military intervention, the court of Vienna found a scapegoat for the rebellion in the Hungarian hierarchy and clergy. Five bishops were forced to resign, several hundred Catholic priests

than many of their American contemporaries, Methodists, like the other key leaders of early national religion, innovated ceaselessly in order to improvise organisational and ideological forms appropriate for a thinly spread, freedomobsessed and market-oriented population. The normal pattern for Methodist

itinerants was to preach on the move for three or five or ten years and then to marry and 'locate' as unpaid exhorters or preachers. The main support for itinerants came from sympathetic women, sometimes joined by their husbands, who responded to the message and opened their homes to the

was later endorsed by Edward Martyn who, emanating from Catholic landed gentry in County Galway, had the means to endow the choir of St Mary's Pro- Cathedral with the princely sum of £10,000 in order to establish its Palestrina Choir. At much the same time, English Catholicism saw the foundation of

its own cathedral choir at Westminster Cathedral in 1903 under R. R. Terry. The Westminster choir generated excitement outside Catholic circles for its performances of Palestrina, Victoria and Lassus, which not only spawned a 2 See White, The Keeper's recital, pp. 74-93.

than Orthodox worship. The architectural sources forWestminster Cathedral may have been conspicuously un-English, but the building pays homage to the aesthetic principles enunciated by the great English art critic John Ruskin (1819-1900). Ruskin, who so admired the Gothic architecture of Venice in

its prime, none the less lovingly described the exotic wonders of San Marco to English readers. Through his advocacy the English had been challenged to understand the effects of colour in architecture. Even in its unfinished state the interior of Westminster Cathedral (which lacks much of its intended mosaic

devoted to Rome, and concentrated in an isolated countryside became the dominant group within clerical ranks.'8 In 1846 nearly half the dioceses of Spain were vacant. In the Revolution of 1854-6 the process of amortising other church property began, which reduced the ability of the church to support

itself and created a group with a vested interest against any revival of its position.9 There is no evidence of a mass desertion from the church in the 1830s, but the old variations in religious practice remained. It proved increasingly

would have been a violation of his coronation oath to maintain the Protestant religion. The Church of Scotland lacked the same sense of organic connection with the structures of the United Kingdom state. Indeed it had historically seen

itself as a separate spiritual kingdom, in partnership with the state, but distinct from it, and under the headship of Christ, not the monarch. Nevertheless as in England its ministers were appointed by lay patrons. This system was uncontentious south of the border, but in Scotlandwas a matter of ongoing grievance

less enthusiastic) interpreted as the right to establish their own schools and universities entirely free from state controls. Opposition to the monopole de 2 P. Thureau-Dangin, L'´eglise et l'´etat sous la monarchie de juillet (Paris: Plon, 1880), p. 93. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

james f. mCmillan l'´etat throughout the 1840s appeared to place the church on the side of the opponents of the regime who, much to their own surprise, found themselves in power after the revolution of 1848 which ushered in the Second Republic.

was given in 1826, Barat noted that '[it] is of the same nature as that of the Society of Jesus . . . without parallel for nuns without strict enclosure', and she went on to make full use of it, founding houses in twelve countries by Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

janice holmes and susan o'brien her death in 1865.29 Even so, the degree of change and freedom should be kept in perspective. Barat and many others had to accept a form of semi-enclosure they had not wanted, and the fact that the 'new nuns' mirrored the traditional

mark a. noll 23 · Spain and Portugal: the challenge to the church 381 william j. callahan 24 · Latin America: the church and national independence 395

john lynch 25 · Between east and west: the Eastern Catholic ('Uniate') churches 41 2 robert j. taft

Dutch Protestants: perhaps more than any other event in the century it illustrates a reversal of traditional roles, with Catholics supporting liberalism and Protestants taking a very conservative position. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

john molony and david m. thompson In Great Britain the bishops in the House of Lords found themselves blamed for the defeat of the first Reform Bill because they were an identifiable group, even though they were no more to blame than any other group of thirty or so

innovative teaching and Leo and Liberatore were equal to the task. 18 Molony, The worker question, p. 165. 19 Ibid., pp. 174, 166. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

john molony and david m. thompson The inviolable right to the innate dignity of the individual person was the principle underlying the whole encyclical. In magisterial tones Leo claimed that 'No one may outrage that human dignity which God himself treats with

discipline. The opening was set for 8 December 1869, the feast of the Immaculate Conception. Prior to its opening, Pius implored remedies for the numerous evils afflicting church and society. Considering the Holy See to be the centre of unity in the church, the pope revealed his determination to play a

key role in the council's proceedings. The bull of November 1869 providing its guidelines allowed him to propose questions for discussion and to nominate the cardinals, who presided over the committees of the council, as well as its secretary.48 The committees devised fifty-one Schemata for consideration, but

recommended for Catholic children preparing to make their first communion. Devotions were promoted and spread with particular vigour through a host of exclusively Catholic societies, known as confraternities, sodalities or guilds, whose rise was another marked feature of the nineteenth-century religious

landscape. Some of these societies, known as Third Orders, offered lay Catholics the opportunity to participate in the religious life of a particular religious order - most commonly the Dominicans or Franciscans - yet without going so far as to become actual novices. Others, such as the sodality for

and owing to the lack of support from Sweden-Norway, political pan- Scandinavianism came to an end with Denmark's defeat in 1864. But a cultural and practical Scandinavianism or Nordism survived and flourished in the twentieth century, although the break-up of the Swedish-Norwegian union in 1905

led to a brief break in it. One of the key persons in this Scandinavian awakeningwas the Danish theologian, minister, poet, historian and politician N. F. S. Grundtvig (1783-1872). While studying theology in Copenhagen, he was influenced by rationalism

were also rebuilt.31 The very substantial resources required all came from voluntary donations, an indication of warm support for the church among the wealthier classes, although in 1840 a Commons motion calling for state support was only narrowly defeated. In 1843, during Peel's second ministry,

legislation was passed which greatly simplified the creation of new ecclesiastical parishes, thus further stimulating and facilitating the process of church extension. For the Church of Ireland, too, therewas a period of stabilisation. Although

for there were already signs of the religious alienation of urban populations. Moreover, the cities were strongholds of liberalisation both politically and ideologically. The church managed to recover from the catastrophic situation of the early

liberal period. By the early and mid-1840s, the growing influence of conservative liberals, who saw an accommodation with the papacy and the clergy as necessary for the stability of the liberal system, moved the civil authorities to seek a compromise with Rome. In Portugal under the Chartist Party governments

time of general interdenominational competition among Christians. While late nineteenth-century Catholics seemed to be becoming more exclusively Catholic in their social as well as their devotional behaviour, this did not mean that they had lost either their national distinctiveness or their

liberty. Although Protestants, liberals, anticlericals and other enemies of the Catholic Church, alarmed by the sight of what seemed to be a newly resurgent and confident Roman Church, leaped easily to the conclusion that every newdevotionmust have been commanded by the pope, the universal Catholic

far-reaching effect on both his contemporaries and his successors.The opening of 'Drop down, ye heavens, from above' (1866) by Stainer shows this harmonic predisposition, but also prevalent in Stainer's style, more typical of the midnineteenth century, is a greater sense of theatricality and emotionalism often

linked with 'High Victorianism'. This is most characteristically portrayed in his early anthem 'I saw the Lord' (1858), in 'Lead, kindly light' (1868) and in his universally popular setting of Christ's Passion, The Crucifixion (1887). In the 1870s a reaction to Stainer's 'emotional' style emerged in the church music

Italy: the church and the Risorgimento the church had to instruct, direct and govern the Christian world clashed with the liberal demand for popular sovereignty, and the nationalist call for the omnipotence of the state. Pius's traditionalism and Ultramontanism left

little room for compromise with the liberal and national notions which prevailed in Italy. Liberal Catholics came in for a special condemnation from this pope, who charged they undermined the spiritual unity of the church while championing a false liberty. In their efforts to reconcile 'human progress' with

which attempted and failed to place Catholicism under strict regulation by the state. The most extraordinary expression of such conflictwas the 'pillarisation' of nineteenth-century Dutch society, in which Calvinists, both moderate and conservative, Catholics and secular socialists could live entirely separate

lives in institutions which only met at the leadership level for negotiation with one another. A tendency accompanying conflict and competition among the churches in old Europe, even in some Protestant countries, was the development of a

(1816), that female preaching was granted an official sanction. Expanding into the 1820s, with a peak in numbers by the 1830s, by the 1860s about ninety Primitive and seventy-five Bible Christianwomen had served as full-time, paid 'itinerant preachers', themostsenior pastoral position within these structurally

loose movements.7 This rapid growth in female preaching, followed by a steady decline, is a pattern that is repeated in the American denominations influenced by the evangelical revival of the late eighteenth century. The lack of denominational

Shortly after the proclamation of the Second German empire in 1871, the future Prussian court preacher Adolf Stoecker rejoiced, remarking: 'The holy, Protestant empire of the German nation is now completed.'1 This statement exemplifies the important, if often overlooked, contribution that Christianity

made to the construction of modern Germany. The phrase itself recalls the 'Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation' that perished in 1806 and demonstrates the ongoing resonance of the imperial idea for conceptualising the nation throughout the nineteenth century. But by substituting the word

a growing recognition that women could occupy some measure of official church leadership without breaching scriptural proscriptions. British denominations were slow to change. It was not until the 1920s that Anglicans and Methodists first started discussing full ordination. In the United States, similarly,

mainline denominations remained largely closed to the discussion of female ordination. Many smaller American denominations, however, instituted full ordination rights during this period, like the Freewill Baptists, the Brethren, the United Brethren and the Church of the Nazarene, while others

to the huge growth in the numbers of new female religious orders active in education and social work, especially in France. Women also played a vital part in themulti-formvitality of British Nonconformity,where leadership and congregations, as distinct from actual membership,were often predominantly

male. Female preaching and full equality of ministry tended to be confined to unsacramental charismatic bodies like the Salvation Army or liberal ones like the Unitarians.Women made a major contribution to the new Protestant missions, going where men could not, although this had partly to do with

The disappearance of the male religious orders during the 1830s, until their reintroduction later in the century, deprived the church of an important instrument of popular evangelisation, while the controls imposed on the parochial clergy during the civil wars of the period disrupted parish life significantly in

many regions. With few exceptions, clerical and lay defenders of the church saw liberal ecclesiastical policies as the fatal result of corrosive, secular ideas bent on the destruction of religion. The reformers of the Cortes of C´adiz (1810-13),

While the aim of eschewing the 'worldly' in favour of the 'eternal' was nothingnewfor Catholics -or indeed for any other sortof Christian - the extent to which Catholic spirituality, and ultimately identity, came to be seen as tied to specific services, devotional rituals or quasi-monastic practices increasingly

marked Catholics out as different from their neighbours. It was this sense of Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Catholic revivalism in worship and devotion difference, quite as much as the occasional papal pronouncement reported

1989); Richard Carwardine, Trans-Atlantic revivalism: popular evangelicalism in Britain and America, 1790-1865 (Westport and London: Greenwood Press, 1978); John Kent, Holding the fort: studies in Victorian revivalism (London: Epworth Press, 1978). Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

mary heimann Catholics - from simple Italian peasants tohumble Irish seamstresses or French cowherds - to formulate and express their particular brand of Catholic devotion in their own way and to their own taste. Here the traditional Christian

The greatest and most substantial industry, however, took place in Salzburg where, under the patronage of Archbishop Colloredo, Mozart and Haydn's brother Michael were active. Economic privation, caused by Austria's war with Napoleon, constrained musical activity, and the larger, more ambitious

masses (and requiems) were commissioned as pi`eces d'occasion. The tradition of the symphonic mass continued to enjoy popularity into the nineteenth century. Hummel produced an appreciable corpus of masses as concert master to the Esterh´azy court between 1804 and 1811; Beethoven was commissioned

to build their organisation, theirs was never a church or confessional party. Lueger won over the lower middle classes by downplaying clericalism and embracing petty bourgeois anti-Semitism, all of which made his movement suspect in the eyes of the church hierarchy. Lueger's confirmation as lord

mayor of Vienna in 1897 marked the end of the liberal era. It also established the Christian Socials as an official ruling party, an honour regularly denied the German Centre before 1914. Austrian discussions about religion and politics were also unique because,

and was more ready to identify itself with workers' protest movements, such as the London Match Girls' Strike of 1889. English Nonconformist attitudes to social questions tended to be dominated by the issue of alcoholic drink. The temperance movement, which effectively

meant total abstinence, came to be almost synonymous with English Nonconformity in the second half of the century, even though Jabez Bunting had regarded temperance societies with suspicion, emphasising the importance of using proper wine in the Lord's Supper at the 1841 Wesleyan Conference.31

which preceded the 1849 constitution, 'folk church' was mainly used in a democratic sense. It was, in historical fact, the church of the Danish people, and therefore the people should govern it. At the same time 'folk church' was an important concept to the followers of Grundtvig, although, as already

mentioned, they used it in the sense of a national church. Furthermore, their point was that the 'Danish folk church' was only an external civil institution, while the true faithful could reconcile themselves to it, if there was sufficient freedom for both laity and clergy.

some success as credit institutions and defenders of local agricultural interests, although they were concentrated in peasant regions where the church retained considerable influence. There were other aspects to the 'Catholic revival'. In Spain and Portugal, Catholic Congresses including clergy and laity

met periodically from the 1880s to discuss issues judged vital to the church. A moderately effective Catholic press emerged, although it never matched the circulation of its secular counterpart. In Spain, Catholic leagues were 34 Jim´enez Duque, La espiritualidad en el siglo XIX espa˜nol, pp. 146-60;Neto, OEstado, a Igreja,

At the same time, a change in the intellectual climate in France as in Europe as a whole exacerbated divisions between Catholics and sections of the educated classes. If romanticism had helped to rehabilitate religion in the first half of the nineteenth ceentury, positivism - the favourite philosophic creed of

mid-nineteenth-century intellectuals, popularised in France by Emile Littr´e - encouraged scepticism about the truths of revealed religion. Modern science - epitomised by Charles Darwin, whose Origin of species was translated into French in 1862 - and German biblical criticism confronted Ultramontane

17 Brown, Religion and society, p. 45. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 david bebbington Union, a revivalist body formed in 1843 that repudiated Calvinism. Scotland

might be preponderantly Presbyterian, but its religious Dissentwas a powerful sector. The greatest episode in nineteenth-century Scottish history, the Disruption of 1843, added to the religious forces marshalled outside the established church.

had little appreciable role in constituting or maintaining the German Catholic 5 Cited in Tal, Christians and Jews in Germany, p. 125. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 anthony j. steinhoff

milieu.Rather, the main challenge to Jews' Germanness in the Kaiserreich came from Protestant circles, from high-profile pastors like Adolf Stoecker and from integralist nationalist organisations like the Pan-German League. When war broke out in early August 1914, Kaiser Wilhelm II urged his

their response, he proceeded. In June of 1867, Pius publicly revealed his decision to convoke a council. He had hoped to have it open shortly, but difficulties at homeand abroad conspired against an early convocation, including Garibaldi's incursion into the Papal States in 1867, before he was halted by a Franco-papal

military force at Mentana. As a result, French forces were again stationed in Rome. On 29 June 1868, the papal bull of convocation explained its purposes: the combating of error, the definition of doctrine and the upholding of ecclesiastical

had lost out to growing denominational demands for an educated clergy, but still lacked the access to higher education, both secular and theological, that would have enabled them, potentially, to regain their positions. Within this educational gap, women struggled to find a means of expressing their

ministerial talents. As a result, female preaching during these decades appears fragmented and incoherent. Women achieved little more than a grudging acceptance of fairly restrictive ministerial roles. By the 1840s, the number of women occupying ministerial roles in British

Booth herself. The Society of Friends also retained a traditional commitment to the equality of women in public ministry. But there was no real suggestion in the period before 1914 among either the established Protestant churches or the larger Free Churches that women might be eligible for ordination to the

ministry, notwithstanding the experience of a generation ofwomen preachers among Methodists at the beginning of the nineteenth century. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Christian social thought

once shunned, now became acceptable to many. Free Church people, especially those who had prospered, were ceasing to be so distinctive in their ideas or in their behaviour. There was, nevertheless, a tendency in the contrary direction among a

minority of Free Church members. During the last thirty years of the nineteenth century there was a spread of holiness ideals derived from Methodism beyond its ranks. JohnWesley's teaching that a state of entire sanctification is available to the believer on earth had declined among ordinary Methodists,

Press, 1986) and An atlas of British overseas expansion (London: Routledge, 1991). Editor of the Oxford history of the British Empire, vol. iv: The nineteenth century (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999) and The imperial horizons of British Protestant missions, 1880-1914 (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2003), his most recent book is Religion versus empire? British Protestant

missionaries and overseas expansion, 1700-1914 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2004). John Rogerson is Professor Emeritus of Biblical Studies at the University of Sheffield. His main publications have centred on the history and assumptions of Old Testament interpretation,

States gloried in their 'freedom', bywhich they meant they neither enjoyed nor sought the protection of establishment. In Canada, there was less enthusiasm about disestablishment, but by the second half of the century a similar state of affairs prevailed there. The self-starting efforts of denominations and the

mobilisation of voluntary societies had taken the place of formal church-state ties, but the result was a more thorough Christianisation of the population than in Europe and an exertion of social influence at least as powerful as in the old world. In 1854 the learned Swiss ´emigr´e Philip Schaff returned to Europe

republicans - retained a residual respect for religion. Therewere even spectacular deathbed conversions, like that of Littr´e in 1881. Nevertheless, under the impetus of the Roman Question, the anticlerical press, spearheaded by organs like L'Avenir Nationale and L'Opinion Nationale but also including the more

moderate Le Temps, increasingly demanded the separation of church and state in the 1860s. By the end of the Second Empire a new generation of republican politicians which included men of markedly different temperament like Jules Ferry and L´eon Gambetta, were convinced that, in the interests of national

in the hope of reconciling the Orthodox churches to them, Protestants did not succeed in 'reforming' the Eastern Orthodox along their own lines, and ended by setting up numerous small Christian congregations, with a superior educational provision which was often an important part of a more general

modernising mission. Missionary Christianity often had a difficult and ambiguous relationship to the spread of the colonial empires, which had quite separate agendas: sometimes, as in India and the Sudan, in opposition to missions. Despite its idealism

His books include America's God, from Jonathan Edwards to Abraham Lincoln (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), The rise of evangelicalism: the age of Whitefield, Edwards, and theWesleys (Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press, 2004), The old religion in a new world: the history of North American Christianity (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2002) and Turning points: decisive

moments in the history of Christianity (2nd edn Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 2000). Susan O'Brien is an independent scholar, a Senior Member of St Edmund's College, Cambridge, and the Chair of Directors of the Margaret Beaufort Institute ofTheology, Cambridge Theological Federation. Until 2002 shewas Deputy Vice-Chancellor of Staffordshire

capitalism and socialism, which he held to be equally wrong in teaching an autonomous secular doctrine of society and the state, placing both beyond religious discipline and the natural law. Capitalism in its monopoly form preaches and practises an economic system simply devoted to making

money: it treats persons as atomised individuals and not as creatures in community, and does so without moral reference to the needs of the family, with immoral consequences in the creation of intolerable levels of poverty and suffering.

church exposed to an anticlericalismwhichwould greatlyweaken its influence. Yet despite these setbacks, Pio Nono was the maker of the modern papacy. The loss of the Papal States was a blessing in disguise, as it diminished the Vatican's immersion in Italian politics, and marked its transformation into a

more exclusively global spiritual power. Pio Nono's strategy of opposition to ultra-modernity had its losses and gains, and left a difficult legacy to his successor, Gioacchino Vincenzo Raffaele Luigi Pecci, Pope Leo XIII (1810-1903; ruled 1878-1903). By living to 93, Leo

recognisedwomen as local preachers, elders and deacons. Part of the problem for many denominations was turning local practice into official policy. Translating support for ordination in a single congregation into a denominational practice often proved a step too far. As a result, either women were granted

more limited ministerial roles, or else existing practiceswere left alone. In 1907, for example, Free Methodists, despite a tradition of independent female evangelism, the full support of their founder and twenty years of debate, were still unable to achieve a majority in favour of full ordination.Womenwere still only

has lost every sort of moral authority', he wrote to one of his English friends; 'it might launch against us all the thunderbolts it keeps in reserve in the cellars of the Vatican and would fail to produce any great agitation in these parts'.33 Papal complaints and calls for assurance of church interests found a

more receptive audience elsewhere. In 1850, the Madridgovernmentconcluded an agreement which pronounced Catholicism the religion of state, while the clergywas invested with broad powers, including the supervision of education. Negotiations were also opened with the Vienna government, which resulted

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 u. altermatt, f. metzger and m. wintle Schorderet was a dominant influence, establishing in the 1870s a network of associations and newspapers in the French-speaking part of Switzerland, the

most important of which was La Libert´e.19 Representatives of the Ultramontane line of thought were also the main promoters of social reform. From the 1830s a number of charitable organisations were established, whose networks increased in the second half of the

choir stalls (modelled on cathedral or collegiate churches), which was presented as restoration butwas actually innovation. The revival of churchmusic in Germany and Sweden in the first half of the nineteenth century parallels that in England, and also drew on fifteenth- and sixteenth-century precedents;

most of all there was a rediscovery of the music of Bach.35 Particularly among Protestants there was a change in the pattern of congregational worship. Whereas in the Roman Catholic Church the weekly celebration of mass remained the norm (though the extent of preaching varied),

The centralisation of church authority, which reached a climax in 1870 with the definition of the dogma of papal infallibility, led to resistance from 'liberal' Catholics. Between 1871 and 1876, in the wake of the Kulturkampf, some of these Catholics went on to found the Christ-Catholic Church. This

movement initially also had a political character, bringing together politically liberal Catholics. The central figure in the constitutional phase of Christian Catholic theology was Eduard Herzog, Professor of New Testament at the University of Berne and the first Christian Catholic bishop.17

order in Baltimore, the Sisters of Charity, whose members gave themselves to education as well as the care of orphans. Growing religious diversity undercut aspirations for a 'Christian America' defined in evangelical terms. But stresses within the dominant Protestant

movements were just as corrosive. The social promise of evangelical revival early in the century was that, by converting individuals, society could be transformed. By the 1830s, the persistence of many social problems, especially slavery, belied this facile assumption. For their part, the voluntary agencies

century social developments were making the outreach of the Free Churches harder. There were serious efforts to come to terms with the new situation. One methodwas toexploit the existing advantage of theFreeChurches in the field of

music.Well-trained choirs sang regularly and therewere special performances of Handel's MessiaharoundChristmas.Anothertechniquewas toenter the field of sport, treating it as an ally of the gospel rather than as its foe. Free Churches organised their own teams, competing in local leagues. The most imaginative

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Theology and the revolt against the Enlightenment spiritual energy was explicitly Christian in inspiration, even if, as in a Caspar David Friedrich landscape, the theological signs were sometimes oblique and

muted, based on the principle, unintelligible to the materialist or the hedonist, that through death and suffering comes life renewed. The political dimension of the message for German nationalists of life ensuing out of the death of the Holy Roman Empire is evident. But this Christian theme was echoed in

Angelus and the practice of setting aside the month of May as the 'Month of Mary'; penitential devotions, such as devotions to the Sacred Heart of Jesus and the via crucis ('Way of the Cross' or 'Stations of the Cross'); and devotions, or even whole services, which concentrated on the central Catholic

mystery of transubstantiation through attention to the Blessed Sacrament, as in Visits to the Blessed Sacrament, the Quarant'ore (Forty Hours' Devotion to the Blessed Sacrament) and a variety of special services which shared the name of 'Benediction of the Blessed Sacrament', all of which climaxed

Enlightenment and the revealed truths of the church confessions.31 Therewere a number of ecumenical initiatives, and the 'Spirit of the Age' celebrated the enlightened virtue of tolerance. According to such values, the external formsof the churches had to be made as rational and hierarchical as possible, andwhere

necessary should be available for use by the enlightened state in order to promote the advantage and felicity of the people.Reactionwas widespread against these manifestations of progressive religion. A nostalgic Romanticism was an important part of the R´eveil, a literary-religious movement looking back to a

A part of the legacy of the Lutheran Reformationwas the use of the vernacular language in worship, liturgy, hymns, translations of the Bible and catechism. But under the influence of Romanticism, the national language acquired a new function. It now expressed the heart of national identity and became a

necessity in the education and unification of the people. School and church were key institutions in promoting such a language to the broad mass of the people and to give it official legitimacy. But most states were composite states with more than one vernacular language. Linked with nationalism, this easily

designed byW. and H.W. Inwood with an Ionic portico, a tower derived from the Tower of the Winds in Athens and terracotta caryatids (based on those on the Erechtheion on the Acropolis) supporting projecting side-vestries. At the climax to his scheme for Regent Street, the architect John Nash placed the

new church of All Souls, Langham Place (1822-4). The church serves as an eye-catcher and a deft means of linking two major thoroughfares. Its circular Ionic portico and its needle-spire were ridiculed at the time, and the church received sharp criticism in one of the key books of the English Gothic Revival,

Evan Roberts, still only a candidate for the ministry, moved from place to place, fervent hymn singing would mingle with spontaneous cries of personal repentance. Together the holiness movement and the Welsh Revival created the context for the beginnings of Pentecostalism. There were expectations of

new spiritual power that seemed to be fulfilled when, in a mission that soon moved to Asuza Street in Los Angeles in 1906, speaking in tongues was heard. 23 A.W.W. Dale, The life of R.W. Dale of Birmingham (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1898), pp. 310-16.

Christianity became a global religion through the Spanish and Portuguese empires in the sixteenth century and French missionaries in the seventeenth and eighteenth. There are chapters here reflecting the legacy of this earlier era. These include Latin America, where the Roman Catholic Church in the

nineteenth century displayed a whole range of splendours and miseries, from post-colonial anticlerical attack and with too fewpriests; the Philippines,where Catholicism set down deep roots in native culture and with a native clergy, sometimes resistant to Spanish rule; and India, where the Portuguese had

its superb coffered barrel vault and its remarkable sculptural decoration, the work of the Rome-based Dane Bertel Thorwaldsen (1770-1844). The nave is lined with statues of the twelve apostles but the altar is dominated by the dignified marble figure of the resurrected Christ, which became a central icon of

nineteenth-century art.Thorwaldsen's beautiful font, a shell held by a kneeling angel, was a gift from the artist himself. In Lutheran Prussia the most notable church of the early nineteenth century is the Nikolaikirche in Potsdam, built to the designs of Karl Friedrich Schinkel (1781-1841) between 1830 and 1837.

like gunshots. In Chile the Catholic liberal politician Federico Err´azuriz Za˜nartu, president of Chile in 1871-5, criticised the clergy as exploiters of the poor, incurring the wrath of Archbishop Valdivieso and other members of the hierarchy; they made it clear that outside the conservative alliance there was

no place for a Catholic, only association with liberals and unbelievers. In 1874 the ageing archbishop excommunicated Err´azuriz and all those in parliament Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Latin America: the church and national independence

Any consideration of social thought in the Protestant churches in the nineteenth century immediately raises the question of whose thought is under discussion. The traditional Protestant confessions of faith usually contained some reference to the church's relationship to civil authority, marriage and the

obligations of the moral law. But they did not touch on forms of government or questions of poverty. Most Protestant churches did not claim to teach on these matters, unlike the papacy. For established churches therewas a question of whether they could take a position different from that of the state, and if

how the steady growth of pietism and the influence of Calvinism witnessed a decline away from the ornate creations of cantatas, motets and chorale preludes, until, by 1800, the music of German Protestantism consisted of little more than the singing of chorales. No better example of this process can be

observed than at Leipzig by the comparison between J. S. Bach's sophisticated sacred works written for his post as cantor at St Thomas's Church, and those of his successor, J. A. Hiller,who wrote little for the liturgy. Though less draconian, the Catholic Churchwas also driven by a reforming zealwhich eschewed

into Jerusalem (1810-24), Cornelius's Holy Family (1809-11) and Pforr's Count Rudolf of Hapsburg and the priest (1809) are representative. Later explicitly religious works produced in the Rome years include Schadow's Via crucis (1817) and The Holy Family under a portico (c. 1818) and Schnorr's tender Annunciation

of 1820. The group's most significant commission came from the Prussian consul in Rome, Salomon Bartholdi, to decorate rooms in his palazzo in the Via Sistina with frescos showing the story of Joseph (the paintings were transferred to Berlin in 1887). The most striking of these are Overbeck's Joseph sold

The constitution of the Swiss Confederation of 1848 declared freedom of religion and belief to be an individual affair, not linked to territoriality, and assigned church matters to the cantons. However, with their discriminatory articles against the Catholic Church and religious congregations, the constitutions

of 1848 and 1874 remained expressions of the politicisation of religion and anticlerical intrusions by the liberal state into the sphere of religion. The ban on the Jesuits lasted for more than a century.9 In the 1870s the conflicts surfaced once more, especially in the large diocese

Harmony of 1835, later picked up a last verse home-grown in America ('when we've been there ten thousand years'), and then went on to become the most widely used hymn in all of American public life. In the middle decades of the century, Lowell Mason (1792-1872), first president

of Boston's Handel and Haydn Society, returned from European study to compose a number of popular settings for earlier melodies, like 'Hamburg' from Gregorian chant (for Isaac Watts' 'When I survey the wondrous cross') and 'Azmon' from Carl Gl¨aser (for CharlesWesley's 'O, for a thousand tongues

for an assault on religious art, the Renaissance before it seemed to embody principles contrary to Christian and nationalistic aesthetics. The evolution Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Church architecture and religious art

of English Gothic from the thirteenth century was essentially an expression of the English spirit. But Pugin was not just wedded to the idea of revival. He saw structure as embodying the moral principle that 'there should be no features of a buildingwhich are not necessary for convenience, construction, or

was already apparent in the moral and material assistance that Catholics across Germany provided to the Prussian faithful during the Kulturkampf. The empire's leading Catholic newspapers, especially the K¨olnische Volkszeitung and the Berlin-based Germania, had a national readership, and the regular conferences

of German bishops at Fulda promoted unity within the entirety of German Catholicism. Catholic associational life also had a manifestly national character. Hiking, gymnastic and music clubs were organised into empirewide confederations. Furthermore, groups from the G¨orres Society for the

History and the Bible backed by a system of priesthood and sacrifice, which were projected back into the time of Moses following the exodus. An implication of the scheme was that the prophets of the eighth century played a decisive role in the development

of Israel's ethical monotheism, while the post-exilic religion centred on Jerusalem and, dominated by ritual purity and atoning sacrifices, fell below the achievements of the earlier prophetic religion. If Wellhausen presented his case with forceful logic and overwhelming

establish a 'Pious Union' that would draw together women like herself to increase their outreach, she took the first step in founding a new order or congregation in the Roman Catholic Church. The Daughters of Jesus and Mary, as it became, began life as a teaching congregation in the archdiocese

of Lyons running schools and orphanages, but when another proposal was made in 1841 - this time to work in northern India - it did not hesitate to turn itself into an international missionary congregation. As a consequence of going to India the congregation became more widely known among bishops

Polish nation on pilgrimage in the form of a biblical book of piety. It is a sort of catechism of Christian and fraternal liberty, opposed to all oppression, and deeply ecumenical in spirit. Long popular in Poland, the work was translated into nearly all the languages of central-eastern Europe. The Polish Messianism

of Mickiewicz visibly expressed universal values, but his ardent patriotismwas fundamentally contrary to the aggressive nationalism of later generations. In spite of a positivist current which was very fashionable in the second half of the nineteenth century, with a scientism often much attenuated in the setting

small rumpof the Free Church (popularly knownas the'Wee Frees') refused to join the united church, feeling that this merger with an avowedly voluntaryist denomination was a betrayal of the national church principles on which the Disruption had occurred. In 1929 the United Free Church rejoined the Church

of Scotland in the context of a sequence of legislation between 1921 and 1933 that removed most of the remaining practical civil functions of the Church of Scotland, leaving establishment as merely a matter of symbolic and ceremonial function.66

and painstakingly interpreted by Ruskin, and later assumed quasi-iconic status amongstdevout Protestants thanks both toengravingsandto the largerversion painted by Hunt in 1899 which now hangs in St Paul's Cathedral. In 1864, after much debate, a scheme of mosaic decoration for the interior

of St Paul's Cathedralwas initiated. The eight spandrels of the domewere decorated with representations of the four evangelists by George FredericWatts (1817-1904) and of four major prophets by Alfred Stevens (1817-75).Work was not completed until c. 1891. The stylised, richly toned mosaics of 1892-6 in the

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 History and the Bible john rogerson The defeat of Napoleon in 1815 marked the end, from a British point of view,

of a significant episode in world history that had apparently been foretold in the Bible. According to Daniel 7:23-7, a fourth kingdom would arise which would war against the saints of the Most High for 'a time, two times, and half a time', after which it would be destroyed and be replaced by the everlasting

although the inevitability of class conflict is portrayed as 'a concept so contrary to reason and truth that it flies in the face of reality'. Mindful of Henry George, several pages are devoted to defending the right to private property which stands beside an elaborate and careful analysis of the excesses

of capitalism summed up in the trenchant words 'a monopoly of production and commerce has fallen into the hands of a small number of tycoons who have laid upon the teeming masses of the labouring poor a yoke little better than that imposed by slavery itself '.19 Leo objected to the manifold

popular rioting and passionate constitutional debates produced chronic political instability, especially between 1820 and 1850. Throughout these upheavals, the Catholic Church remained the established church in both Iberian countries. The republican revolution of 1910 in Portugal finally led to the separation

of church and state, an example imitated by the Second Republic in Spain in 1931. In the officially Catholic states of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, there were periods when the church appeared on the verge of disintegration. During the 1830s liberal governments in Madrid and Lisbon

rule and Swedish language and culture. DuringWorldWar II Finland lost a large part of its core territory, Karelia, to the Soviet Union. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 dag thorkildsen

of essential Christianity which would be impervious to rationalistic biblical criticism. In 1825 he found it in the Apostles' Creed. As long as Christianity had existed, people had been baptised and the faith in the Trinitarian God confessed. For this reason the church did not rest upon the Bible, but upon the

this reason the Nordic nation was to have a tremendously important mission in history, and he saw the Nordic nation in terms of 'a New Jerusalem'. In Sweden the concept of a national church did not have the same Nordic orientation and framework, and it was not combined with the same measure

of freedom as in Denmark. It was rather attached to a defence of the old politics of religious unity. The important church historian and conservative politician Henrik Reuterdahl (1795-1870), later archbishop of Uppsala, used the concept of a national church two years before Grundtvig. Later, as minister of

church, but alsowarned them about too easily accepting American notions like the separation of church and state as universal norms. This letterwas followed in 1899 by an encyclical, Testem Benevolentiae, which condemned 'Americanism' by name as the mistaken desire for the church to conform to the shape

of liberal, individualistic culture. American reactions were mixed, with some conservative bishops hailing the vindication of their cause,while other leaders of the American church like James Cardinal Gibbons (1834-1921) of Baltimore remained unfazed. Gibbons agreed that it was wrong to change the church's

The noisy responses to the Cologne Incident and the Genuflection Edict weresymptomsof the heightening of confessional tension in Germany. But like the 1844 pilgrimage to Trier, which brought roughly half a million Catholics from across Germany to viewthe Holy Robe, these affairs also fostered a sense

of national Catholic and Protestant community, thereby contributing to the Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Christianity and the creation of Germany revival of German nationalism. Still, the lines of confessional division were

States themselves.The papal reaction to thewhole revolutionary tradition and to the subsequent Risorgimento to create a united Italywhich annexed the States of the Church inspired the new or neo-Ultramontane movement to elevate the claims of the pope to govern the whole church, leading to the definition

of papal infallibility in matters of faith and morals at the First Vatican Council of 1869-70. Neo-Ultramontanism prevailed in the Catholic churches of the Mediterranean and Latin America, in opposition to liberal anticlericalism, as the hierarchies and clergy of Italy, Iberia, Latin America and even Gallican

given to its Irish counterpart.28 The Ecclesiastical Commission, as it came to be known, was to be responsible for a sequence of recommendations implemented by the subsequent Whig government, which reorganised dioceses, redistributed resources from cathedrals to parishes, and controlled the abuses

of pluralism and non-residence. It strengthened the church in the industrialising regions by creating new dioceses of Ripon (for western Yorkshire) and Manchester (for Lancashire), although the latter was not implemented until 26 J. Keble, National apostasy considered (Oxford, 1833), p. iii.

scope of anti-Catholic rhetoric by declaring Catholicism intellectually and morally backward, a viewthat Pius IX duly reinforced with the 1864 Syllabus of Errors. This anti-Catholicismbecameevenmore significant after 1859 with the onset

of the 'NewEra' in German politics. Capitalising on public dissatisfaction with clericalism, liberals throughout the Bund took power in the state parliaments and strove to reverse the previous decades' concessions to the churches. In Prussia, the Chamber of Deputies protected liberal Protestants like Adolf

conflict began with the Kulturkampf in the 1870s and lasted until the First World War. In the eastern provinces of Prussia, the anti-Catholic struggle was linked from its beginning with the politics of Germanisation, provoking both religious and national opposition; the conflict lasted even after the end

of the Kulturkampf because Berlin would not abandon its systematic anti- Polish politics. At the height of the conflict, the Polish archbishop of Gniezno, Mieczyslaw Ledochowski, was arrested in 1874 and then expelled; hundreds of priests followed him, and fifty convents were closed. The constant pressure

15 For the Taiping rebellion and its consequences for Christianity in China see chapter 30 below. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Catholic revivalism in worship and devotion

of the Philippines, or of the formerly Spanish territories in Latin America - does there appear to have been widespread support for the further spread of Catholicism. Despite the initially high hopes of some early nineteenth-century missionaries,

importance of the national movements, including their fundamental religious elements. The originality of the Polish experience In the context of central-eastern Europe, it is necessary to recall the originality

of the Polish national movement, involving the very notion of Poland and the Poles. The legacy of the 'political nation' of the Polish-Lithuanian federation remained alive throughout the nineteenth century. This idea embraced the very numerous multi-ethnic nobility - at least a million people, including

and among Catholics everywhere opposed to the seizure of the Papal States by the kingdom of Piedmont-Savoy between 1860 and 1870. Neo-Ultramontanism upheld the traditionally Ultramontane doctrines of the infallibility of papal teaching in faith and morals and the universal jurisdiction

of the Roman pontiff; it opposed the old Gallican theory, ascendant in the Catholic world before 1789, of an infallible authority restricted to general councils of thewhole church, and of independent national churches effectively controlled by kings and states and acknowledging only a titular papal primacy.

apocalyptic mood of the early twentieth-century mind has many precedents in the previous century. Art and theology were more explicitly related in the nineteenth century than ever before in the history of Christianity. Schleiermacher was at the centre

of the Romantic movement in Berlin; Tractarianism was forged in the atmosphere imbued with the nostalgia for medieval Christendom in the novels of Walter Scott; and Ruskin and Morris pursued the explicitly religious aesthetic of Novalis, Chateaubriand and Scott. Artistically the beginning of

and Congregationalists in the years before World War I. One of the leaders of that move was Nathanael Burwash (1839-1910), the foremost Methodist theologian and educator of his era, who in his last years helped craft the broadly evangelical platform that led after his death to the creation

of the United Church of Canada in 1925. Practices of North American Christianity Christian practice in North America often resembled that in Europe, whether because of common Protestant ancestry, immigrant ties linking Catholics and

Very similar reasons explain the rise of equivalent forms of voluntary religion in other parts of the world, but there were particular features of other lands that also call for discussion. In Scotland the extent of the similarity has often been obscured by the prevalence of Presbyterianism, so weak a force south

of the border. The established Church of Scotland was formally Calvinist in creed and organised in presbyteries where ministers and elders in secular employment sat as equals. Presbyterians, however, were by no means united during the nineteenth century. The previous century had given rise to the

this-worldly values by the so-called liberal theology of the late nineteenth century, the history of religions approach saw Jesus as an eschatological prophet, warning his generation about the imminent arrival of the kingdom of God, an event that would bring history to an end. Albert Schweitzer's The quest

of the historical Jesus (1906) put the case for understanding Jesus and his mission in this way with classic power. The form that Christianity took owed much to the non-fulfilment of this expectation, according to the apocalyptic approach.48

middle third of the nineteenth century and the significance of the rise in clerical recruitment in that period; thesamehappened in the Nonconformist churches. Yet in recent years it has been argued that the major churches engaged in overbuilding in the mid- to late-nineteenth century, so it is not surprising that some

of the new churches were less than half-full.45 Nevertheless, there is evidence of a falling away from religious practice altogether, particularly though not exclusively in towns. This became apparent through a failure to respond to the emphasis on more regular church attendance; but even the number of

A counterattack from the churchwas already underway. In a sermon in the University Church at Oxford on 14 July 1833 the leading High Churchman John Keble addressed the theme of 'national apostasy', with clear implicit reference to current events. When the Act passed he saw it as a ratification by the legislature

of the principle 'that the Apostolical Church in this realm is henceforth only to stand in the eye of the State, as one sect among many, depending for any pre-eminence she may still appear to retain, merely upon the accident of her 23 Brown, The national churches, pp. 150-4.

Rechfertigung und Vers¨ohnung (The Christian doctrine of justification and reconciliation, 1870-4) argued that Christian theology has to develop a genuine understanding of Christianity by using those documents which originated from the founding period of the church: the NewTestament as the sole source

of the revelation of God in Christ. Here Ritschl followed the definition of God as love in the Gospel of John.Thiswas seen by Ritschl as the definitive theme of the Christian doctrine of God. Ritschl linked this rejection of natural theology and patristic doctrinal developments with an assimilation of Kantian ethics.

frank coppa re-establish constitutional government, and pressed the pope to do so.28 The French catalogued the essential reforms, including an amnesty, a lawcode patterned on their own, abolition of the tribunal of the Holy Office, modification

of the rights of ecclesiastical tribunals in civilian jurisdiction, and granting the Consulta a veto on financial issues.29 These suggestions were coldly received by Antonelli. The papal retreat from the national programme spawned anticlericalism.

growth outside the state-supported churches in other parts of the British Isles, in the lands settled from Britain during the century and above all in the United States. Even on the continent of Europe, where state churches were far more persistent in asserting their monopoly of religion, there were the beginnings

of the spread of Christian groups similar to those so prominent in England. 1 Watts, Dissenters, p. 24. 2 Gilbert, Religion and society, p. 39. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

emphasis on the innate holiness of the poor and outcast merged well both with Romantic approval of the simple and childlike and with more prosaic institutional pressures to encourage lapsed Catholics, of whom the majority were thought to be working class, to return to the active practice of the 'faith

of their fathers'. The 'vulgar piety' which resulted tended, unsurprisingly, to be both more 'proletarian' and more 'feminine' than had been the case in the previous century. This was, after all, a time when working-class men - and especially

a distinctly French accent). McCarthy was also to design Catholic cathedrals for Derry, Monaghan and Thurles, the fac¸ade of the last being loosely derived from that of Pisa cathedral. The distinct preference for French over English Gothic precedent, evident in McCarthy's work, determined the architecture

of what might be described as the Irish cathedral in exile, the eclectic, twintowered St Patrick's, New York, designed in 1858 by James Renwick (1818-95). St Patrick's is imposing, and clearly proclaims the Catholic presence in New York, but there is a certain awkwardness about it, in part the consequence of

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 The growth of voluntary religion welfare services were launched so that philanthropy became less a monopoly of the churches. Politics seemed to offer a surer way of improving the lot

of workers than religion. Labour unions began to attract the allegiance of men who would have previously given the whole of their energy to their places of worship. All these trends were to gather force in the early years of the twentieth century, but already in the final decades of the nineteenth

inspired by the work of the Oxford philologist Max M¨uller (1823-1900) and adopted at G¨ottingen by a group of young theologians whose primus inter pares was Albert Eichhorn (1856-1926), made all religions part of a relativising process of evolution in which Christianity as well as more 'primitive' systems

of worship go back to a form of pre-religious magic - as argued by the Cambridge social anthropologist James George Frazer (1854-1941).27 In thisway, the non-essentialism of the 'Leben-Jesu-Forschung' (quest for the historical Jesus), from David Friedrich Strauss (1808-74) to Albert Schweitzer (1875-1965), was

Catholic presence. In December 1840 and January 1841, Mgr Charles de Forbin-Janson, co-founder of the Missionaires de France (later known as the Fathers of Mercy), conducted awell-attended mission that stressed the virtues of the sacraments. The most important local support for Forbin-Janson was

offered by Mgr Ignace Bourget (1799-1885), soon to be Montreal's second bishop. Over the next few years, revulsion against revolution, a widespread renewal of devotion and Bourget's dedicated leadership combined to create a powerful Catholic presence. Bourget stabilised the recruitment of priests,

led to a liberal Norwegian constitution, and a short war against Sweden, a new union between Norway and Sweden under one monarchy and with a common foreign policy was established. This lasted until 1905, when it was dissolved. While the former union with Denmark had made a strong impact

on Norwegian society, culture and church life, the union with Sweden was loose. Each country had its own ecclesiastical administration, and owing to an awakening national consciousness there was no wish for any unification of the churches and their separate traditions.

hostile to clericalism. Many others were indifferent or would say that their work gave them no time for religion, which was best left to women and children. And some had their faith tested for the first time. A Catholic from Galicia wrote home to say, 'Paco, on arriving in Buenos Aires I have learnt

on good authority that God does not exist.'6 On the other hand, practising Catholics from northern Italy, Germany and Ireland reinforced the faith and increased vocations. Demographically Argentina remained a Catholic country, and in 1910 Catholics comprised 92 per cent of the population; but numbers

series of articles and books beginning in 1831 and culminating in Christianity and the Christian church of the first three centuries (1853).35 Baur believed that early Christianity was formed out of a conflict between Paul on the one hand, who accurately understood the implications of the teaching of Jesus, and Peter

on the other, who represented a Jewish understanding of Christianity. This division, which split the church grievously, was healed only in the second century when writings such as Acts and the Epistles (with the exception of the four genuine Pauline letters, Romans, 1 and 2 Corinthians and Galatians)were

Real confrontation, a religious war involving the masses, broke out when the dominant states undertook operations in a new spirit of national aggression. This began in the Russian and Prussian zones in the 1830s, but the great decisive battles occurred from the 1860s and 1870s. Language was everywhere

one of the most difficult issues, the language of the catechism, sermons and chant. Everywhere, the Latin Catholic churches of the federation kept the same liturgy, with Polish saints and ceremonies and religious customs. Ecclesiastical buildings were full of the splendid memories of the glorious past.

the largest Russian zone. In the Prussian one, advantage was taken of the German theological faculties, often at a high level, but there were no centres for specifically Polish theological reflection. It was only with the universities of Cracow and Lvov that centres of this type were created, though not outstanding

ones. The deeper influence on the formation of Polish priests was probably through adaptations of newwestern theological thought in practical theology and social and pastoral reflection from the end of the nineteenth century.

denominations. Nineteenth-century female ministers were often relegated to rural or struggling congregations, charges that their male colleagues refused to take. And their right to ordination, once granted, did not mean that negative attitudes to women had changed, or that the denomination was suddenly

open to female ministry in general. Female ministers often found that they remained exceptions. They rarely became the rule. With all of this hostility, or at least ambivalence, towards women's ministry it is surprising that somanywomenactually chose it as a career.Whatsustained

himself was already contemplating disestablishment as likely to be necessary to preserve the spiritual integrity of the church, and for Newman and others alarm at state interference was eventually to contribute to their conversion to Roman Catholicism. For more conservative churchmen, however, such radical

options were unthinkable, and their energies rather were directed towards defending the continuing establishment of the Church of England. They were encouraged by events in 1834, when the government was first weakened by the resignations of four ministers, who would not countenance continued discussion

But there is a sense inwhich Barth's censure of liberal Protestant complacency was close in spirit to the polemics of de Maistre or Lamennais or Newman. Even outside the Protestant German contextwe can see the recognition of the need for a fresh response to apologetics. Figures such as de Maistre, Lamennais

or Newman, three quintessential individualists,were radical in their defence of authority and critique of secular individualism or 'liberalism'; but in fact they soaked up much of the spirit of the age, and felt its concerns keenly. Hence they are more prophetic than anachronistic and Newman and de Maistre in

of purpose, however, missionary enterprise could not but be influenced by the nineteenth-century assumptions of racial and cultural superiority arising in part from greater European wealth and power, especially towards Africans. That raised difficult issues aboutwhether tomakeindependent native churches

or churches controlled by Europeans, in a retreat from the optimism common early in the century about the innate Christian capacities of native peoples. Imperial white attitudes also produced by reaction 'Ethiopianism' as the hope for an intrinsically African formof Christianity, which would restore the black

But Methodists were far from the only energetic revivalists. Baptist success depended upon the labours of laymen who plied their trades during the week and turned to preaching on Sunday. As intense localists, Baptists usually required a public profession of faith before allowing participation in the

ordinances of baptism and the Lord's Supper. The commitment to believers' baptism, which had marked Baptists as sectarian in Britain, worked much more effectively in the mobile, expanding, and traditionless spaces of the new American nation. By the mid-1840s, there were more than three times the

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 janice holmes and susan o'brien that saw it lose ground only to gain it in new and diverse areas. Nor was this activity part of a unidirectional, whiggish progression towards the goal of full

ordination. In some circles, formal recognition ofwomen's public activitywas easily won, in others impossible to achieve. What does emerge is that nineteenth-centurywomenwhowere involved in public ministry had fundamentally similar experiences. Women's leadership

Portugal, they depended on what was in effect a parochial tax paid by their parishioners under government supervision. Whatever the formula used, the clergy became dependent on the state for their financial survival. This dependencywas reinforced by liberal policies with respect to the ecclesiastical

organisation. In Portugal, the constitution of 1822, the constitutional charter of 1826 and legislation of 1833 sawregalism in full blood by asserting the state's absolute right of control over the appointment of bishops, canons and parish priests.AHistorical Party ministry in 1862went even further by creating

Despite one or another grandiose and orchestrally unified movement like the Credo, it is poetical, subjective, lyric. It is Romanticized church music.'6 A similar tendency is exhibited in the sacred works of C´esar Franck, Guilmant, Piern´e,Widor and the gargantuan Messe solonelle of Vierne for choir and two

organs written for Saint-Sulpice. After the decline of Lutheran church music at the end of the eighteenth century, a revival inspired by Frederick William IV of Prussia's unification of the liturgy gave momentum to the churches and cathedrals in Berlin, and

Given the relative intellectual weakness of the priests engaged in pastoral service, the religious reflection of the cultural and intellectual elites became more important.The 'GreatEmigration' after the insurrection of 1830-1 valued and idealised Poland in Romantic fashion in the works of eminent poets and

original thinkers. The Messianism of this generation - Poland was portrayed as the 'Christ of the nations' - exalted the religious vocation of Poles as forever faithful to their religion. The great poet Adam Mickiewicz - recognised as a 'national prophet' by successive generations - published in 1832 A book of the

The second major source of female ministry in the early nineteenth century was the emergence of evangelicalism, a movement of religious ideas that stressed the importance of a personal conversion experience and adopted a pragmatic approach to church growth. Methodism, the most significant

outgrowth of the Evangelical Revival, gave women positive roles in its early days. JohnWesley encouraged a number of his English female acquaintances to preach, but he only considered it to be 'exceptional' activity.6 This ambivalence meant that an official female ministrywas difficult to sustain. By 1803Wesleyan

working-class and peasant women were themselves founders of new Roman Catholic congregations.As many as one third of French foundations, for example, were made bywomen from the peasant and lower classes, a phenomenon that was not unique to that country.32 Finally, the teaching apostolate rapidly

outstripped all the other apostolates of the congregations combined, so that the modern period has sometimes been known as the era of the teaching congregations.33 Bytheendof the nineteenth century the social agencyof religious sisterswas

were at hand for putting the Bible, and all manner of biblical interpretations, into the hands of the people at large. The result was a distinctly American attachment to Scripture. The American Bible Society, founded in 1816, by 1830was distributing annually

over 300,000 copies of the Bible (in whole or parts). Throughout the nineteenth century, American settlers regularly named their communities after biblical places, like Zoar, Ohio (Genesis 13:10) or Mount Tirzah, North Carolina ( Joshua 12:24), as well as forty-seven variations on Bethel, sixty-one

established both of the two principal imperial institutions - emperor and Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 anthony j. steinhoff constitution - without any reference to religion or divine grace. Nevertheless,

over the course of the Kulturkampf, the equation of Protestantism with German nationalism became routine not just for cultural Protestants, but for Protestant Germany in general. The anti-Catholic legislation did not itself change the minds of church authorities and conservatives. Rather, the shift stemmed

allowed to become deacons.22 The vast majority of Protestant denominations did not institute full ordination of women until the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s. Throughout the nineteenth-century transatlantic Protestantworld,women occupied a surprising degree of public leadership. This activity did not decline

over the course of the century, but was subject to a series of 'reinventions' 20 Walker, Pulling the devil's kingdom down, pp. 105-19. 21 Holmes, Religious revivals, ch. 4; Lenton, '"Labouring for the Lord"'. 22 Dayton and Dayton, '"Your daughters shall prophesy"', pp. 86-8.

rather - as in the English case - to have been precisely those devotions which had long been prized by the national community. The devotional evidence suggests that, while Catholic communities everywhere did indeed become more outwardly fervent, demonstrative and showy

over the course of the nineteenth century, they did not do so because ordered to do so by the Vatican. Rather than conform blindly to a Roman pattern, nineteenth-century Catholics - just like other sorts of Christians - were strongly affected by what might be thought of as a newly 'evangelical' or

American history. Yet these Protestants recognised no authority greater than the Bible for adjudicating disagreements over interpretations of Scripture. In 1860 such fundamental disagreement existed on what the Bible had to say about slavery that the churches were no help when the nation tore itself apart

over the issue. TheCivilWar itself offered great practical challenges to the churches,which were well met through the North's Christian Commission and, especially in the South, by a powerful surge of revival in the camps. The disintegration of

for 1868, was included as an Appendix to the 3rd edition of his Gospel of the Resurrection (London: Macmillan, 1874, pp. 249-76). See also his Social aspects of Christianity (London: Macmillan, 1887, p. xii). 31 B. Gregory, Side lights on the conflicts of Methodism . . . 1 827-185 2 (London: Cassell, 1898),

p. 318. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Christian social thought of alcohol be limited; in the event it was the First World War rather than

to clashes in parliament, but the Hungarian bishops behaved circumspectly towards both Rome and the government, and thereby ensured that the Old Catholic movement did not take root in Hungary. One consequence of the entrenched and turbulent relationship between

parliament and the Catholic Church was the drafting of a bill that included a whole set of newadministrative measures, amongst others the introduction of obligatory civil wedding ceremonies, the abolition of several church holidays, the change of legal status of religious orders from that of a single 'person' to

of the divine and finite conscious life which is overcome in religion. God is neither absolutely transcendent nor a purely immanent principle of the universe but a spiritualising progression at work within the world, which brings the world to its divine source and goal. Humanity's self-awareness of itself as

part of the divine self-consciousness is not a relatively static Spinozistic insight into the unified totality of reality but the result of a process of mediation of the divine and human. Because God is love and subject rather than substance (as in Spinoza) he is himself only in relation to theworld and vice versa. Christianity

reactionary outlook, many of them sympathetic to the extreme right-wing nationalist organisation Action Franc¸aise. At the same time, Rome vetoed the formation of a national assembly of French bishops and thus deprived them of the opportunity to develop a national forum in which to address the

particular challenges facing the church in theirowncountry. Finally, theVatican cracked down hard on intellectual tendencies within the French churchwhich it regarded with suspicion, condemning as heretical so-called 'modernism'. All told, the church was undoubtedly the loser in the French culture war.

to argue that Scripture supported slavery. This did not happen in Britain, but the fact that the antislavery campaign was led by evangelicals - notably WilliamWilberforce, but also others of the so-called 'Clapham sect' - meant that the appeal to Divine Providence by these Christian campaigners was

particularly significant. Legislation to abolish the slave trade in British ships was passed in 1807, and slavery was abolished in the British empire in 1833, news of this reaching Wilberforce a few days before he died. However, the system of indentured labour in the Caribbean which replaced slavery had several

rejected it as a Trojan horse designed to integrate Catholics into the liberal system.23 Later attempts to forge unity among Catholics, the Union Cat´olica in Spain (1881) and Uniao Cat´olica Portuguesa (1882) encountered 20 In both countries by the mid-1870s a system of alternating power between the principal

parties, now the Conservatives and Liberals in Spain, the Regenerators and the Progressives in Portugal, had come into being. Although constitutional and parliamentary in form, these governments were scarcely democratic. Elections were manipulated to produce the results desired by the politicians.

nation in Anglican terms was inevitably divisive, given the minority status of 5 Cf. Brown, The national churches, pp. 1-15. 6 Quoted in Clark, English society, p. 250. 7 W. Carus-Wilson, A sermon . . . on occasion of the death of . . . George III (Preston, 1820),

pp. 5-6. 8 See for example J. Morison, Patriotic regrets for the loss of a good king (London, 1820), p. 20. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 The religious identities of the United Kingdom

Evangelicals in the Church of Scotland had long been troubled by the ability of patrons, members of the social elite, to impose (or 'intrude') ministers of their choosing, often far from evangelical in their teaching, on unwilling congregations. In 1834 the highest authority in the church, the General Assembly,

passed an act allowing heads of families to veto the appointment of such a minister. In a series of court cases itwas established that this measure infringed the secular law of Scotland, but the evangelicals, now called non-intrusionists, would not acquiesce. They demanded that the House of Lords should reverse

used plants and animals. Geology now provided a new range of facts that exemplified adaptation and contrivance. In particular palaeontology, with its extinct and unfamiliar forms of life, enriched the canon of design examples by adding new, in some instances bizarre, organic forms from the geological

past. Yet the close relationship between religion and science that had existed in natural theology dissolved in stages, and the language of providential design disappeared from scientific discourse in a process of the secularisation of the

century and the growth of the Moravians in the mid-eighteenth century. Both pietists and Moravians also exercised significant influence at the Prussian court in the early nineteenth century. But the influencewent beyond the court. In the Reformed parishes of the Lower Rhine andWestphalia there was a significant

pastoral awakening in the 1820s, especially in Elberfeld and Barmen. G. D. Krummacher (1774-1837) and his son F. W. Krummacher (1796-1868) filled their churches in Elberfeld, Ruhrort and Barmen on Sundays and weekdays, with extensive distribution of Bibles and tracts. A similarmovementwas found

approach, in the use of narrative and the balance between breadth and depth of analysis, though all contributors claim the kind of unity of subject indicated in their titles. As the chapters are intended to be read as self-sufficient entities, there is also an overlap of subject matter, as in the various discussions of social

patterns of religious practice; in the two accounts of the Scottish Disruption, seen from different angles; in the chapters on the papacy and the Risorgimento; and in the matter of the Irish Catholic diaspora,which has its own chapter and Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

If politics worked in the long term in the church's favour, its mission was even, arguably, assisted by the Famine, in which more than a million people died, and more than a million emigrated. This last phenomenon produced in turn further emigration and a declining population,which fell from a recorded

peak in 1841 of over 8 million to under 412 million by 1921, turning a worsening ratio of religious professionals to people into an improving one, while less seriously affecting the better-off farming families who were the principal

20 Hope, German and Scandinavian Protestantism, pp. 497-508, 524. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Popular religion and irreligion in countryside and town emigrated, mainly to North America.21 By contrast in Italy and the Iberian

peninsula Protestant churches were very rare: the Waldensians in the Alpine valleys hung on to a precarious existence in the early nineteenth century, and Protestants only appeared in Spain from the 1830s as a result of the influence of the British and Foreign Bible Society. In France the areas with a significant

Roman Catholic population. In 1834 the Rev. Edward Nangle established a Protestant mission on Achill Island, off the coast of County Mayo, which enjoyed some success until it stirred vigorous resistance from the Roman Catholic Church. Another Protestant colony was established on the Dingle

peninsula in County Kerry.46 A wider movement was launched in 1849 with the formation of the Irish Church Missions to Roman Catholics. It had some limited impact, as indicated for example by the claim of the bishop of Tuam in 1852 that he had confirmed 837 converts during the preceding three years,47

2 Recorded in shorthand note in Morley (ed.), Henry Crabbe Robinson, vol. i, p. 87. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 andrew sanders of 1838), and of one major one, Christina Rossetti (1830-94). Rossetti, who is

perhaps best known as the author of 'In the bleak midwinter', published a wide range of religious writing, in both verse and prose. Although her secular writing has attracted more critical attention, her specifically Christian poetry is marked by a delicacy, an observation and a challenging directness. John

andwhowas the greatest scientific authority in opening up the newviewof the geological past,was influenced by Deluc's schema and himself wrote a kind of treatise of reconciliation in the formof a Discours pr´eliminaire (1811) to his major work on the osteology of fossil vertebrates (1812), arguing that the principal

periods of earth history had been determined by global catastrophes.13 Many other naturalists with an interest in geology and palaeontology followed suit, especially in Britain - Joseph Townsend (1739-1816), James Parkinson (1755- 1824), JohnKidd (1775-1851), Gideon AlgernonMantell (1790-1852),HughMiller

Christianity is the perfect spiritual and ethical religion on the basis of the life of its founder which serves as the basis for the Kingdom of God. Like Kant, Ritschl saw the idea of God as a practical rather than as a theoretical object of thought, and in his Theologie und Metaphysik (1881) was reliant upon Lotze, his

philosophical colleague at G¨ottingen. The latter distinguished between judgements of 'Being' (Seinsurteilen) and judgements of 'Value' (Werturteilen). The furious rejection of metaphysics in modern Protestantism has its foundation in Ritschl, even if it found its culmination in Karl Barth.

david bebbington Voluntary religion became a major feature of the nineteenth-century global landscape. The parameters of the movement can usefully be appreciated in the first

place by a close examination of the scene in England andWales,much ofwhich was reflected elsewhere. The denominational diversity of English and Welsh Nonconformity was immense. The connexion of Methodist societies formed by John Wesley, organised under a Conference of its leading preachers, was

among Anglicans and some other Protestants therewas a shift away from the post-Reformation pattern of celebrating Holy Communion only three or four times a year. Evangelicals introduced monthly communions in the early nineteenth century, and the weekly communion later appeared in many

places under the influence of the Oxford Movement, even though it tended to be at 8.00 a.m. and did not usually displace Mattins as the normal morning service.36 A new liturgy was introduced in Sweden in 1811, and in Bavaria (including the Palatinate) in 1818. The new liturgy of the Evangelical Union

nuns) was rejected by the Jesuit periodical, The Month, in 1875 and it, like the Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Christianity and literature in English rest of Hopkins's verse, remained unpublished until long after his death. The

poems found a ready audience in the years following the Great War, when they seemed more in tune with the spirit of modernism than with theworld of Victorian Catholic piety that produced them. Hopkins's feeling both for God and for God in Nature are, however, informed by a strict theology and by an

Switzerland and the Netherlands Church, as it was using the Reformed Church in the North, as an extension of its power structure, especially when it wanted to reform education, much of which was run by the clergy in the southern provinces. Resistance to such

policies became one of the main reasons for the Revolution of 1830, which separated the present-day countries of Belgium and the Netherlands. In the 1830s Dutch Catholics were obliged to keep a low profile because of their association with the southern rebels, but with the accession in 1840 of King

opposition peers. There were some hopes that after the 1832 Reform Act was law, the position of the Church of England would be changed; certainly there were significant political demands by Nonconformists, though few were met in full. Only a fewBritish Christianswere to be found backing the most radical

political demands of the People's Charter, though therewere sufficient to form a Christian Chartist movement. Yet even the Primitive Methodist Church, which probably had a higher proportion of working-class members than any other Nonconformist group, applied its 'no politics' rule consistently. The

who kept the faith alive while the bishops struggled to raise clerical numbers and standards. In Bolivia, where in 1850 the clergy were 50 per cent fewer than in 1800, the church was served by priests who were as diverse in training as they were in dedication. As elsewhere in Latin America they suffered from a

poor public image, and were criticised for living with women and using parish funds for their own benefit. In Mexico, in contrast to South America, statistics tell a story of more vigorous life. After the losses at independence, the number of clergy remained

church's interests. Piuswas, however, already ill with a neck abscess at his election, and after a pontificate of just over a year and a half, he died in November As the conservative Leo succeeded the moderate Pius VII andwas followed by the moderate Pius VIII, so Pius was succeeded by the most conservative

pope of the nineteenth century, the Camaldolese monk Bartolomeo (in religion Mauro) Cappellari who took the name Gregory XVI (1765-1846; ruled 1831-46). An inveterate snuff-taker - it gave rise to a facial tumour - Cappellari was a hale and vigorous old man, whose theology had always been

expansion all but unprecedented in themodernhistoryof Christianity. Inanera of break-neck population growth (United States, from 8,400,000 to 99,100,000; Canada, from about 600,000 to about 8,000,000), rates of church adherence increased evenmore rapidly - in the United States from under one-fourth of the

population to over two-fifths, and in Canada from an even smaller proportion at the start of the period to an even higher proportion at the end. Yet this era was just as noteworthy for how innovatively religion was being organised as for how rapidly the churches were growing. Christian believers in the United

whole of Norden Luther's Minor Catechism and various explanations of it, including numerous Bible quotations, formed the basis of religious education as a summary of the Bible and Christian faith. But the nineteenth century's nation-building and modernisation required another type of education of the

population. People needed a new type of knowledge to participate in the progress of society, and society needed a new 'glue' to replace religion. For this reason reform of the educational systems played an important role in the growth of nationalism in the nineteenth century. Through these systems the

a complete set of negotiating mechanisms between the pillars, and remained so long a segregated society, until the 1960s.The confessional groups used their increasing electoral power towards the end of the nineteenth century, fuelled by the enfranchisement of the lower middle classes, in order to protect their

position against the power of the secular state. While Dutch Calvinist leaders before the 1870s strove towards a Christianisation, or re-Christianisation, of the whole of Dutch society, later ones such as Abraham Kuyper (1837-1920) did not expect total victory. By the last decade of the nineteenth century, he

Protestant publicists, reviving the nationalist rhetoric of the early 1800s, asserted that German culturewas a particularly Protestant creation.Thus Germany would have to have a Protestant head. Otto von Bismarck, who became Prussian minister-president in 1862, only encouraged this undermining of Austria's

position as he plotted to make Prussia the master of German Europe. Not surprisingly, given this constellation of forces and Prussia's support for the antipapal Italian state, German Catholics in the 1860s backed Austria and the großdeutsch nation-state. But as conflict between Prussia and Austria loomed

in religion as an indispensable cohesive force. He mounts a visceral attack on any domestication of Christianity. In his Philosophical fragments of 1844 Kierkegaard employed the figure of the Platonic Socrates to exemplify the position that humanity is already in

possession of truth and only requires reminiscence. Here the real object of his attack was the Hegelian assumption that the finite has access to the infinite. This, Kierkegaard argued, is quite incompatible with the Christian doctrine of human sinfulness, and that the historical Christwas eternal consciousness that

absenteeamongabolitionists.The secular clergy, convents and religious orders owned slaves and were among the various interest groups sustaining a slave society. It is true that some set an example. In 1866 the Benedictines, owners of some 2,000 slaves, freed all children henceforth born to female slaves in their

possession, an important precedent at the time. After the Rio Branco Law of 1871, the so-called law of free birth, the Benedictine and Carmelite orders freed their slaves, several thousand in all. And individual priests campaigned for Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

the Free Church of Vaud was set up. From the mid-nineteenth century, liberal theology became the dominant strain in Swiss Protestantism, aiming 11 See Altermatt, 'Religion, Staat und Gesellschaft in der Schweiz'; Mattioli (ed.), Antisemitismus, especially: Mattioli, 'Die Schweiz und die j¨udische Emanzipation 1798-1874',

pp. 61-82; Pascal Krauthammer, Das Sch¨achtverbot in der Schweiz 1854-2000: die Sch¨achtfrage zwischen Tierschutz, Politik und Fremdenfeindlichkeit (Zurich: Schulthess, 2000). 12 See Fatio, 'Die protestantischen Kirchen', pp. 215-19;Olivier Fatio, 'Auseinandersetzungen und Aufbru¨che', in Vischer et al. (eds.), O¨ kumenische Kirkengeschichte, pp. 236-46; Pfister,

the faithful. During the course of 1826, hemoved away from Lamennais's idealistic notion of relying on the devotion of the Catholic masses towards the more realistic support of the armies of the conservative powers. In mid-March, he denounced the masons and other secret societies, renewing the decrees of his

predecessors against them. CardinalTommaso Bernetti ventured toVienna, St Petersburg, Paris and Berlin, assuring these governments that Leo renounced 2 Brady, Rome and the Neapolitan revolution, p. 13. 3 Reinerman, 'Metternich and the papal condemnation', pp. 60-9.

The pope's subjects demanded more, calling upon him to launch a war of national liberation against Austria. In response, Pius allowed his ministers to appeal to the Turin government to provide a military man to organise a papal military force. 'The events which these two months have seen succeeding and

pressing on each other with so rapid change are not the work of man', Pius announced to the people of Italy in an address of 30 March.22 These words appeared to foreshadowan active papal involvement in the national crusade to liberate Italy, seemingly confirmed by the movement of his troops northward.

conflicts of the revolutionary era.6 At the height of the Ralliement, in the mid- 1890s, many of the Breton clergy refused to follow the lead of either Leo XIII or their bishops in their search for accommodation with the Republic and resorted to all kinds of devices - including pressure in the confessional - to

prevail on their parishioners to support Catholic schools against state schools. Even before the Ralliementwas scuppered by the reverberations of the Dreyfus Affair, it failed to make much headway at grassroots level. Prominent ralli´es like de Mun, Piou and Lamy were all defeated in the elections of 1893, while

its devotional arsenal towards personal acts of piety, which reflected the individualist orientation of liberal society. This devotional resurgence may have established the church's influence among those already committed to the faith. There are few indications that it made headway against the religious indifference

prevailing in the southern estate lands or among workers in industrial towns. According to a Portuguese observer in 1906: 'excepting some regions of the north, where the people conserve the custom of daily mass . . . in the rest of the country churches are nearly empty'.35 In one town of the Alentejo

over the question of episcopal appointments. Anticlerical parliamentarians, including the leading socialist Jean Jaur`es, took Combes at hisword and seized the opportunity to force through a Separation Bill which became law on 9 December 1905. It was a unilateral act on the part of the state, motivated

primarily by a desire to break the power of the church as a political force. By the terms of the Separation Law, the state ceased to pay the salaries of the clergy (and of pastors and rabbis). Church property was to be transferred to associations cultuelles, representative bodies made up of parishioners from

for the inculcation of the muscular Christianity, rather different from Eric's, of the cold shower and the straight bat. A major Victorian literary influence on twentieth-century Christian writers was the visionary ex-Congregational minister George MacDonald, who in The princess and the goblin (1872) and The

princess and Curdie (1883) could be said to have created the modern genre of fantasy. Charlotte Bront¨e's Jane Eyre (1847) can be seen as a study of conscience in an explicitly Protestant, Christian context. The late-century agnostic reaction

communities to change their habits of devotion and worship. 'Conversion' in this sense could mean little more than going to Mass more often; making more public displays of faith; joining exclusively Catholic societies; and incorporating newor newly recommendeddevotions and pious practices, both public and

private, into one's daily routine. Since Protestant revivalist techniques were havingmuch the same effect on their own communities at just about the same time, it is not clear that this representedmuch more than a change in religious fashion, a general shift from the more gentlemanly style of piety held to have

crown rights of the Redeemer. The situation in France was not of Pius's making, and the best writing on this subject balances both sides. Not so with Modernism, also in origin French. The most famous of the Catholic Modernists was the priest,

professor and biblical scholar Alfred Loisy. Loisy couched his most celebrated book, The Gospel and the Church, of 1902, as a reply to the Protestant Harnack. What we have in the Scriptures, said Loisy, is a proclamation of the church's faith in Christ, and Protestants have always been wrong, in separating

the situation was more complicated because of the existence of Protestant Nonconformists, as well as Roman Catholics, alongside the established churches of England and Scotland. Roman Catholics, for example, had a traditional strength in north-west England, before their geography was changed

profoundly by Irish immigration, particularly after 1840. The pattern of distribution of Methodism, in its various forms, was different from that of the Old Dissent of Presbyterians, Independents and Baptists, partly because Methodists had concentrated on areas where Dissent was weak, and partly because they

in the 1860s,when the lay majority on the organising committeewere replaced by clergy, led by Vilhelm Beck (1829-1901), growing from four missionaries in 1862 to forty-four in 1867, and 158 by the end of the century.29 In both Germany andDenmarkthe tension between a relatively conservative revivalist

programme and a potentially more radical social policy rapidly became clear. The standard criticism of such efforts is that theywere primarily 'ambulance work'; they left the underlying causes of the social problems untouched. But Christianswere aware of the alternative secular socialist solutions put forward

john molony and david m. thompson sanction, and there is no need for human laws to conformto the Natural Law or to receive obligatory force from God.' The rejection of the idea that 'the Roman Pontiff can and should reconcile himself and reach agreement with

progress, Liberalism and recent departures in civil society' caused widespread unease, then and since, despite the attempt by John Henry Newman and others to explain the temporary and localised nature of the concerns addressed by the Syllabus.6

Belgium, Italy, England and Holland in the middle decades of the century. An involvement in teacher education followed on quite naturally, with congregations such as the German School Sisters of Notre Dame, the French La Sainte Union sisters and the Belgian Sisters of Notre Dame de Namur becoming

prominent in teacher training in several countries and playing an important part in the development of newpedagogic methods. Through thiswork sisters influenced large numbers of Catholic young women who were trained and formed by them, a proportion of whom entered the religious life, and others

evangelicals embraced a more ecumenical approach to gospel work and demonstrated a greater willingness to use lay agents, including women, to achieve their conversionist goals. Throughout the 1860s, female evangelists like Mathilda Bass, Isabella Armstrong and Mrs Col. William Bell featured

prominently in the pages of the movement's most influential periodical, The Revival. These women were, for the most part, married, middle class and from denominations without a tradition of female ministry, like the Church of England, the Church of Scotland and the Baptists. Their preaching was so

allow the bills to be passed by parliament after two infusions of Pair-Schub, and even to give his assent to them. The laws that were passed (GA xxxi, xxxii, xxxiii of 1894, and xlii of 1895) related to the introduction of obligatory civil marriage and the maintenance of registers, the possibility of divorce, and the

promise of Catholic baptism and upbringing for children of mixed marriages (Reversale), together with the official proclamation of Judaism as a recognised religion. This great defeat suffered by the Catholic Church in parliament and in

the ecclesiastical organisation by reducing the number of dioceses and parishes. The Spanish concordat of 1851 provided for a consolidation joining small dioceses to larger ones and a reduction in parish numbers. This plan was never realised because of clerical resistance and government reluctance to

promote changes certain to arouse strong local opposition. Portuguese governments were more successful, although a parochial consolidation carried 7 Quoted in Sim´on Segura, La desamortizaci´on espa˜nola, p. 85. The ReverendW. M. Kinsey noted in 1829 that 'the enlightened classes' in Portugal desired a 'change in the monastic

financed the stipends of the city ministers. The town council attempted to resolve the problem by reducing the number of clergy, but, led by Thomas Chalmers and the other evangelicals who gained control of the ruling General Assembly in 1834, the church responded with a vigorous campaign to

promote extension, building churches and creating new quoad sacra (ecclesiastical) parishes. Between 1834 and 1841 £305,000 was raised by voluntary subscriptions and 222 new churches were erected in Scotland, a noteworthy achievement. Like its English counterpart, however, the campaign was in 1838

the moral law, and saw it as a handmaiden of Revelation. The church could do so because it believed that the natural law is written in the human heart by God and can be known by the use of reason. Therefore, when the popes began to teach on the rights of the family, and on the right to possess private

property and to association, the basis for the existence of the state, they claimed that reason could deduce such rights from the natural law. This appeal to the natural law is vital to the cogency of the papal encyclicals, because the church argues that its social teachings are valid for everyone, irrespective of belief in

future of the Church of England lay in the acceptance of considerable internal theological and liturgical diversity. The trend was confirmed after the passing in 1874 of the Public Worship Regulation Act, intended to control ritualism. In practice, however, prosecutions of ritualists under this measure

proved too divisive and counterproductive for bishops to continue to allow them.70 The internal variety, and hence multifaceted appeal, of the Church of England was one key reason for its success in averting the disestablishment that

individual theologians or groups within the churches. Here it is easier to find clearly articulated positions; it is more difficult to estimate how representative such views might be of the broader Protestant constituency. Two issues were inherited from the eighteenth century. The first was the

question of slavery, particularly in the United Kingdom. Here evangelical Christians were to the fore in campaigning against the slave trade and later slavery itself. The second was the French Revolution and democracy. Established Protestant churches showed little sympathy for the Revolution, but

manners, superior taste and, in a word, respectability. It was accompanied by a reluctance to bring sins out into public view and consequently the abandonment of church discipline. No longerwas drunkenness or bankruptcy brought before the gathered saints for the church to adjudicate; instead the matter was

quietly remitted to the minister for pastoral guidance. Even death became unmentionable. Whereas in the mid-century the denominational magazines were full of the last words of dying Christians, by the 1880s the practice had been dropped because it grated on the feelings. Attendance at the theatre,

'missionary' tone, a broad shift in taste and mood which affected Catholics and Protestants alike, and which led almost every Christian denomination earnestly to launch its own, distinctive 'revival' while simultaneously redoubling efforts to proselytise among the lapsed or indifferent within its own

ranks. While the Catholic Revival made Catholics superficially seem more distinctive and denominationally exclusive than they had during the eighteenth century, it also underlined the degree towhich Catholic communities, just like Protestant ones, were becoming more strident, flamboyant and demotic at a

as Christian subjects. At the end of the century the concept of the people had become far more complex. They had become responsible citizens, an authoritative laity, an organised people, a national people, a people consisting of classes. These changes affected the system of state churches. At the same

rate as government of the state was democratised, so was the government of the church. Democratic government by the people superseded absolutist government by the prince, which also had consequences for an understanding of what the church was. It should be a church for and of the people, a

respect for sisterhoods in England. One serious limitation on the health service provided by Roman Catholic sisters was the decree from Rome in 1860 that midwifery was incompatible with the vow of chastity, a ruling that they were unable to reverse until 1936. This apart, which was a matter of obedience

rather than choice or mission preference, sisters were clearly at the forefront of the development of nursing and allied health care as a semi-professional field for women, at least until the 1880s. Training in health care was of Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

that presented in the Bible was not a problem for Smith. Rather, it enabled the Old Testament to regain the respect of intelligent readers, and it confirmed Smith's belief that 'the Bible history [was] no profane history, but the story of God's saving self-manifestation'.27 It was, incidentally, also Colenso's faith

rather than his scepticism that made him become such a fearsome biblical critic. As a missionary to the Zulu people, biblical criticism, along with recent scientific discoveries, meant that he did not have to make his converts believe that the world had been created in 4004 bc, that woman was created from the

been praised and disseminated by Edward McGlynn, a Roman-trained priest based in New York. McGlynn was more forthright than George and asserted that 'land is legitimately the property of the people in general and its private ownership is contrary to natural justice'. Cardinal Camillo Mazella, having

read George's works, recommended that a pontifical document should address the 'censurable teachings' of George and 'others like them'.15 McGlynn was excommunicated and George's works put on the Index of Prohibited Books, despite the appeal for prudence by Cardinal James Gibbons of Baltimore.

teaching ran thus. Church and state are distinct, each divine in origin and sovereign in its own particular sphere. Whether Christian or pagan, the state derives its sanction from God. Democracy is as tolerable as other forms of government as long as it acknowledges its divine foundation and the special

realm of sovereignty of the church. States are bound by the natural law, which requires controls on the expression of moral and religious error. Ideally, in a Christian society, education and the regulation of public morals belong to the church, while the family is, as much as church and state, a sacred institution,

of the 1840s (committed to the restoration of the moderate 1826 constitutional charter), Costa Cabral, minister of justice and ecclesiastical affairs, promoted negotiations with the papacy and sought to end the cisma of the 1830s by allowing bishops and priests excluded from their positions for political

reasons to return to their posts.19 In Spain, the Moderate Party, in control of the government between 1843 and 1854, ended the radical ecclesiastical schemes of General Espartero and opened negotiations with Pope Pius IX, which culminated in the 1851 concordat. This shift in the political winds should be kept

back to the Reformation and Renaissance. Orthodox Protestantism shared a basic doctrinal content with pre- and post-Tridentine Catholicism. The Romantic revolt was in the traditions of radical Protestantism - Socinianism and Spiritualism - inwhich a climate of radical questioning of tradition and

received authority could develop, since here the writers concerned could sincerely appeal to biblical and patristic sources for their Socinianism or Arianism. One of the major challenges of the Enlightenment period was the claim that doctrinal Christianity is not just false but immoral. In Mary Shelley's deeply

Baur. On the other hand, the importance of the division between Paul and 'Jewish' Christianity in the formation of the early church cannot be denied. In practice Lightfoot, and later Westcott, defended the authorship of John's Gospel by the disciple John the son of Zebedee, with obvious implications for

reconstructing the lifeof Jesus.38 Amore radical contribution to scholarshipwas thework ofWestcott and Hort on the textual criticism of the NewTestament, work which drew on such things as the discovery of Codex Sinaiticus by Constantin Tischendorf in 1844.39 Their The New Testament in the original Greek

a vast influence on the church in the twentieth century, especially canon 329, which reserved the appointment of bishops to the Holy See. The changes, moreover, were also pastoral. From 1906, there was a painstaking reform of the education and discipline of the seminaries. Pius reformed the Breviary by

reducing the number of psalms for recitation by a quarter, and insisting on the priority of Sundays over saints' days in the calendar. The encyclical Acerbo Nimis of 1905 urged the faithful teaching of Christian doctrine through the catechism. The pope issued a new catechism for the province of Rome, later

the 1830s onwards, is an expensively confident expression of the last fling of neo-Classicism. The second,Westminster Cathedral in London, completed in 1903 for the newly established Catholic metropolitan diocese, is in the neo- Byzantine style. The architecture of both buildings self-consciously avoids

reference to the most commonly employed Christian style of the nineteenth century: the Revived Gothic. Indeed, the two structures are demarcating poles separated by the great mid-century attempt to rival the artistic achievement of the Christian Middle Ages.

Kirchengeschichte, pp. 251-9; G¨abler, 'Erweckungsbewegungen'. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 u. altermatt, f. metzger and m. wintle at the integration of new religious perspectives with modernity. Within this

reformist tradition of theology, Zurich and Berne became the predominant centres. In Zurich, influenced by Schleiermacher and Hegel, the two systematic theologians Alexander Schweizer and Alois Emanuel Biedermann became the leaders. In 1871 liberal Protestant associations were united in the SchweizerischerVerein

Nation, nationalism and national identity Nationalism is an ideology or a principle, inwhich the political and the cultural parts should agree. The political ambition of a nation is independence or domestic self-government, while its cultural aspiration is moral and national

regeneration on the basis of a national and historical distinctive character.1 The main problem when nationalism became a strong political force during the nineteenth century, altering the map of Europe,was, however, that almost no European state matched such goals, because they were composite states.

Leo became part of the ethos of some legislators indicates the widespread influence of the encyclical in the decades after its publication. In parts of Europe there was considerable opposition among large industrialists, including Catholics, to those sections of Rerum Novarum that set down the proper

relations between capital and labour. This does not mean that the encyclical was premature but, given the widespread opposition, the true wonder is that it was not stillborn. Although Leo was not formally its author, Rerum Novarum could never have been written and published without his steely

false; but in significant respects the Adventist movement gained a kind of respectability within the nineteenth-century church. Joseph Smith, on the other hand, by claiming to have had visions of biblical stories transferred to a New World setting, lost more in terms of orthodoxy than he gained in

relevance; yet the subsequent success of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter- Day Saints makes it still a puzzle to classify in relation to orthodox Christianity. Moreover, the emigration of the majority of English Mormons to the USA in the early 1850s when the state of Utah was being established means

poor funds, usually collected at communion services, for distribution to the needy of the congregation. Assistance could become amuch more elaborately planned affair. When, in 1862, the American CivilWar threw men out of work in the Lancashire cotton districts, the Baptist Union set up a special fund to

relieve the distress of their families.15 The chapels increasingly provided a range of activities to train the masses inways of health, frugality and civilisation. Mission halls at the end of the century offered provident clubs, penny banks, boys' 14 Davies et al. (eds.), Methodist Church, vol. iv, p. 559.

professor of medicine Martyn Paine (1794-1877) affirmed that the human soul is an independent, immortal, spiritual entity, adding an essay on the 'physiology of the soul' to a major, creationist reconciliation schema of 'Genesis and geology'.43 Literature on the issue was abundant, not only because of the

religious aspects, but also because the questions of mind and soul impinged on the emerging field of psychology. Yet the combined authority of Owen, Wagner and other Christian scientists failed to win the day. The materialists declared themselves the winners, and like the language of providential design

Catholicism. There was, however, a price to pay for the narrowing of the gap between learnedand popular religion,namely animmensewidening of the gapbetween believers and non-believers, the more so because some of the newer forms of

religious enthusiasm appeared to have close links with reactionary politics. The cult of the Sacred Heart, long a favourite of the Jesuits and a banner of royalist and Catholic resistance to the Revolution in the Vend´ee in the 1790s, was explicitly adopted by militant Catholics as their symbol of a Catholic, as

charities for the local poor.The newdevelopments ranged from soup kitchens, and the provision of linen for pregnant women and new mothers, to church schools for the children of the poor. By the mid-century many urban Anglican (particularly evangelical) parishes had a range of such organisations which

remained important for the rest of the century. The larger urban Nonconformist churches developed the same pattern, though this was mainly after 1850. The Church of Scotland, the Free Church of Scotland and the United Presbyterian church also had similar structures.

the so-called 'religious question', but there was no return to the radical ecclesiastical policies of the past, a change symbolised by the presence of bishops as senators in the parliaments of both countries.20 Support for Carlism in Spain and hostility towards liberalism in Portugal

remained strong among priests and some bishops throughout the nineteenth century. But as early as the 1840s, the recognition dawned among more pragmatic clerics that the church needed to redefine its position in view of liberalism's political dominance and to adapt religious activities to the new realities

their social teaching precisely because the truths contained in the encyclicals could be known by human reason. In the turbulent years that led to the loss of the Papal States, the popes were principally concerned to argue against those whom they regarded as

responsible for the woes of the church. Thus Pius VII (1800-23), in his encyclical Diu Satis (1800), reminded such transgressors that all attempts made to overthrow the 'House of God' would be in vain.2 Leo XII (1823-9) argued against religious indifferentism in his Ubi Primum (1824) and Pius VIII (1829-30)

to liberate it is but a 'd´estruction violente de l'esp`ece humaine'. In the wake of the Revolution Christianity and secular philosophy were at war.7 John Henry Newman was explicit in sharing de Maistre's contempt for liberalism: 'liberalism is the mistake of subjecting to human judgement those

revealed doctrines which are in their nature beyond and independent of it, and of claiming to determine on intrinsic grounds the truth and value of propositions which rest for their reception simply on the external authority of the DivineWord'.8

prophecy received its most influential formulation in a Bible annotated by a lawyer turned minister, C. I. Scofield (1843-1921). A third important strand of American Protestantism was associated with themes of holiness as defined by Phoebe Palmer and, with some variation, the

revivalist Charles G. Finney. Free Methodists, Wesleyan Methodists and the National Campmeeting Association for the Promotion of Christian Holiness (1867) had kept those emphases alive and nurtured a resurgence of interest at the end of the century. In pursuit of holiness as a goal of Christian life and

Its sumptuous interior is marked by a large semi-circular apse and stained glass windows designed by William Morris, Burne-Jones, Clayton and Bell, and the American artist John La Farge. La Farge also provided the painted decorative scheme for the walls and the handsome double-curved timber

roofs. In France the Gothic Revival was as rooted in precedent, and as fired by Romanticism, as it was in England. It also took on a nationalistic tendency, partly out of concerntoproclaim the continuity ofmodernFrench Catholicism

its members locally did not distance themselves from the church. Church leaders generally emphasised their opposition to the atheism of socialism - one of the few who took a more positive attitude was Nathan S¨oderblom (1866- 1931), later archbishop of Uppsala. In fact, Christian socialism never really took

root in Sweden. Holland also provided a generally conservative picture. The most liberal social ideas in the early nineteenth century were found among the Roman Catholics (who were the majority in the united kingdom after 1814), and after

the Church of Ireland, which in 1834 was supported by only 10.7 per cent of the people, while Roman Catholics made up four-fifths of the population.9 Here the logic of the church-state connection was translated into the spirit of Protestant ascendancy, which maintained that Ireland must continue to be

ruled by Protestants if it was to maintain its Union with Britain. Initial plans after the Union to emancipate Catholics, giving them the same civil rights as Protestants, including crucially entitlement to sit in parliament,were thwarted by the opposition of King George III, who believed that such a concession

most revivalist, the Old School most resistant and the NewSchool in between. Although the Old and New Schools reunited in 1869, a fresh schism between the Northern and Southern sections of Presbyterianism arose from the Civil War.The Catholic presencewas regularly augmented from Ireland.TheAmerican

scene, however, did differ from that in the British Isles in two significant respects.On the one hand immigrants from continental Europe brought their own Christian traditions, especially of the Lutheran and Mennonite families. On the other America proved fertile soil for new religious bodies, generating

Among the lay followers of Lamennais, the outstanding figure was the count of Montalembert,who with the count of Falloux and others in the 1840s formedthemselves into a pressure group, the parti catholique, to seek to end the state'smonopoly rights in the sphereof education, particularly at the secondary

school level. As political liberals, however, these Ultramontanes increasingly found themselves at odds with the predominant tendency in the Ultramontane movement, notably on the clerical side, to identify with legitimism, all the more so after 1836 when the new Pretender, the count of Chambord, sought

and edited with notes by the RightRev. J.W. Colenso,D.D. Bishop of Natal (London: Longmans, Green, 1865). See Rogerson, 'British responses to Kuenen's pentateuchal studies'. 25 See Rogerson, Old Testament criticism, pp. 258-9. 26 J. Wellhausen, Geschichte Israels, 2 vols. (Berlin: G. Reimer, 1878), more familiar from its

second edition Prolegomena zur Geschichte Israels (Berlin: G. Reimer, 1883); W. Robertson Smith, TheOld Testament in the Jewish church: twelve lectures on biblical criticism (Edinburgh: A. and C. Black, 1881). Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

an autonomous church. The situation was not improved by the episcopal appointments proposed by the government and implemented by the imperial court in Vienna without, however, being confirmed by the pope. On the contrary, the spirit of the revolution had a good many supporters among both the

secular clergy and the members of religious orders. There was no alternative but to consider the possibility of holding a national synod; but it never took place, owing to the outbreak ofwar ('theWar of Independence').However, the new, revolutionary minister for cults, bishop-elect Mihaly Horvath, attempted

Mexican priest was a country priest from a middle-class family. Priests were the products of the diocesan seminary, where they learnt Latin, scholastic philosophy and theology, and were imbued with strict moral values and a deep hostility to liberalism. They embarked on pastoralwork inspired by their

seminary ideals, urging parishioners to regular attendance at mass and the sacraments, organising catechism classes, encouraging observance of Lent, and inculcating in their people an awareness of sin and avoidance of sex outside marriage.

the gospel, light with darkness, Christ with Satan, they did more harm than good.57 The conflict between church and state in Italy which emerged during the Risorgimento would not be resolved until 1929. 57 Pius to a delegation from the Catholic Clubs of Belgium, 8 May 1873, Dublin Review [new

series] 26 (1876), 489. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Catholicism, Ireland and the Irish diaspora

anomaly, as in practice the provisions of this seventeenth-century legislation had long since been relaxed, but at a symbolic level it substantially weakened the principle of identification between Anglicanism and the state.17 Then, at the end of June 1828, Daniel O'Connell's victory at the County Clare byelection

served notice to the duke of Wellington's Tory government that the Catholic Association and its campaign for political equality in Irelandwas now irresistible. It was probable that at the next general election the Clare result would be replicated across southern Ireland, with Catholic electors returning a

church, now designated a cathedral, was erected in the years 1894-1905 under the direction of Julius Raschdorff (1823-1914). The cathedral, in an ostentateous neo-Renaissance style which complemented the palace, has a prominent central dome flanked by four smaller ones. It was soberly restored after

severe bomb damage during the Second World War and remains a significant element in the ravaged townscape of central Berlin. The more subtle Friedrichs-Werderschekirche, also in central Berlin, was completed in 1830 in an austere English Perpendicular Gothic style to the designs of K. F. Schinkel.

Christian social theory with its 'status hierarchicus triplex' of the three estates of the nobility, clergy and peasantry. The laity no longer wished to remain loyal subjects taught by the clergy. Instead they usurped the right to preach. The political and ecclesiastical authorities treated these revival movements

severely and arrested the leaders, because they were interpreted as a type of social rebellion. But the politics of religious unity was not maintained as rigorously in Norway and Denmark as in Sweden, where it led to a brusque polarisation between the established church and religious revivalism and to

much about the artists who had flourished before the time of Raphael. When the group met in 1848 they drewup a list of those historical 'Immortals'whom they most admired. Most were literary figures, but at the peak of this heroic pyramid stood Jesus. The early exhibited works of the 'P.R.B.' (as they mysteriously

signed their paintings) were primarily religious in inspiration. These included Rossetti's The girlhood of Mary Virgin (1848-9) and his version of the annunciation Ecce Ancilla Domini (1849-50). Chief amongst the modelswho sat for the figure of the Virgin Marywas Rossetti's sister, the poet Christina. Their

Nonconformist pressure that led to restricted licensing hours. The Congregational minister J. B. Paton, first principal of the Congregational Institute, Nottingham (1863-98), was a regular visitor to Germany and an admirer of the Inner Mission, who spent his life emphasising the social

significance of Christianity. As a consulting editor to the Contemporary Review for many years, he made that periodical the vehicle for the publication of such ideas. R. W. Dale, minister of Carrs Lane Congregational Church, Birmingham from 1859 to 1895, criticised John Bright's narrow view of the state in

special needs, industrial and craft schools, and teacher education colleges. The expansion of elementary education,whether secular as in France, parochial as in the United States, or a blend of state-funded denominational schools as in Ireland, Australia, England andWales, created a massive demand for teaching

sisters. Even before elementary education became compulsory acrosswestern societies, Roman Catholic hierarchies gave the highest priority to the creation of a separate Catholic schooling system, an aspiration that could only be 31 Women religious comprised 58 per cent of French church personnel in 1878; in Belgium

the use of national language in school and church did not succeed until after WorldWar II. More successful was the strong cultural nationalism in Finland, with the national language as the main issue. It was rooted in the Finnish geopolitical

situation after the separation of Finland from Sweden and expressed in the following saying: 'Swedes we are no more, Russians we do not want to become, so let us be Finnish.' Only 13 per cent of the population were primarily Swedish-speaking. Since theywere also a privileged class, this prepared

who underwent an evangelical conversion which led him to a more conservative theology.33 Kuyper not only preached a return to Calvinism; he was also a highly successful politician and was prime minister from 1901 to 1905. Kuyper's Anti-Revolutionary Party, based on Protestant artisans, tradesmen,

small farmers and the aristocracy of labour,was prepared to offer an alternative 33 On Kuyper see also chapter 20 below. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 john molony and david m. thompson

spirit of the new republic and of the wide, wild, seemingly empty landscapes which lay beyond the cities of the eastern seaboard. Romanticism had, however, served to temper the predominantly Unitarian intellectualism of Boston in the 1830s, giving rise to the Transcendental movement which characterises

so much of the art of the mid-century. Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-82) proclaimed Nature 'the incarnation of thought' and declared of himself: 'I am nothing, I see all; the currents of the Universal Being circulate through me; I am part and parcel of God.' The liberal philosopho-theology which asserted

In some respects the OxfordMovement mirrored the argument of Joseph de Maistre and Franc¸ois-Ren´e de Chateaubriand (1768-1848) that occidental culture requires the church as a bulwark against barbarism. John Keble's sermon of 14 July 1833, preached in the wake of sweeping parliamentary reforms of

society and ecclesiastical structures, and regarded by John Henry Newman as heralding the advent of the Oxford Movement, was entitled 'National Apostasy'. The primary emphasis of the Oxford Movement was on the objective fact of apostolic succession whereby the church is the continuation of the

Kozminski,whowas confined and controlled by the police in a small provincial convent without permission to leave it. He communicated with his collaborators through the confessional, directing the activities of the sisters (also of the brothers, who were apparently less numerous) towards the urgent needs of

society, notably the workers, female servants, and peasants. Some thousands of people organised in little groups dispersed throughout the country and several tens of thousands of associates (perhaps as many as 100,000), most of themwomen, succeeded in escaping the surveillance of the Russian police and

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Scandinavia: Lutheranism and national identity In 1864 Denmark lost Schleswig-Holstein and the island of Als after two German-Danish wars about Schleswig's national identity. The conflict was

solved by a referendum after World War I, which fixed the present border between Denmark and Germany. Denmark was, however, further reduced to a small-state nation,5 and in East-Norden the geopolitical situation remained tense.6

Risorgimento as doubly damnable. He preferred antinationalist Austria, which sought to preserve the status quo, to revisionist Piedmont, which aimed to unite the peninsula under its banner. Since its defeat in the first war of Italian unification (1848-9), Turin had

sought to restrict the role of the church in its territory. The pope resented the Piedmontese legislation and its appeal to Protestant Britain for approval of what London dubbed a 'second Reformation'. In Austria, the official gazette 33 Count Nigra (ed.), Count Cavour and Madame de Circourt: some unpublished correspondence,

institutional church, the voice of the popular classes, existing alongside the orthodox religion of priests and bishops? Latin America produced popular forms of religion but not alternative models. The favourite practices of popular Catholicism expressed orthodox teaching on saints, indulgences, the holy

souls, prayers for the dead, the veneration of relics, wearing of medals, use of holy water, and recourse to Marian shrines and cults, none of which departed from traditional doctrines. Popular religiosity and lay movements were not inherently anticlerical. They had developed to some extent in response to the

he outlined in his study Die christlich-germanische Baukunst und ihr Verh¨altnis zur Gegenwart (1845), the Gothic style represented the spirit of freedom and independence from the classical ideal of beauty which he associated with Prussian rationalism and Protestant rigidity. Although aware of the French

sources for the original design of Cologne cathedral, Reichensperger still regarded it as the key German building and successfully raised funds for its construction throughout the still disunited Germany rather than exclusively within Prussia. It was the largest construction project of its type in

in the press, which led to increased anti-Catholic prejudice in the second half of the nineteenth century, as shown in the English-speaking world through risqu´e accounts of convent life and gutter press 'revelations' by ex-priests as well as periodic 'anti-popery' riots; and, on the European continent, through

state-sponsored anti-Catholic campaigns of the kind epitomised by Bismarck's Kulturkampf.2 In the eighteenth century, Catholics who lived in Protestant majority countries had tended on the whole to try to blend in, refraining from proselytising

john wolffe Whatever the appearances of continuity and stability, by the early nineteenth century this structure was under severe strain, owing in part to rapid population growth and social change, in part to the increasing numerical

strength and self-confidence of religious alternatives to the national churches. The population of the United Kingdom grew from 15.9 million in 1801 to 21.01 million in 1821 and to 26.75 million in 1841, an increase of 68 per cent over the first four decades of the century.12 Moreover, as the case of Glasgow well

figures amongst the Hungarian episcopate. From 1819 to 1831 Cardinal S´andor Rudnay stood at the head of the hierarchy. His name is linked with the national Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Catholic nationalism in Hungary and Poland

synod of 1822, the most recent to date, which was a dismal failure despite the best efforts of the primate and the bishops. This was due to the fact that the synod's resolutions, which, though they were at least in part informed by Josephinist thinking and gave serious consideration to internal ecclesiastical

would destroy all law, the structures of government, the possession of private property and, finally, human society itself.5 In Quanta Cura (1864), the pope stated that the source of contemporary errorswas the rejection of right reason and of the natural law 'engraved by God in men's hearts'. He repeated the

strictures on freedom of conscience in Mirari Vos, again condemned both communism and socialism and rejected the proposition that ecclesiastical power is not 'by divine right distinct from, and independent of, the civil power'. A mournful litany called the Syllabus of Errorswas attached to Quanta Cura. The

of religious life across western Europe. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 janice holmes and susan o'brien century.27 None of thiswould have been possible without the leadership, often

striking in its spiritual confidence, of the individual women and men who made new foundations. Equally, these leaders were effective because they anticipated and responded to the practical needs of the church authorities, of important political and social elites, and of the Catholic community at large

of popular history and science as well as fiction. Christian biography, usually hagiographical, was another important genre, ranging from improving brief lives to solid three-volume works by the wives or children of the subject deceased, encompassing their letters and literary 'remains'. Protestantism also

strongly influenced books of adventure with a patriotic dimension for boys, such as those of the Scottish Free Church elder R. M. Ballantyne, author of The coral island (1858) and Martin Rattler (1858). The righteous anger which inspired Harriet Beecher Stowe's Uncle Tom's cabin (1852), which sold some

Among the numerous initiatives that characterised this movement, a major innovation compared with the older traditionwas the leading place ofwomen. There were some remarkable personalities, sensitive to the needs of the time, and dozens of congregations of Polish and foreign origin, which developed

structures most notably for education and social assistance. Female action even succeeded in implanting itself clandestinely in the Russian zone. Amovement of Franciscan tertiarieswas organised in some twentyfive specialist congregations under the direction of a Capuchin, Honorat

described the sixteenth-century reformer Huldrych Zwingli as the prototype of a 'real' Christian and republican Swiss, defining the confessional factor as part of a dominant national narrative directly related to conceptions of the modern nation-state. In contrast, Catholics brought counter-reformers

such as Cardinal Carlo Borromeo into their national narratives, and confessionalised the prominent medieval politician Bruder Klaus von Fl ¨ue, who formerly had been an integrative historical character. The Catholic historical journal Zeitschrift f¨ur Schweizerische Kirchengeschichte was established in 1907 as

slaughtering the local sheriff and tradesman and flogging the pastor. Two of its leaders were executed. Although the Nordic countries responded to religious revivalism in different ways, the attempts to repress such movements led to claims to political rights

such as freedom of assembly and freedom of religion. For this reasonwe find an interaction between religious revivalism and political liberalism,which meant that the clergy lost control over the religious activity of the laity, and that freedomof religionwas gradually realised.This development took place first in

as Protestants, of various denominational shades, participated in the effort to devise reconciliatory outlines. During the early part of the nineteenth century, much of this literature was produced by English-language scientists - experts for the most part in comparative anatomy, palaeontology and stratigraphy,

such as the Anglican divine and geologist William Buckland (1784-1856) at Oxford - whereas during the century's second half the genre was enriched with a number of monographs by theologians, mainly in Germany where, moreover, entire magazines were devoted to the issues, such as the Catholic

were less oriented to the cohesive village community than to the cultivation of individual piety among rural and urban populations. Proclamation of the dogma of the Immaculate Conception by Pope Pius IX in 1854 reinvigorated Marian devotions. Pious associations devoted to the cult of Mary multiplied,

such as the Court of Mary in Spain with 50,000 members by 1865, or the Archconfraternity of the Sacred Heart of Mary in Portugal with 100,000 members by the mid-1880s. By the early twentieth century, certain devotional associations, such as the Apostolate of Prayer, promoted by the Jesuits in Portugal, had

autonomy to run their internal affairs. FrederickWilliam even placed the direction of the Protestant church in a new organisation, the Superior Church Council (Oberkirchenrat), which no longer reported to the Prussian ministry for church affairs (although it remained responsible to the king as

summus episcopus). To gain Catholic support for their conservative policies, several states signed new agreements with the Vatican. The most generous of these was the Austrian concordat of 1855, which not only freed the church from state control over clerical nominations and internal administration, but

pioneers of the literary art. More importantly, JohnWesley's Collection of hymns for the use of people called Methodists was published as the first denominational hymn book in 1780, indicating how quintessential hymnody had become to Nonconformist worship. In Anglican worship metrical psalmody, invariably

sung unaccompanied, dominated parish worship, though 'west gallerymusic' performed by singers and instrumentalists (where the congregation would turn round to face the choir and musicians at the rear of the church) was also prevalent in some country parishes, especially in the west country; but after

(1802-56) - all suggesting that the days of the creationweek of Genesis should be understood as periods of geological time.14 Also Serres, in his Dela cosmogonie de Mo¨ıse (1838; 3rdedn1859),andinitiallyWagner aswell, in his Geschichte der Urwelt (1845), adopted Deluc's stance. The 'day-age' exegesis received authoritative

support from Franz Delitzsch (1813-90), a Lutheran theologian at Leipzig, Rostock and Erlangen, a great exegetewho opposed the relativistic approach of higher criticism andwho in his Commentar ¨uber die Genesis (1852) argued for the historicity of the hexaemeron, which was 'Sch¨opfungsgeschichte' (history of

but also provided them with a way to participate actively in political life. The Centre gained a crucial measure of respectability with its decision to back conservative tariff legislation in 1879. And by 1890, Centre Party leaders were using their solid and remarkably stable block of votes to lend critical

support to successive German chancellors, thereby becoming a major party of government. They also backed fiscal and legal reforms, such as the new civil code of 1900, in exchange for concessions on religious issues and better employment prospects for Catholic civil servants. Indeed, the Centre

the 1850s and 1860s was there a relaxation of the legislation which restricted religious freedom and punished those who left the state church. The evangelical revival in Sweden from the early nineteenth century began to undermine the dominance of the established church. The first Swedish Baptists from 1848

supported universal suffrage, before becoming more politically conservative 32 Lausten, A church history of Denmark, p. 262. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Christian social thought

A.W. N. Pugin's Contrasts (1836). Pugin (1812-52),who converted to Roman Catholicism in 1835, believed that Classical architecturewas pagan and that only the Gothic stylewas appropriate to Christians (though he argued that the term 'Pointed' was preferable to the

supposedly pejorative term 'Gothic'). He was the most eloquent polemicist among a growing number of Catholic and Anglican artists who looked back to the Middle Ages when art, and the society which produced it, seemed more ordered and pure. If the Reformation, in its English configuration, stood

originality of the Polish experience in the special context of relations with the three Great Powers is extremely important on the confessional level, and requires deeper comparative study. The socio-religious history of centraleastern Europe still has enormous gaps. This chapter has proposed a provisional

synthesis which raises important questions for future research. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Christianity and the creation of Germany anthony j. steinhoff

Hegel's thought was much indebted to Schelling, also a product of southwestern Germany (Swabia), and a product of the same cultural and intellectual world as Hegel and H¨olderlin - the extraordinary galaxy of genius in the T¨ubingen Stift. As a young man Schelling developed in various drafts a

system of absolute Idealism, whereby both the natural realm and the realm of culture and history are the expression of one unfolding absolute spirit. This dynamic monism of Schelling, neither clearly theistic nor pantheistic, became Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

(1858-75). Like Pugin, he was a tireless propagandist. His profusely illustrated volumes became a quarry for generations of architects and designers, both ecclesiastical and secular. The architectural dictionary argued for a rational Gothic style, the construction of a church being defined by a skeletal

system of buttresses and flying buttresses which in turn support ribs and vaults. 'All form that is not indicated by structure', Viollet insisted, 'must be repulsed.' One key illustration, in his article on 'The cathedral', defines his 'cath´edrale id´eale' as being characterised by gabled fac¸ades flanked by twin

harmonisation schemata.30 A more significant factor in the decline of the scientific discourse of design may have been that its social functionswere taken over by Darwinism. Robert Young, in pointing to the contiguity between theological and scientific belief

systems, has contended that the argument from design helped maintain the socio-political status quo, and that Darwinism could be appealed to for the same purpose. Both partieswere in agreement with the Malthusian population 29 Gillispie, Genesis and geology, p. 219.

Therewas, however, an undoubted sapping of the fibre of the Free Churches as the nineteenth centurywore on. The changewas partly intellectual, a result of the milder type of theology that was coming into vogue. The most tangible symptom was the fading of hell from pulpit discourse. Younger ministers

tacitly dropped the theme of everlasting punishment from their sermons, and some writers embraced novel theories about the destiny of the unconverted. 21 George Jackson, Collier of Manchester (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1923), pp. 49, 133-5. 22 H. P. Hughes, Social Christianity (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1889), p. 54.

should not be in the Gothic style (in order not to replicateWestminster Abbey) or a revived Baroque style (in order not to seem to rival the Anglican St Paul's). Vaughan's insistence that the cathedral should be 'basilican' in form finally determined Bentley's choice of the Byzantine style. To prepare himself for the

task, Bentley travelled widely in northern Italy (Milan, Pavia, Lucca, Ravenna and Venice). Vaughan's double insistence on wide-naved basilican form and on an unimpeded viewof the sanctuary, and Bentley's first-hand knowledge of Italian sources, rendered the finished building appropriate to Catholic rather

In 1890 he returned to these themes with Sapientiae Christianae and restated the principle that it was not the province of the church to decide on which is 'the best amongst many diverse forms of government', but that Catholic citizens must love and defend their nation as they do the church. In undertaking these

tasks he asked them to avoid two 'criminal excesses' - 'so-called prudence and false courage'. In Plurimis (1888) and Catholicae Ecclesiae (1890) both insisted that slavery was a system contrary to 'religion and human dignity' as well as wholly opposed to that freedom which was 'originally ordained by God and

Reformation centuries, however, it was fully displayed in Protestant Europe, especially in the Nordic states during the age of absolutism, when monarchy became hereditary, and the monarch was considered as God's anointed. For this reason, the monarchwas obliged to ensure that only the true religionwas

taught and preached in his realm and to decide all religious questions. The local clergyman represented both God and king, and from the pulpit preached theword of God and proclaimed royal decrees. Itwas this type of church order, continued in the system of state churches, that gave Lutheranism a privileged

'missionary' territories of Ireland, England or Germany - with instructions to build a perfect replica of a rural church from Tuscany or Brittany: but it could hardly guarantee how such a building would be used, let alone with what degree of orthodoxy or enthusiasm. Similarly, it could advocate and offer to

teach the use of rosary beads as an aid to prayer and means of inculcating greater devotion to the Blessed Virgin; but it could not easily prevent rural 19 Heimann, Catholic devotion in Victorian England, pp. 72-6. 20 Fr. Herbert Thurston, 'Our English Benediction service', The Month 106 (1905), 394-404;

The pope was scandalised by the extension of the Piedmontese Casati Law of 1859 to the other provinces in a quest to create a national consciousness and restrict the influence of the church on the young. The Italian scholastic policy challenged the clergy's role in education, seeking by means of lay

teachersandsecular curricula a non-confessional culture. Pius consideredthese measures an insidious attack upon the faith, which he contrasted to the more open attempt by Garibaldi and his supporters to seize Rome in the summer of 1862.

in Singulari Nos (1834). Itwas judged as 'small in size', but 'enormous in wickedness' because it threw all human and divine affairs 'into confusion'. Finally, Gregory's Commissum Divinitatis (1835), on the church and the state, denied the state's right to meddle in church affairs by attempting to control church

teaching, its disciplinary laws, clerical formation and episcopal synods.4 In Qui Pluribus (1846), Pius IX (1846-78) condemned those who wanted to 'import the doctrine of human progress into the Catholic religion', deplored indifferentism and asserted that 'the unspeakable doctrine of Communism'

committed to the separation of church and state, except in the matter of state subsidies to their schools. It is now generally accepted that while there were large concentrations of emigrants in particular places, as in the eastern cities of North America, they

tended not to form exclusive geographical 'ghettos' or 'Little Irelands' of the sort described in 1844 by Engels in Manchester. Indeed in spite of considerable 'leakage' or 'seepage' from the faith, which varied greatly from one setting to another, and was probably most acute among the very poorest, and more

Remonstrant 0.4% Source: From De Kok, Nederland, pp. 292-3. that this was the only criterion which divided religious thought, but it was an underlying factor in many of the disputes in most of the groups.29 Conservatives

tended to see the root of most evil in the French Revolution, with its fruits of rationalism, anthropocentrism, individualism and the power of the secular state. Indeed the two most important Calvinist leaders of the century, Guillaume Groen van Prinsterer (1801-76) and AbrahamKuyper,immortalised

after 1875. This is the context in which revivalism should be understood. The original revivalist movements of the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries clearly arose from within the existing churches. Indeed the use of the

term revival represented the conviction of the original pioneers that the aim was to revive the faith of those who for various reasons were not living up to expectations. This was as true of German pietism as it was of Jonathan Edwards's American Congregationalism; it was also true initially of John

There were also various eccentric religious movements in the nineteenth century. Indeed it is not easy to know quite where to draw the line between, for example, Joanna Southcott, Joseph Smith andWilliam Miller. Had Joanna Southcott been a Roman Catholic, who articulated her religious visions in

terms of the Blessed Virgin Mary, she might have been regarded as one of a number of significant lowly religious figures who, though unusual, were definitely in the fold. William Miller was one of several people who made predictions about the second coming of Christ, which turned out to be

musical issues - syntax, continuity and coherence - which take priority over the detail of word illustration and the portrayal of theological meaning. The famous Magnificat, perhaps Stanford's most enduring composition for the church, further extends the analogy of 'dance'. As a scherzo, in a clear-cut

ternary design, it provides a thoroughly original interpretation of the 'Song of Mary' with its strong differentiation of two robust thematic ideas. However, the concept of a scherzo formed part of a wider scheme inwhich the composer attempted to create movements more analogous to those of the symphony.

legislation regulating marriage as a civil contract.32 In the interim, measures were taken to wrest control of education from clerical domination. Following the expulsion of the Sisters of the Sacred Heart from Piedmontese territory, the school law of 1848 stipulated that direction of the schools was a civil rather

than an ecclesiastical function, so that bishops could no longer prevent individuals from teaching as they had under the regulation of 1822. Thus, by the end of 1848, the Turin government had restricted church control over education, deepening the divide between church and state. Cavour, the architect of

and reported on his new land. Schaff granted that Americans had taken an unprecedented step in separating the churches from 'the temporal power', but insisted none the less that 'Christianity, as the free expression of personal conviction and of the national character, has even greater power over the mind,

than when enjoined by civil laws and upheld by police regulations.' To Schaff, the proof could be discerned in practice: the strict observance of the Sabbath, the countless church and religious schools, the zealous support of Bible and Tract societies, of domestic and

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 B: The Netherlands michael wintle The role played by the Calvinist faith in the Revolt against Spain has ensured

that Dutch religious history in the time of the Republic is relatively familiar outside its borders; the same is not true of the nineteenth century. None the less, two features stand out in the period between the defeat of Napoleon and the First World War: the complex variety of denominations which existed,

expression of liberal and nationalist sentiments. These changes delighted liberals and nationalists such as Massimo D'Azeglio, and Leopoldo Galeotti.15 From Montevideo, Garibaldi proclaimed Pius the political messiah of the peninsula,while inTurin, Gioberti prophesied

that Pius had opened a new age for Italy.16 His reforms were enthusiastically received, provoking manifestations of public gratitude.Wherever he appeared, the popewas greeted as the father of his people. Pius perceived no dangerwhen the Romans applauded their prince,whowas also head of the church.17 Others

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Christianity and the sciences one of them. The Calvinist context has been explored further by David Livingstone - for Northern Ireland, Scotland and the USA - arguing, too,

that Presbyterians had little trouble reconciling their orthodox theology to Darwin's theory in the form of theistic evolution.49 The American location with its various sub-locations has recently become the subject of flourishing research.50

Canada, Ireland and the United States, with estimates for Britain, Holland, Germany, Italy, Australia and the British and French dependencies in Africa and Asia. As indicative of the proportion of contemplative nuns, where accurate figures are available, the proportion moved between 6 and 8 per cent in the second half of the century. It has been estimated

that about 10,000 women spent some time in an Anglican sisterhood in Britain, but that perhaps 5,000 stayed throughout life. 26 See Langlois, Le catholicisme au f´eminine, the seminal work, and De Maeyer, Leplae and Schmieal (eds.), Religious institutes in western Europe for a recent historiographical survey

from modern histories of art, the work of their French counterparts is often regarded as anomalous. The neglected religious paintings of Jean-Auguste- Dominique Ingres (1780-1867) are a case in point. Ingres, who trained in Italy and had a profound admiration for thework ofRaphael,was also influenced by

that earlier Rome-based French master, Poussin. These influences are evident in his three major altarpieces: Christ giving the keys to St Peter, commissioned for the church of S. Trinit`a dei Monti in Rome in 1817; The vow of Louis XIII (1824) for the cathedral at Montauban (his birthplace); and The martyrdom of

favoured for the wider state support of the IrishRomanCatholic Churchwould be politically unacceptable in Britain.44 Against this background, when in the autumn of 1850 Pope Pius IX restored the English Roman Catholic hierarchy, and the newly elevated Cardinal NicholasWiseman flamboyantly announced

that he was to 'govern . . . the counties of Middlesex, Hertford and Essex . . . Surrey, Sussex, Kent, Berkshire and Hampshire, with the islands annexed',45 this perceived 'Papal Aggression' was a red rag to the British Protestant bull. 41 Colley, Britons, p. 54.

(1881) broke new ground and significantly affected the readings adopted by the scholars who produced the Revised Version of the New Testament in the same year (1881). Lightfoot's main contribution to the modification of Baur's position lay in the field of patristic rather than biblical scholarship, in

that his work on the Apostolic Fathers demonstrated that works such as the letters of Ignatius (c. ad 110-15) and the first Letter of Clement (c. ad 96) were genuine, whereas Baur's position argued and demanded that they were forgeries.40

sides of the Rhine framed the war as a clash between Protestant Germany and Catholic France. Germans and French interpreted the German alliance's easy victory as evidence of Protestantism's and German Kultur's moral superiority. Finally, since Prussia's triumph gave birth to a German Empire (Kaiserreich)

that included the southern Germanstates, Protestantismwas even given credit for consummating German unification. The Christian German empire There was a fair amount of truth behind Adolf Stoecker's glorification of the

during the dramatic year of 1905. In 1908 New Norwegian was authorised as the liturgical language, but it remained a minority language. During the nineteenth century, Scandinavia changed from unionism with two blocs to a separatist nationalism, creating a new pattern of nation-states

that is called Norden. As a part of these changes the former Lutheran territorial churches became national and folk churches. At the same time religious unity was gradually superseded by freedom of religion and pluralism, a process in which religious revivalism played an important role. In these processes,

surplus which the government envisaged would be appropriated for the general welfare of the Irish people rather than for the specific support of the Anglican church. The Bill amounted to an acceptance that the Church of Ireland was not, and never would become, the church of the Irish people, and

that it therefore needed to be resourced in a manner more commensurate with its minority position and less offensive to the Catholic majority. For those committed to the maintenance of a uniformdominant Anglican religious settlement throughout England,Wales and Ireland it was therefore a very bitter

a betrayal, and perceived his flight as an abdication. These events turned Pius against constitutionalism, liberalism and nationalism and those states identified with these movements. Liberalism he branded a dangerous delusion.25 The theory of nationalism he found as criminal as

that of socialism. Pius defended his decision not to assume leadership of the national movement. 'Who can doubt that the Pope must follow a path which extols the honour of God and never that sought by the major demagogues of Europe?', he asked, adding, 'And with what conscience could the Pope have

of a people. For this reason creation (nature and culture) stands not merely in contrast to Christian belief and life as in pietism, but has its own value. Likewise a national people has a value in itself, not only as the people of God. Although pan-Scandinavianism did not succeed politically, it illustrates

that there were different concepts of nation-building and national identity in Norden during the nineteenth century, which in the end led to a system of individual Nordic nation-states and churches, as we know them today. The relationship between Lutheranism and national identity varied in these nationstates,

greater representation for the growing industrial towns also gave increased electoral and political influence to Dissenters. Church reformfollowed quickly. The liberal aristocrats who dominated the government, notably Lord John Russell, differed from some of their own Dissenting and radical supporters in

that they were not hostile to the principle of a state church as such. Indeed they saw it as a vital source of non-dogmatic Christian instruction, morality and social harmony. They were, however, at odds with the traditional high church Tory vision of an organic equal partnership between church and state.

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 The growth of voluntary religion There had been comparable occurrences before, but now the news of a fresh Pentecost ran round the world. The foundations were laid for a movement

that was to transform global Christianity during the twentieth century. The voluntary sector of Christianity had expanded hugely over the century since the close of the Napoleonic wars. The primary motor of growth was Methodism, though the sheer variety of the bodies that sprang up outside

the ruling of the Scottish courts and then that parliament as a whole should legislate against ecclesiastical patronage, in both cases unsuccessfully. A classic struggle between church and state, additionally fuelled by resentment against the pretensions of the social elite and against the English parliamentary majority

that would not provide redress, culminated in the withdrawal from the Church of Scotland of over a third of its ministers under the leadership of Thomas Chalmers. They set up a shadow national church, the Free Church of Scotland, which soon had congregations and schools in nearly every parish.

The R´eveil, though deeply indebted to the pietist legacy, was often fostered by Moravians or contacts with British evangelicals. Although its chief effect was the revitalisation of the Reformed churches of France and the Netherlands, the R´eveil in Switzerland generated new bodies that approximated to

the 'Plymouth' Brethren in England. In Italy there was a similar indigenous movement, originally centred round Count Guiccardini, that developed into the Free Evangelical Churches. The Dutch Reformed Church eventually, in 1886, suffered a disruption not dissimilar to that in the Church of Scotland,

can be no deduction of the that (quod or Das) of real experience of existence from the merely abstract and sterile what (quid or Was) of conceptual essence. Negative philosophy can attain knowledge of formal essences (mere logic), but needs completion in a positive philosophy centred around the idea of God as

the 'The Lord of Being' (Herr des Seins). This aspect of Schelling led Heidegger and Tillich to regard him as the founder of existentialism. There is much in Schelling which points to Kierkegaard, especially in the polemic against Hegelianism which starts with On human freedom (1809),

pressure or persecution in the traditionally Catholic Latin states of southern Europeand South America. Both renewal and decline had,however, acommon strand, the new or neo-Ultramontane movement to exalt the authority of the pope as an inspiration for revival and a defence against decline among

the 'integrally' religious. Neo-Ultramontanism was the trades unionism of priests resistant to bishops in France, the protection of bishops resistant to the state in Spain and Prussia, and the enthusiasm among converts from Protestantism to Catholicism resistant to various forms of unbelief in England,

expressed its enthusiasm for the Republic in its newspaper L'Ere Nouvelle. Harmony was short-lived, however. In the wake of the violence of the June Days (which claimed the archbishop of Paris, Mgr Affre, as one of its 2,000 victims) Catholics of all shades (apart from the Ere Nouvelle group) rallied to

the 'party of order' - essentially the former Orleanist elite -which took control of the Republic. In return, the regime gratefully conceded many of the demands which the parti catholique had been seeking in the field of education throughout the

Brian Stanley is Director of the Henry Martyn Centre for the Study of Mission and World Christianity in the Cambridge Theological Federation and a Fellow of St Edmund's College, Cambridge. He has written and edited a number of books on the modern history of Christian missions, including The Bible and the flag (Leicester: Apollos, 1990), The history of

the Baptist Missionary Society 1792-1 992 (Edinburgh: T. &. T. Clark, 1992), Christian missions and the Enlightenment (Grand Rapids, MI and Richmond: Eerdmans and Curzon, 2001) and Missions, nationalism, and the end of empire (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2003). Anthony J. Steinhoff is an Assistant Professor of Modern European History at the

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Catholicism, Ireland and the Irish diaspora It is a paradox that as the Irish became better churchgoers, indeed the 'most practising' Catholics in the world, they corresponded more closely to

the British Protestant churchgoing mid-Victorian norm, as did their sexual mores, though this may have had less to do with formal religion than with the postponement of marriage for the inheritance of property by the eldest son and the dearth of dowries for women. The 'Devotional Revolution' is also

public affairs), and led the church into absolutist positions that delayed its integration in the modern world. Catholic moderates seeking a middle way were embarrassed by its intransigence. Conservative Catholics could appeal to it against moderates. And liberals could cite it as proof of the danger from

the Catholic Church. Latin Americawas a newworld for Rome, and in exploring it Rome discovered that in one sense there was no such thing as a Latin American church. Nationalism affected churchmen and their policies as it did secular governments,

In fact, the princes made only one Confederation-wide statement on religious policy, but it was significant. Because the territorial reorganisations of 1815 had made the major German states denominationally pluralistic, Article Eleven of the 1815 Act of Confederation decreed: 'In the states and territories of

the Confederation, confessional differences among Christians may not justify any distinction in the enjoyment of civil and political rights.' In this manner, confessional parity became a fundamental principle of German administration and law, guaranteed by the Confederation's Diet and, more appreciably, by the

This is evident in the Nunc Dimittis, a 'slow movement' full of pathos, the Te Deum, a 'first movement', and the Jubilate, another dance movement. A further dimension of the service is its series of cyclic references to earlyGregorian fragments such as the plainsong intonation of the Ambrosian Te Deum and

the Dresden Amen. Use of this material was designed to create a larger sense of cohesion across the entire service and opened up the opportunity of hearing the service as a more expansive symphonic work as part of the Sunday liturgy. More significant still, this scheme enabled Stanford's involuted musical strata

became respectable for all but the strictest sects, and Protestant denominations produced their own favourite novelists, such as the long-lived Methodist ministers Silas and Joseph Hocking, still writing in the 1930s. An 'improving' favourite for Protestant children was Mary Martha Sherwood's The history of

the Fairchild family (3 parts, 1818-47). Much of this literature was ephemeral, as in the large body of fiction which appeared as serials for Christian family journals, and the innumerable publications of the Religious Tract Society which were given away as Sunday School prizes, and included vast quantities

and secular power at the end of our period. For a detached observer, the lives of Harnack and Temple might appear to represent the zenith of cultural Protestantism rather than a point of its febrile exhaustion and sterility. Their thought came to be regarded as hopelessly optimistic and anachronistic after

the First World War, in the light of the Barthian critique of natural theology and the cultural criticism of the inter-war period. Yet certainly we should not see the nineteenth century as a period of decline and fall of religion through the rise of science and biblical criticism: the effects of both were long delayed.

by the universal church, is infallible. Controversy surrounded it, even after the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian war and the close of the council. Pius sought to mediate between the French and the Prussians, but his efforts proved abortive,49 rendering Rome vulnerable to the vagaries of war. When

the French evacuated their troops from Civitavecchia in early August, Pius hoped that some other power might step into the breach, but found no volunteers. The Italians, in turn, fielded an 'army of observation' in central Italy, and sent dispatches on 29 August informing their representatives abroad of

to establish their monarchic authority, they faced the problem of missionary orders sometimes stronger than themselves, or confronted priests and congregations who demanded either lay trusteeship or the election of the clergy by an ecclesiastical democracy. There was also sometimes conflict between

the Irish 'hibernarchy' and other immigrant groups, first the Germans, who were the largest Catholic immigrant group between 1865 and 1900, then the Italians and Poles, Hungarians and Czechs. A lack of Irish sympathy resulted in Polish and Uniate schisms from the Catholic Church. Germans alone came

had intended, ministers and officials, true to the precepts of the parlements of the Old Order, upheld the right of the state to regulate the external aspects of religious practice, and also within the church establishment itself. Ecclesiastical Gallicanism was expounded in the seminaries, notably by the Sulpicians and

the Lazarists, and in conformity with its traditional ecclesiology it rejected the notion of papal infallibility and argued for the centrality of the role of the individual bishop. 'In France, the Pope reigns but does not govern', quipped Mgr Affre, archbishop of Paris (1840-8).

rib of a man, that there had been a universal flood, that an ass had spoken and that the sun had stood still. The abandonment of such literalism left the way open to concentrate on what the Bible was really about, which was about the Living Word which spoke through the Bible to bring a clearer knowledge of

the Living God.28 The mention of the literalism that Colenso opposed is a reminder that while orthodox churchmen in Britain were reeling from the shock of his attacks on the historicity of parts of the Pentateuch, they were also having to

acquired new rights of supervision in secondary schools. In the higher sector, Frayssinous shamelessly appointed priests to key posts and brought sanctions against dissident professors at the Sorbonne such as Franc¸ois Guizot and Victor Cousin. He was even prepared to shut the Ecole Normale Sup´erieure and

the Medical School. In view of such measures, the anticlerical backlash which accompanied the Revolution of 1830 was entirely predictable. Ironically, the advent of the liberal July Monarchy in 1830 gradually effected a marked improvement in church-state relations. The new regime distanced

church's history in Europe popular Christian practice became the norm in the countryside, and such difficulties as there were tended to be found in the towns. The nineteenth century proved to be amuch more testing time for the church than before, and the urban population grew very rapidly. In 1800 only

the Netherlands had more than a quarter of its population living in towns of more than 10,000 inhabitants. By 1890 Great Britain had a predominantly urban population, and the proportion in towns of over 10,000 exceeded 30 per cent in Belgium, Prussia and Saxony as well as the Netherlands.1 The main reason

At the beginning of 1883, when the situation was very tense, Professor Johnson published an appeal to the friends of Christianity in Norway, attacking the Liberal Party and its democratic politics; 450 prominent men in church and society, among them all the bishops, signed it. This appeal scandalised

the Norwegian church for decades and made the gap between the church and the political, democratic and national movement obvious. At the turn of the century religious revivalism first began to issue in national revivalism, and during the conflict with Sweden in 1905 sentiments of religious nationalism

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 gabriel adri ´anyi and jerzy kloczowski greatest progress in the 1860s under the leadership of the Jesuits. They were particularly prominent in the publication of works of popular devotion for

the Poles in the three zones of occupation. Their review, Prezglad Powszechny, became from 1884 the most important intellectual organ for Polish Catholics. A great artist and national hero, St Albert Chmielowski, organised a fraternity of men and women in the service of the poorest.

still had their advocates in Davidson's day. Nevertheless the overall trend was towards internal pluralism within the Church of England, towards acceptance of a diversity of Christian belief and practice outside the national churches, and to recognition of the diverse religious circumstances of the different nations of

the United Kingdom. Only in Ireland were religious differences so profound and entrenched as to remain irreconcilable, a situation which had profound political consequences. Conversely Anglican and Presbyterian churches had a crucial role in supporting national cohesion in Britain, and in ensuring that

villages, dominated by a single large landowner, estate employees might be expected to attend regularly on Sundays; and this did happen. But in England these villages were always a minority; and there were problems where the clergy were non-resident, even if services were conducted by a curate. Thus

the competition between churches could lead to high levels of church attendance. At the time of the 1851 Census of Religious Worship in Britain, for example, the highest proportions of church attendance in England were to be found in Bedfordshire and Huntingdonshire, where both the Church of

exhorted French Catholics to rally to the Republic. Traditionalists were dismayed, and refused to heed the pope's call. The majority of the French episcopatewas likewise less than enthusiastic. But some laymen, headed by Albert de Mun, Jacques Piou and Etienne Lamy, reacted positively and worked for

the construction of a broad-based Catholic-republican conservative alliance. At the same time, and largely in response to Leo XIII's celebrated encyclical on social justice Rerum Novarum (1891), there emerged a second generation of Christian Democrats - some of them priests like the abb´es Garnier, Naudet,

critical of the ponderous Roman administration which provoked the constant round of revolt and repression. He suggested that the condition of the Papal States could be improved by infusing a bit of common sense and Christian justice in the government. Theology, Mastai observed, was not opposed to

the development of science and industry.11 He catalogued his suggestions in a work entitled 'Thoughts on the administration of the Papal States' (1845), which saw the need for some collegiate body to advise and co-ordinate the administration.12

In 1896 Hungary celebrated its millennium, a thousand years of the nation's existence. The festivities for this and for the coronation of Karl IV (Emperor Karl I of Austria) in 1916 showed the whole world the power and splendour of the Hungarian Catholic Church. However, a serious crisis lurked behind

the magnificent exterior, and one reason for it was that those forces within society that questioned the existing relationship between church and state were gaining ground ever more rapidly. Despite this, a renewalmovement from within the Catholic Church slowly

on also met regularly at Eisenach. The brainchild of the W¨urttemberg court preacher Karl von Gr ¨uneisen, the 'Eisenach Conference' became an important forum where representatives of the state churches discussed questions of ecclesiastical organisation and religious practice. Its resolutions did not bind

the member churches, but they had enormous influence on German Protestantism's development. Most of the state churches adopted the Conference's policies for regulating mixed marriages, its revision of the Luther Bible, and its standards for church design and construction. The Conference also published

parish as the usual unit of support. In the 1820s Thomas Chalmers in Glasgow tried to develop church structures as the primary source of poor relief; this attempt eventually collapsed after the Disruption of 1843 and secular poor relief agencies were established by an Act of 1845. To a large extent these followed

the model established in England by the New Poor Law of 1834. Significantly, bishops like J. B. Sumner (bishop of Chester and later archbishop of Canterbury) and C. J. Blomfield (bishop of London) had been members of the Royal Commission on the Poor Law, whose recommendations were embodied in

Brian Stanley is Director of the Henry Martyn Centre for the Study of Mission and World Christianity in the Cambridge Theological Federation and a Fellow of St Edmund's College, Cambridge. He has written and edited a number of books on

the modern history of Christian missions, including The Bible and the Flag (1990), The History of the Baptist Missionary Society 1792-1 992 (1992), Christian Missions and the Enlightenment (2001) and Missions, Nationalism, and the End of Empire (2003).

maxims, he repeated his condemnation in a series of subsequent encyclicals, warning the bishops of impending difficulties and hardships.54 The plight of the church in Italy worsened following the 'parliamentary revolution' of 1876, which saw the party of the Destra (right) replaced by

the more anticlerical Sinistra (left). The new minister of education, Michele Coppino, replaced religious education in the schools with the study of 'the duties of man and the citizen'.55 Distressed by developments in Italy, Pius galvanised the church to fight the 'poison' of the revolution, abandoning

pride. What historians have rather loosely called 'Ultramontane' piety consisted of a particular kind of taste, rather sentimental and saccharine to modern sensibilities, butwhichwas aesthetically and emotionally accessible to all, even

the most unsophisticated. Characteristic expressions of this brand of Catholic piety, such as pictures of the Sacred Heart, the Immaculate Conception or the Holy Family, have long been assumed to have been imposed upon Catholic communities over the course of the nineteenth century in order to rid national

It contained a commitment to refuse to recognise a Home Rule parliament, and an ominous statement of intent to use 'all means which may be found necessary' to defeat it.55 Thus on the eve of the First World War, the British government faced the very real prospect that in its endeavours to accommodate

the nationalist aspirations of Catholic Ireland it would provoke civil war with the Protestants in the north. The seemingly irreconcilable national identities of Catholic and Protestant Ireland led in 1921 to the partition of Ulster, with the six counties making up Northern Ireland remaining under British

finding greater institutional acceptance of slightly more limited roles. In this respect, and unlike some interpretations, female ministry is not something that 'emerges' in 1800 and 'declines' by 1914. Rather, it should be seen as what Catherine Brekus calls a series of 'discontinuities' and 'reinventions'.Throughout

the nineteenth century, women from a diverse range of denominational and social backgrounds sought, at different times and in different places, to forge a tradition of female religious leadership and to take their places alongside men in the exercise of their religious ambitions.2 What links thesewomen

of an interaction between liberalism and revivalism, while a high church and conservative political line held the field in Sweden. Despite these variations, one may conclude that in Scandinavia, as in the United Kingdom, a distinctive northern European patternwas created during the religious modernisation of

the nineteenth century. It consisted in combining a state church with freedom of religion. Freedom of religion expressed also a new understanding of the people. At the beginning of the nineteenth century the people were understood primarily

in effect turned France into not one nation, but two. On one side of the fault-line lay those who continued to identify with the revolutionary idea of the sovereignty of the people, to be realised in the construction of a newkind of polity, the liberal or democratic nation-state. On

the otherwere thosewho refused to embrace a social orderwhich did not rest onreligious foundationsandwhostill thought of France as the Christian nation par excellence, the eldest daughter of the church, the creation of a Christian monarchy best exemplified by St Louis. The Revolution thus bequeathed to

45 See De Vaux, The Bible and the Ancient Near East, p. 276 n. 2; also Lagrange, P`ere Lagrange. 46 See Klatt, Hermann Gunkel. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 History and the Bible

the period covered by this chapter, the exoticworld of the Hellenistic-Oriental mystery religions.47 The assessment of the figure and mission of Jesus was radically affected by this new orientation. Whereas Jesus had been presented as a moral teacher of

Europe. Although the Catholic Church only developed a positive attitude to democracy at a late stage, the majority of Swiss Catholics already took the democratic formof government for granted. Between 1874 and 1884, they frequently used the direct democratic instrument of the referendum to obstruct

the politics of the national government. In 1891 Joseph Zemp was elected the first Christian-Democraticmemberof the Swiss government. In addition to the party, the Katholische Volksverein and media networks, especially the newspaper Vaterland,were important pillars of political Catholicism. After 1891, the

pastor. In his hour of need, Sarto turned to the secretary of the Conclave, Rafael Merry del Val, only thirty-seven, and asked him to be his secretary of state. Merry del Val knew the foreign languages, upper classes and diplomacy that

the pope did not know. Pius's programme, however, embodied his love of order, tidiness and completeness as a framework for pastoral care, under his motto 'Instaurare omnia in Christo', to restore all things in Christ. The pope began the most thorough reform of the curia in three centuries, and in his

of August a revolution erupted in Belgium, in which Catholics co-operated with liberals in overturning the regime created by the Powers at Vienna. Only after Vienna extended formal diplomatic recognition to Louis-Philippe in early September did Rome follow suit. Although Pius belatedly displayed

the pragmatism earlier shown by Pius VII, Rome's reliance on the restoration order made it a target for patriots in the Italian peninsula. The July Revolution inspired the carbonari in Italy to prepare for another insurrection. The new pope, Gregory XVI (1831-46), protected the temporal and spiritual power of

attempt at autonomywas due to a number of reasons, above all the aversion of the Roman curia and the hierarchy to strong lay involvement in church affairs. The First Vatican Council (1869-70) also did nothing to encourage the idea of ecclesial autonomy.With just one exception, the Hungarian bishops rejected

the proclamation of papal infallibility as a dogma, as they clung firmly to the notion of the 'magisterium petro-apostolicum', the infallibility of the teaching of thewhole church as represented by the pope and the bishops.They, together with the other opponents of the dogma, left Rome a day before the final vote,

on original elevations. After the predominantly Catholic Rhineland had been incorporated into Protestant Prussia in 1815 a struggle developed between representatives of both faiths to claim the prestige of finishing the cathedral at Cologne. The attempt by the Prussian state to take over responsibility for

the project was effectively thwarted by the propagandist efforts of a Catholic lawyer, August Reichensperger (1808-95). Both sides regarded the building campaign as an assertion of Germanic nationhood, but for Reichensperger it was also an attempt to claim the Gothic style as exclusively Catholic. As

'Christian America' and 'Christian Canada' States, he preached the new birth, recruited young men to join him as itinerants, organised class meetings for converts and seekers, appointed elders to oversee local activities, conducted quarterly and annual conferences, managed

the publication of hymnals, pamphlets and devotional manuals, carried on an extensive correspondence, counselled local Methodists as they began to construct church buildings, and fended off any who would divert the Methodists from their spiritual concerns. Although somewhat more open to tradition

Canada and Lower Canada (Quebec) into republican imitations of the United States, and embracing confederation in 1867 as, in part, a cautionary move against the great military might displayed by the Union in the American Civil War. The prime factors of public life - ongoing French-English bilateralism,

the rejection of republican revolution in favour of loyalty to Britain, and a persistent dialectic of attraction cum aversion to the United States - were also prime factors in shaping the churches. Each of the three original Canadian regions faced significant religious challenges

and laity was uneven, but it represented a remarkable degree of institutional recovery compared to the church's catastrophic situation during the 1830s. But after 1900, controversy over the church's place in Portuguese and Spanish society entered a new and conflictive period. The extraordinary expansion of

the religious orders revived debate over religious orders that led to the passage of legislation (1901) to limit their future growth in both countries. A recent study of Spanish anticlerical incidents between 1900 and 1910 shows that they expanded from a limited geographical base to become national in scope. In

governments followed a policy of rigorous ecclesiastical centralisation, which in some respects went beyond that pursued in Spain. Decrees in 1830 and 1832, for example, created parish committees ( juntas de par´oquia) which drastically reduced the authority of parish priests.13 Moreover, the support of bishops and

the rural clergy for the absolutist King Miguel during the civil war of 1828-34 left a score that liberal governmentswere determined to settle.14 They refused to recognise the episcopal appointments made by Miguel, while a series of 1833 decrees declared that priests and religious who abandoned their posts

described the first Finns as a heroic, brave and wise people. Furthermore in the second part of the nineteenth century we find a close interaction between Finnish nationalism, the clergy and religious revivalism. For this reason some have considered Finnish religious and national revivalism to be two sides of

the same coin.10 However, since there are two vernacular languages, Finnish and Swedish, the formula became 'one state, but two nations'. In Norway the situation was complicated. Danish had been the official administrative and ecclesiastical language for centuries. Nationalist scholars,

marked by a corrosive individualism, rationalism and disregard for authority. His 'religion of humanity' was a bizarre attempt to integrate the importance accorded by de Maistre and Lamennais to religion as a cement of society while dismissing their metaphysical and theological claims, and perpetuating

the scientific 'positivism' of his teacher Saint-Simon (1760-1825). Believing that human society progressed from a theological stage of thought in which the major mode of explanation was supernatural on to a metaphysical stage in which abstract concepts replaced supernatural agencies,Comtewas convinced

urged by Peter Bowler, Darwinism - defined in terms of natural selection - never became widely accepted among biologists and palaeontologists of the second half of the nineteenth century, and a 'Darwinian revolution' in this sense never occurred. The origin of species proved compelling, but not in converting

the scientific community to evolution by natural selection - only to evolution by natural means. Many scientists incorporated general teleology in models of orthogenetic or more specifically also of theistic evolution, the Christians among them grafting evolutionism onto one of the several, existing

that manwas 'conscious of a universal soul within or behind his individual life' and which saw natural phenomena as the actuality of God would variously touch writers as diverse as Henry David Thoreau (1817-62), the Quaker John Greenleaf Whittier (1807-92) and that quintessentially gnomic delineator of

the scintilla of nature, Emily Dickinson (1830-86). Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Christian social thought A: Catholic social teaching

to the First World War, having gone through some thirty-eight editions over the course of the nineteenth century. For all the emphasis on Marian piety characteristic of contemporary French and German Catholic spirituality, in English-speaking countries even the primary Marian devotion of the century,

the service of PublicRosary, remained overshadowed by another recusant classic, that version of the service known as Benediction of the Blessed Sacrament which had originally developed in English ´emigr´e circles at Douai and found its way into Challoner's Garden of the soul, not the service of the same name as

politics in Spain and Portugal see chapter 23 below. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 david m. thompson Popular devotions, especially that of the Sacred Heart, intensified, overtaking

the simple interior faith of the eighteenth century reformers. Also therewas no attempt in Spain to eliminate religion from the schools as new education laws were passed. The new religious congregations of the later nineteenth century founded orphanages, hospitals, reformatories and schools. The 2,000 men and

and incense.3 Cullen was a strong Ultramontane, in favour of improving clerical discipline under episcopal and papal authority, and his determination to root out the ill-defined Gallican tradition in the Irish church made the institution look more Roman than Rome in the eyes of Protestants and encouraged

the solidarity of Catholics against Protestants both abroad and in Ireland. 1 Miller, 'Irish Catholicism and the Great Famine'. 2 Connolly, Priests and people in pre-Famine Ireland. 3 Larkin, 'Devotional revolution'.

Germany. Although PrussiamadenoterritorialdemandsonAustria, it annexed Frankfurt amMain, Nassau, Hanover and Hesse-Kassel and forced the remaining German states north of the Main into a North German Confederation. Prussia dominated this new Confederation, but because it did not encompass

the southern German states, German unification remained unfinished. The events of 1866 also altered the balance of confessional relations in Germany. With the omission of Austria and the southern German states, the proto- German nation became overwhelmingly Protestant, making Prussia's victory

Habsburgs which would become Austria-Hungary. These three powers had an assured place in the European order of the time, which was one of relative peace and increasing prosperity. But they were profoundly undermined by the aspirations of other nations occupying

the space corresponding to the three historic monarchies. The history of the rise of these aspirations in the course of the nineteenth century is complicated and diverse. It was a question not only of the pressures from the dominant empires, but also of the tensions between the oppressed nationalities, their

faith but avowed that teaching such as the pope condemnedwas not permitted in the American church. Unlike their Protestant contemporaries, Catholics did not have a tradition of proprietary ownership of American culture. But with all American believers at

the start of the twentieth century, they realised that intentional effortwas now required to sustain historical Christianity - whether Catholic, Protestant or Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 'Christian America' and 'Christian Canada'

religious orders The religious orders which had been so important in the religious and cultural life of the Polish-Lithuanian federation before its dismemberment were practically annihilated in the course of the successive suppressions ordered by

the states. One exceptional case was Cracow, where several convents active without interruption from the Middle Ages survive to this day. Nevertheless, the recovery of this tradition despite numerous obstacles is one of the most striking phenomena of the Christian dynamism of Polish society.

clampdown also enabled some theological scores to be settled, especially by the conservative and pietistic circles that held sway at the Prussian court. In September 1819,W.M. L deWette was dismissed from his chair in Berlin. The official reason was that he had written a letter of sympathy to the mother of

the student who had assassinated Kotzebue. The underlying reason was that de Wette's radical critical work on the Bible and theology was viewed with deep suspicion in influential conservative and pietistic circles.9 In pioneering works published from 1805 to 1807, de Wette had turned upside down the

From within the heart of the Great Emigration into France in the 1830s there was formed - with the help among others of Mickiewicz - a congregation of Resurrectionists, whose idea of the resurrection embraced Poland itself. They created a centre in Rome to train Polish priests and inform the papacy of

the true religious situation in Poland falsified by the representatives of the dominant states,who had even succeeded in getting Gregory XVI to condemn the Polish insurrection of 1830-1, which shocked not only Poles, but liberal Catholics throughout Europe.The restoration of the orders in Galicia made

jeremy dibble transforms the 'High Victorianism' of Stainer and the dissonance of Wesley into a wholly new vision of faith. Anglicanism led the way in English choir music, but it was tardy in recognising

the value of hymnody, though when it did, it fostered arguably the richest and most popular tradition in the world. One important source of hymn-singing was the revival of the extensive Lutheran chorale literature which took place alongside the scholarship of early music throughout northern

expressed vividly in the contrast between 'logical' and 'historical' philosophies in the Munich lectures of 1832-3, and his late move to Berlin was heralded as a riposte to the 'dragon's teeth' of Hegelian 'pantheism'. The geography and culture of Munich is perhaps a key. The early Schelling was caught up in

the widespread enthusiasm for the French Revolution and Napoleon. Just as Friedrich Schlegel's move to Vienna and conversion to Catholicism marked a shift in his intellectual sympathies, so Schelling's long period in Munich and proximity to Jacobi and van Baader marked a move from the earlier

the churches to the ills of industrial society. Hugh Price Hughes, the leader of theWest London Mission, claimed in 1887 that Jesus Christ was 'the greatest social Reformer theworld has ever seen'.22 The social gospel,which flourished down to the FirstWorldWar, especially in America, was an effort to persuade

the working men whose minds were turning towards denouncing capitalism that the churches were on their side. It was an attempt to cut with the grain of rising social attitudes, to borrow whatever was good in socialism and show that Christians cared.

style of painting adopted by the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood. The original Brotherhood, which included the independent-minded young painters Dante Gabriel Rossetti (1828-82), John Everett Millais (1829-96) andWilliam Holman Hunt (1827-1910), set out to present a radical challenge to the received ideas of

theRoyal Academy and to the excessive contemporary admiration forRaphael and the Bolognese and Roman schools of the seventeenth century. None knew Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Church architecture and religious art

As a result, the ties between public schooling and the Lutheran Churchwere loosened in all the Nordic countries. Religion was still an important subject in school, but only one among others like national culture, history, language and geography. The education of professional teachers was also improved,

their salaries were raised, schoolhouses were built, and the school year was prolonged. School administration was gradually transferred from church to state bodies and local counties. These changes represented a gradual secularisation of public schools, but one which theologians and other churchmen

called a Norwegian national counter-culture. For this reason it was important that in his last will he asked his followers to remain in the established church and to respect the clergy. His followers were eventually totally integrated into the Norwegian Lutheran Church. Some of the second generation (among

them Hauge's son) began to study theology to become ordained. Thus revival Christianity with its traces of Moravianism infused the Christianity of the established church, and the pietistic preaching of awakening and personal improvement became the pastoral ideal.

his art form to a higher level. Perhaps more significantly, Dykes's expressive style of hymn established a norm,which, though it provoked violent reactions in the next generation of hymn book editors (such as VaughanWilliams in the English hymnal of 1906)who either bowdlerised their chromaticisms or omitted

them altogether, still remains one of the most widely sung examples of the genre. 9 See Bradley, Abide with me andWatson, The English hymn. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

every female preacher, regardless of her background, denomination or region, Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Women preachers and the new Orders was her 'call' to preach. With the knowledge that the Holy Spirit had called

them to this work, women were prepared to brave both external opposition and hostility and their own internal feelings of inadequacy. Nineteenth-century women, though, did interpret this call in different ways. For some, their ministry was exercised in spite of their gender, or because they were weak and not

the first national Protestant paper, the Allgemeines Kirchenblatt f¨ur das evangelische Deutschland, and collected annual statistics of religious practice from its member churches. The Eisenach Conference's activities greatly contributed to the creation of a national Protestant consciousness, even if church leaders

themselves were generally unsympathetic to the rising chorus of kleindeutsch nationalism. In Catholicism, the pivotal development was the triumph of Ultramontanism. Ultramontanes disdained the episcopal, tolerant and pluralist traditions

school, Ferdinand Christian Baur, and the corrosive criticism of the so-called Left Hegelians such as Bruno Bauer, Ludwig Feuerbach and Karl Marx. Even Kierkegaard and Nietzsche are much more obviously opponents of Hegel than of Schleiermacher. Much of this defining work for nineteenth-century

theology came in the wake of Hegel's posthumously published Lectures on the philosophy of religion (1832), whereby 'religion' means the finite mind's awareness of itself as absolute mind. This can be seen as an opposition to Schleiermacher, a relation tinged with envy and resentment.

Pessimism and positivism: science, religion and Darwin's legacy Ludwig Andreas Feuerbach (1804-72) in Das Wesen des Christentums (The essence of Christianity, 1841) claimed that anthropology is the secret clue to

theology. Rather than seeing man's knowledge of God as itself a part of the dialectical self-knowledge of the divine subject, Feuerbach reduced human knowledge of God into human self-knowledge. What is falsely assumed to be knowledge of a divine subject is, in fact, the projection of facts about

and forty-five regional branches. A further contribution to the defence of the church's interests and the deepening of religious life was made by the twelve Catholic congresses that were held between 1894 and 1918, mostly in Budapest. During these three-day conventions,

there was a public session each day, usually with three lectures; the rest of the days were given over to work by specialist panels charged with formulating wishes and demands relating to religious-charitable and social issues. Amongst the problems discussed, the questions of the Catholic press,

regular clergy, the collapse of the church's role in education and charity, so essential to its social role in the eighteenth century, and the disorientation of a parish clergy left virtually without episcopal direction appeared to offer a gloomy future. But all was not lost. There is no evidence that the turmoil of

theseyearsunderminedthe faith in either Spain orPortugal, at least in northern regions where a dense infrastructure of rural parishes intimately connected to the concerns of peasant communities survived. Conditions in the large cities, whether Madrid, Barcelona, Lisbon or Oporto, were less promising,

Methodist Free Churches, claiming by their very title to be independent of central control (0.7 per cent, though theywere still in the process of separating from theWesleyans in 1851). What the Methodists shared in common was the teaching of JohnWesley and the hymnody of his brother Charles. From John

they drewtheir Arminian belief that God gave the freedom to all human beings to accept the gospel, with the corollary that no believer was safe from drifting into sinandso forfeiting salvation.FromCharles theyreceivedanincomparable legacy of versified spirituality, which, when sung wholeheartedly, constituted

During this time of crisis the church in America received little help from Rome. Ignorant of the meaning of colonial grievance and creole nationalism, the popes judged the movements of independence in Spanish America as an extension of the revolutionary upheaval they observed in Europe, and

they gave their support to the Spanish crown. The encyclical Etsi Longissimo (30 January 1816) exhorted the bishops and clergy of Spanish America to 'destroy completely' the revolutionary seed sown in their countries and to make clear to their people the dire consequences of rebellion against legitimate

his collection of human brains the prize specimen of his G¨ottingen colleague Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855), one of the greatest mathematicians of all time, with whom he had conducted pious deathbed conversations about the immortality of the soul in which Gauss deeply believed. A careful study of

this and other brains carried the promise that a uniquely human feature might be found - if not a specific anatomical part then the architecture of brain convolutions - possibly an 'organ of the soul'.37 The classic controversy initiated atG¨ottingenwas nowfollowed by another,

1789. Since 1725, under the aegis of Philidor's concerts spirituels, Parisians were familiar with hearing churchmusic performed outside church, andmuch elaborate churchmusic in the formof the 'grand motet' had become a fashionable feature of concert-going. By the Revolution there is evidence that interest in

this genre of sacred music was already in decline, and a more dramatic form of churchmusic, influenced by oratorio, was in the ascendant and led by Jean- Franc¸ois Le Sueur, the director of the choir of Notre-Dame Cathedral between 1786 and 1787. Le Sueur's innovations were censured by the cathedral chapter

most of them of British origin, but some from the continent or home-grown. Indeed in spite of failures over slavery and of missions to Native Americans, and interdenominational rivalries and divisions, the new nation was dominated during the first half of this period by evangelical revivalism, although

this was disturbed after 1860 by the arrival of still greater numbers of Roman Catholics and, in lesser measure, of Jews and Eastern Orthodox. A burgeoning missionary Protestantism from Britain, northern Europe and the United States itself, sometimes fed by the premillennial expectation

andmusical press during the 1830s and 1840s at a timewhen questionswere being posed about the poor standards of choral singing of cathedral foundations, depleted numbers of boys, indisciplined men and restricted repertoire. Various reformist factors effected a transformation over the next thirty years,

though it was from the parish and educational establishments, not the cathedral, that these reforms were led. Ecclesiastical reform, spearheaded by the Tractarian revival, ignited a huge improvement in standards of worship and greater emphasis was placed on externals such as choir demeanour, dress and

fairly constant throughout the nineteenth century. There were 3,463 in 1826, 3,232 in 1851, 3,576 in 1895, 4,015 in 1900 and 4,533 in 1910. Assuming that the number of nominal Catholics was almost coterminous with the population, this meant that in 1895 (total population 12.6 million) there were fewer than

three priests for every 10,000 inhabitants, and in 1910 (total population 15.1 million) just over three. The training available for priests was expanded in this period. Diocesan seminaries increased from nine in 1826 to ten in 1851,and twenty-nine in 1910, while the Conciliar Seminary of Mexico City was raised

tolerance in religious matters, finding them incompatible with the Catholic faith. In addition, socialism and communism, as well as secret and Bible societies, were denounced. Likewise condemned were errors regarding marriage, 46 Report of the Congregation of the Holy Office on the seventy principal errors of the

time, ASV, Archivio Particolare Pio IX, Oggetti Vari, n. 1779. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 frank coppa aswell as those on the temporal power of the pope. The secular system of education

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 douglas hedley intellectual optimism and revolutionary fervour to a more quietistic and mystical mood. Although there were (false) rumours that Schelling had converted

to Catholicism, there is some truth in seeing his thought as having links with the mixture of theosophy and Catholic opposition to Napoleon and sympathy for the feudal-medieval orderwhich came to be characteristic of later German Romanticism. While Hegel remained fascinated by questions of constitutional

protest from Dissenters because they felt it gave too much control to the Church of England. In September, John Henry Newman resigned his living of St Mary the Virgin, Oxford, believing that the Church of England could never fulfil his aspirations for the spiritual regeneration of the nation. His conversion

to Roman Catholicism in 1845 was now merely a matter of time. In Ireland the climax of the campaign for the repeal of the Union, led by Daniel O'Connell, was a striking demonstration of the political importance of the Roman Catholic Church and its growing identification with the cause of Irish

context and if Kant insisted upon freedom as the key to any proper theology or metaphysics, it was the Janus face of Spinoza that loomed largest over the nineteenth century. Spinoza was widely regarded as an atheist and a sceptic in the seventeenth century, yet his philosophy exerted an immediate appeal

to Schleiermacher and also attracted tough-minded followers of Darwin like Nietzsche, Huxley and Haeckelwho sought for a metaphysic to correspond to the gloomy doctrine of natural selection. It is intriguing that the two greatest popularisers of Darwin in the nineteenth century, Huxley and Haeckel, were

can be divided into three rough chronological divisions: the period from 1790 to 1840, when women operated as itinerant evangelists with a degree of denominational approval; the 1840s to 1860s, when female preaching was fragmented and incoherent; and the period from 1870 to the 1920s, when women began

to achieve a greater measure of lay and clergy rights within a wider range of denominations. Public female ministry in early nineteenth-century Protestantism had two important sources, both of which originated in the previous century, if not

with 11,000 inhabitants, he noted, scarcely anyone attended Sunday mass, a situation that in his judgement also prevailed in Lisbon. The need to reach out to the religiously alienated gradually and fitfully moved the church into the realm of social action. The 'social questions' began

to attract the attention of some clerics and laymen during the 1870s. Pope Leo XIII's 1891 encyclical, Rerum Novarum, stimulated further interest and encouraged the creation of workers' associations. These took the form of Workers' Circles following the model of Count Albert de Mun in France. In

legislation in the 1840s. The constitution had made the Evangelical-Lutheran faith the official religion of the Norwegian state, and thus carried on the religious politics of absolutism. But in 1845, an Act allowing Dissenters to practise their faith passed the parliament. From this year it became possible

to be a Norwegian citizen without being a member of the Lutheran Church. This was the first occasion on which the expression 'state church' was used in Norwegian history, though the phrase had appeared in Sweden in 1837 and in Denmark in 1842. The new legislation rested upon the modern idea

convictions coalesced to forma very effective resistance.The national factor in the pressures for systematic Germanising and Russifying often produced contradictory outcomes. Among Polish peasants, there was a new consciousness of their Polish identity, which was now considered, thanks to its persecutors,

to be inseparable from traditional religiosity. The Polish national movement, strongly supported in society but incapable of defeating the occupying powers by force, profited from this situation by organising a national education for all, with very different means adapted to the needs of the different zones of

nationalities, no Catholic was under obligation to feel a sense of attachment or devotion to any one particular devotional or spiritual approach any more than to one particular saint. National differences, although papered over by Ultramontane enthusiasts at the time and by modern historians since, continued

to be marked. Little, as yet, has been published - in English, at any rate - about the transformation of Italian Catholicism in the first decades of the nineteenth century; but traditional Italian devotion, with its concentration on local saints

lost significant political power during the Reformation, and were firmly subordinate to lay leadership, either locally among landowners and political hierarchies or in a wider national scene, as in Denmark, for example. In countries such as Britain the legal existence of several churches meant that it was possible

to be religious without being attached to a clerically dominated national church. In Nonconformist churches the relative balance of power between clergy and laity was different from that in the Church of England -Wesleyan Methodists perhaps being the group among whom the position of the clergy

concertato reigned supreme, congregations were more accustomed to hearing arias, cavatinas, military marches, brilliant organ solos and boisterous choruses. Sacred texts would be adapted to familiar operatic numbers, operatic singers were drafted in to sing for solemn feast days and it was common

to hear well-known arias of Rossini, Donizetti, Bellini and Mercadante. It was a stylistic mindset that cut across the growing school of Vatican-based Cecilian musicians such as Baini and Basily, and none other than Spontini, once at the forefront of European opera with works such as La Vestale and Olympie,

newarrangement also left the papacy to a degree the creature of the conservative order of Metternich's creation. One of its foremost newapologists, Count Joseph de Maistre, author of Du Pape (1819), was an arch-conservative who looked to Rome as the sanction for monarchic rule, although Rome refused

to join the Holy Alliance of non-Catholic Russia and Prussia with Catholic Austria which sought to give Metternich's order a religious colouring. Rome's main problems were nearer home. Consalvi's division of the Papal States into four legations and thirteen delegations involved an element of lay

each parish in France. The chief architect of the law, Aristide Briand, intended not to suppress the Catholic religion but rather to free Catholic laypeople from the domination of the hierarchy. Nor was the law aimed at the expropriation of the church (as under the Revolution): the intention was rather

to place church buildings under the care of the faithful provided they set up the stipulated religious associations in each parish to guarantee their upkeep. However reluctantly, most French bishops and lay Catholics accepted the law and wanted to comply with the obligation to establish associations cultuelles.

On 21 July 1815 a large crowd assembled to witness the admission of a celebrated new parish minister to the charge of the Tron Church in the centre of Glasgow.1 Thomas Chalmers (1780-1847) was already one of the leading figures in the evangelical party in the Church of Scotland and was destined

to play a central role in events and movements that had a profound impact on religious life and identities, in Scotland above all, but also throughout the United Kingdom. Chalmers's move to Glasgow in the month after Waterloo symbolises and illustrates, moreover, the great challenge of rapid urban

and stressing those points which the Catholic tradition had in common with other Christian, or even non-Christian, denominations. From the mid-nineteenth century, a vocal minority of militant Catholics, often calling themselves 'Ultramontane' (as opposed to 'Gallican'), appeared increasingly

to prize precisely those elements of Catholic theology and church history which were least palatable to those outside the fold. Thus, at just the time that democracy and egalitarianism were being promoted as marks of political and social progress, the pope in his Syllabus of Errors (1864) tactlessly

1836; Spain, 1838) remained on the books into the early twentieth century. Moreover, no liberal governments in Spain and Portugal ever contemplated abandoning the crown's historic patronage rightsover episcopal appointments. The issue at stake was never Catholicism or anti-Catholicism. Liberals sought

to redefine the church's place in a political and social order radically different from that of the eighteenth century in the interests of a 'pure, peaceful and perfect religion' practised through a churchworking harmoniously within the new liberal society and its political and social institutions.3

these minor losses, seconded by Pius in September.1 It represented a precursor of Rome's unyielding stance in the ensuing nationalist age. When the Spanish revolution of 1820 inspired upheaval elsewhere, the ultraconservative party in the curia, the zelanti, pointed to the papacy as the antidote

to revolution. Following the outbreak of a carbonari revolution in Naples early in July 1820, Consalvi opted for pragmatism rather than conservative solidarity. 1 Erasmo Pistolesi, Vita del Sommo Pontefice Pio VII, 4 vols. (Rome: F. Bourlie, 1824), vol. iv, pp. 106-16; Edward Hertslet, The map of Europe by treaty, 4 vols. (London: Butterworths,

of Christ's Second Coming which was also rooted in revivalism, created new churches in many places in which Christians remain numerous to this day, though as small minorities of the general population. Amid the extraordinary babel of cultures and languages in India, Protestant missionary effort appealed

to some of the educated as well as to marginal castes and ethnic groups. In China, Protestant institutions provided an educated minority with a western education, where, as elsewhere, Catholics sought to create wholly Catholic communities in the countryside. In both countries there was alarm among

and the sciences as a perennial war between 'Dogmatic Theology' and 'untrammelled scientific investigation'.8 The warfare model in describing the relationship of religion and science has bedevilled the historiography of the subject ever since, and for much of the twentieth century it was fashionable

to speak of 'the warfare waged by traditional religion against scientific knowledge'. 9 That interpretation has nowgivenway to major revisionist scholarship by, among others - for the period of this chapter - John Hedley Brooke, David Livingstone, James Moore and Ronald Numbers, who have produced a fuller

p. 217. 9 Bebbington, Evangelicalism in modern Britain, ch. 1. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 david bebbington

to the churches. Incomers to the cities from the countryside, on this account, became alienated from organised religion. It has subsequently been shown that, although working-class people were less likely to attend worship than those of higher social status, many urban congregations consisted largely of

but also a political aim. Till the nineteenth century, Lutheran Christianity gave legitimacy to the authorities, and religious confession corresponded to the territorial divisions between states. For this reason, the Nordic churches are often called national churches. This description is, however, more applicable

to the period from the nineteenth century, when the Nordic nation-states were established. Prior to that, it is more correct to describe them as territorial churches. For the same reasons contacts between these churches were sporadic, and we find few traces of a consciousness of a religious unity in the

the union of the church with an emerging Irish state, yet to achieveHomeRule, which was coming into existence before the FirstWorldWar. Only the events of the Great War seem to explain why a small minority of devout Catholics like Patrick Pearse persuaded church and nation to accept a violent resolution

to the problem of British rule by dying as Christian martyrs in the quixotic Easter Rising of 1916. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 sheridan gilley

Catholic nationalism in Hungary and Poland propagandawas no longer tolerated.The lawwas repeatedly broken from 1880 onwards, and an ill-advised wave of Magyarisation spread across the country. International public opinion was outraged, and considered the best solution

to the problem would be to split up the ancient Kingdom of Hungary. After 1867 the bishopswere still sympathetic to the provision of pastoral care for theircongregations in their native languages.Unfortunately,however, those Hungarian bishops in the hierarchy who were close to the government supported

anarchosyndicalism, all hostile towards the church in varying degrees, introduced a new element in the old struggle over the church. In Barcelona, the emergence after 1901 of the Radical Republican Party with a demagogic programmeof anticlericalism, especially towards the religious orders, contributed

to the violence of the TragicWeek (1909) when eighty church buildings were put to the torch, the worst example of violence against the church since 1834-5. The Tragic Week did not lead to the political revolution its supporters

parties formed a coalition under the premiership of Abraham Kuyper, and the emancipation of those groups had been largely achieved. The structure of pillarisation, with its ideological divisions and its system of negotiation at elite level, was in place; moreover its realisation also made a defining contribution

to theways inwhich the Dutch national consciousness emerged in the heyday of European nation formation. It was, after all, the century of secularisation, as well as the century of religious revival,38 and organised religion was being challenged. A secular

particularism emerged, and increasingly the 'awakened' felt called to stand up against what they regarded as distortions of true ecclesiastical and doctrinal practice. In eastern Prussia and Silesia, orthodox Lutherans not only criticised the United church's deviation from Lutheran theology, but refused

to use the required liturgy. Faced with such open resistance, the Prussian state arrested non-compliant ministers and laymen after 1830 and sent troops to occupy recalcitrant parishes. In 1837 King Frederick William finally allowed the 'old Lutherans' to emigrate, but the underlying problem of religious

Orthodox, whether pietistic, communal or institutional - amid the economic, political and demographic challenges of a modern era. The alternative 'Christian America': Canada The nineteenth-century history of Christianity in Canada looks strikingly similar

to what took place in the United States. Like their American contemporaries, Canadian believers faced a vast sub-continent where great dedication was required to build churches and the institutions of Christian civilisation. As in the United States, public life reflected the endeavours of numerous believers,

the century, the culture war moved into a new and hotter phase which led to the severing of the ties between church and state which had endured for over a century. The government of Ren´eWaldeck-Rousseau, formed in June 1899, brought

together a broad coalition of the left which agreed that the church should pay for its anti-Dreyfusardconnections.The Assumptionistswere dissolved in 1900, and in 1901 a lawon associationswas passedwhich required religious congregations to receive authorisation from parliament. But itwasWaldeck-Rousseau's

'Christian America' and 'Christian Canada' substantially 'to the union and prosperity of the nation'.3 America's republican, independent and antiauthoritarian experiment - especiallywhen riven by sharp economic, political and racial differences -was hardly capable of putting

together a national culture. Evangelical Protestants, because they adapted so well to the new nation's republican values and to the circumstances of a farflung population, did the job. They also opened the door to public service by women. The sisters Sarah

indifferent to religion or Protestant. Under the leadership of the Protestants, the extremely liberal spirit of the age pervaded every national institution, the press, and even the academy. In the circumstances it was not surprising that the government once again

took up the old and repeatedly postponed plan to enact new marriage laws. First, the minister for cults issued a ruling in which he added an enforcement Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 gabriel adri ´anyi and jerzy kloczowski

school and the community, should be answerable, like the Calvinist congregation, to no absolute authority but that of God.35 This formed the kernel of the ideology which Kuyper developed to protect the rights and interests of his followers to worship and live as they saw fit in the orthodox Calvinist

tradition, although without the rejection of the modern world shown by the ultra-orthodox. It was also to be one of the cornerstones of pillarisation, or verzuiling, in Dutch society. Apart from the Calvinists, there were other Protestant sects in the Netherlands,

after 1840.38 One key question is what level of religious practice might be assumed to be normal, and how far this changed in the course of the nineteenth century. Clearly this depends on local or regional factors as much as on any national

tradition. There were countries with one dominant church, where high levels of attachment were combined with low levels of practice. This was as true for Scandinavian Protestant churches like those in Denmark and Sweden as it was for southern European Catholic churches such as those in Portugal or

Protestantism, the party strove, more generally, to preserve 'the religious life of the German people, maintain and strengthen the Christian ecclesiastical Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Christianity and the creation of Germany

traditions . . . and, above all, [to preserve] the Christian confessional school'.5 Bismarck too conceived of the state's duties in largely Christian terms, even characterising the social insurance legislation of the 1880s as 'practical Christianity' (praktisches Christentum). For their part, Christian organisations, from

excessive asceticism in ethics and an exaggerated appeal to authority in theology. They were both criticised for excessive immanentism, rationalism and pantheism. Despite their own internal disagreements, theywere both aware of the deep

traditions of this strand of Christian thought in the patristic and medieval eras and of the need to restate the Christian faith in credible modern terms.Rosmini 9 Oßwald, Anton G¨unther. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

xiii Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 List of contributors University. She has written extensively, in journal articles and essays, both on eighteenthcentury

transatlantic revivalism and on the history of Roman Catholic nuns and sisters in modern Britain and Ireland. Peter C. Phan is currently the Ignacio Ellacuria Professor of Catholic Social Thought at Georgetown University. He has published over 250 essays and a dozen books, including

experience of the Catholic Church, which must bring her scholarship up to date, and reinterpret Christianity according to modern ideas, with that development, change and growthwhich in the past had kept her alive. Also influential in Modernism was the German philosophical tendency to replace God's

transcendence with a deity only immanent in this world. A notable exception, the finest Catholic scholar of his generation, Friedrich von H¨ugel, combined Loisy's biblical radicalism with a profound sense of transcendence, indeed a deep prayer life. Pius and his theologians understood by Modernism Loisy's

Gallicanism still prevailed in 1829,when, of the 646 diocesan bishops, the pope appointed only twenty-four outside the Papal States. Neo-Ultramontanism differed from the traditional view in its populism, which carried it sometimes into an excess beyond the theories of the Roman theologians, and entailed its

transformation by the modern means of communication into a cultus of the pope himself. The Parisian lady who reacted to the pope's new status as the 'Prisoner of theVatican' after the Italian occupation ofRomein 1870 by sending him underclothes, hearing of his lamentable deprivation in this regard, was as

a list of the eighty great intellectual, social and political errors of the age, published on the feast of the Immaculate Conception ten years after the promulgation of the dogma and culminating in the condemnation by the Syllabus of 'progress, liberalism and recent departures in civil society', the last sometimes

translated as 'modern civilisation'.1 These errors were quoted from previous papal responses to attacks upon the church in its Latin heartlands, and need to be read in context, but they did not properly distinguish between the northern European liberalism which gave a new freedom to the church

everyday parlance about 'nuns', and their canonical status as religious was finally confirmed by the promulgation of Conditio a Christo in 1900. Second, in place of the practice whereby new groups affiliated themselves to existing traditions or even the amalgamation of kindred initiatives, therewas a marked

trend for themultiplication and proliferation of fresh foundations. The highest number is known to have been made in France, with more than 200 new or refounded congregations being well established by 1880, but there were large numbers of new foundations elsewhere. The United States saw the creation

of new parishes to meet the spiritual needs of the rapidly growing population. Numerous diocesan church-building societies were founded in the late 1830s, prominent among them Bishop Blomfield's Metropolis Churches Fund, directed to the pressing needs of London.30 Aswe have seen, therewas a rising

trend in the building of new churches even before 1830, but thereafter there was rapid acceleration, with 514 constructed between 1831 and 1840, and 759 between 1841 and 1850. There was a slight drop to 654 between 1851 and 1860, but a peak of 791 between 1861 and 1870. Many hundreds of existing churches

University Musical Society, and numberedWalmisley and Ouseley among his friends. His innate musicality drew him to contemporary Romantics such as Mendelssohn, Spohr, Schumann, Chopin and Weber. It was an assimilation of these continentals that found its way into the chromatic emotionalism of

tunes such as 'Melita' ('Eternal Father, strong to save'), 'Strength and Stay' ('O strength and stay') and the little known 'Charitas' ('Lord of glory, Who hast bought us'), and it was Dykes's strong bass lines, suspensions, striking modulations, deft tonal recoveries and variation structures in microcosm that raised

was not applied to the small Jewish minority.3 Unlike the older predominantly mono-confessional cantons, most of those established by the Mediation Act in 1803 were denominationally mixed. After the foundation of the modern nation-state in 1848, fourteen of the

twenty-five cantonswere more or less mono-confessional (Protestant: Zurich, Schaffhausen, Appenzell Outer-Rhodes, Vaud and Neuchˆatel; Catholic: Lucerne, Uri, Schwyz, Nidwalden, Obwalden, Zug, Appenzell Inner-Rhodes, Ticino and Valais). Moreover, Fribourg and Solothurn had Catholic majorities,

those attending for festivals in the lifecycle - baptisms, weddings, funerals - began to decline, though non-Christian funerals were the most difficult to arrange. As significant as the level of religious practice, however, is how it was

understood. Any detailed examination of popular religion shows that there is a mixture of orthodox and unorthodox conceptions of what religious duty involves. For example, popular conceptions of baptism often included what religious people would regard as superstition - that it was almost

relation between morality and religion. He sawboth from a social perspective: morality is the collective consciousness of society and religion serves to symbolise the unity of society. In his study of aboriginal religion, The elementary forms of the religious life (1912), Durkheim argued that religion is a necessary

unifying and stabilising force in human society. This would become the basis of functionalistic theories of society such as that of Bronislaw Malinowski. The pragmatic solution and the revolt against speculation Albrecht Ritschl of G¨ottingen in his major work Die Christliche Lehre von der

But the encyclical equally fiercely defended the right to private property, against its socialist detractors, though not to the selfish use of that property: here, as in taxation, therewasroomfor state activity.Moreover families deserve a subsistence wage, and encouragement is given to workers to organise in

unions, along with other forms of association intermediate between the state and family, with a backward glance to the medieval guilds. Leo's teaching shared with conventional socialism its high doctrine of the state, its anti-individualism and its communitarianism. But he thought that

famous of penitential works impressed Mozart in 1770 and later both Goethe and Mendelssohn were deeplymoved by it. Ett's efforts to revive sacredmusic of the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries received the support of King Ludwig I of Bavaria, but much of the significant scholarly work was taken

up by Carl Proske at Regensburg. Proske, whose Denkschrift, Die Verbesserung der Domkirchenmusik of 1829-30 was hugely influential, did much to promote a new musicological rigour as part of the Cecilian ideals. A vast collector of Catholic liturgical works, he began to publish them in the collection Musica

went to prison, and six of them were executed. The situation was chaotic: the church's financial situation was in tatters, church institutions and buildings had been looted or taken over by the military, and normal church administration was all but impossible. The new primate, J´anos Scitovszky, tried in

vain to soften the measures imposed by the court, for Hungary was now to become part of a unified overall monarchy, politically via the enforced constitution of Olm¨utz, and ecclesially by means of an agreement (concordat) with Rome. Hungary's national and religious (ecclesial) sovereigntywas doomed to

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 The growth of voluntary religion which goes a long way to explaining why the group soon went into rapid decline.4 Voluntary religion in England and Wales displayed an enormous

variety. What the great majority of these apparently miscellaneous groupings possessed in common was evangelicalism. The Unitarians wholly rejected evangelical doctrine, sections of the Quakers resisted it and the unorthodox sects

Methodists and Presbyterians vied for pre-eminence. In the earlier part of the century Ontario had set aside clergy reserves as a rudimentary form of establishment for the Church of England, but in new world conditions the system proved impossible to sustain. In the resulting religious free market, the

various denominations flourished, turning Toronto into allegedly the most evangelical city on earth. In the Australian colonies of New SouthWales and Victoria there were residual features of Anglican establishment, and early settlers from the other denominations exerted themselves for their extinction. By

practised in contemporary Italy or France.20 Faced with such devotional diversity, the Vatican could scarcely have imposed its own preferred brand of Catholic spirituality on all the world - even if it had wanted to - without the risk of losing its appeal altogether. The

vehicles through which the Vatican could attempt to control or influence the development of spontaneous cults or devotional practices abroad were just four: the granting of papal indulgences to express approval of particular devotions or sites of pilgrimage; the beatification of persons believed to have special

were allotted exclusively to Catholic architects. The most talented of thesewas the Dublin-born James Joseph McCarthy (1817-82),whowas responsible for the construction of the new St Patrick's Cathedral in Armagh for the Catholic Primatial See. The building was begun in 1840 as a much-reduced

version of York Minster in the English Perpendicular style. Construction was well advanced when McCarthy took over in 1853. He drastically adapted the earlier design, adding spires to the two western towers and crucially changing the style of the building to a severer English Decorated (expressed with

letters and diaries of John Henry Newman, 31 vols. (London: T. Nelson, 1961-77 and Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1978-), vol. xxvi, pp. 342-3. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 mary heimann

versions of their own spiritual classic, Challoner's The garden of the soul.19 The same pattern of indifference to Roman imperatives could be seen in Ireland, where the Key of heaven, originally known as The poor man's manual; or, devout Christian's daily companion, remained the Irish Catholic spiritual classic right up

death, while others were hanged and still others hurled from the rooftops of their residences.10 The anticlerical wave hit Barcelona a year later when religious houses were set ablaze, although the number of victims was less than in Madrid during the previous year. The civil authorities lamented the

violence but did little to stop it, seeing the matanza de los frailes primarily as a regrettable but understandable lapse from the norms of civilised behaviour. Popular hostility directed against the regulars in the cities arose in part from

metaphor of Draper and Whitewould seem to apply, although the battle lines were drawn differently from those of their warfare models, namely between Christian scientists and theologians on the one hand and materialist scientists 33 F. A. Lange, Geschichte des Materialismus, 2nd edn, 2 vols. (Iserlohn: J. Baedeker, 1875),

vol. ii, pp. 139-452. 34 Corsi, Science and religion. 35 Mullin, 'Science, miracles', p. 210. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

all human ties, that to our country is the highest and most sacred' and that 'unnatural' divisions among Christians risked the destruction of the church establishment and consequent national moral degradation.22 Ireland, however, was the initial focus of Whig reforms. Here the inherent

vulnerability of the minority Anglican state church was further exposed from 18 Brent, Liberal Anglican politics, p. 63. 19 T. Arnold, Principles of church reform (London, 1833), pp. iii-iv. 20 Ibid., pp. 31-7.

ofWelsh people'.62 This revival came, however, too late to avert an eventually successful campaign for disestablishment. Once the Church of Ireland had been disestablished, the four Welsh dioceses of the Church of England appeared the most

vulnerable part of the remaining state churches and hence were a natural target for Liberals and Nonconformists in England as well asWales. InWales itself a tithewar raged in the 1880s and 1890s.The demand for disestablishment also became a politically defining cause for Welsh nationalism, as despite its

the Paulists as a preaching, educational and publishing order designed especially for reaching other Americans. Attention to this book exacerbated an ongoing debate in the American hierarchy between those who favoured as much accommodation to American ways as possible and conservatives who

wanted to protect American Catholics from the corrosion of democracy. The upshot from a tangle of intra-American and European-American contentions was a pair of documents from Pope Leo XIII. In 1895, an encyclical, Longinqua Oceani, praised American Catholics for heroic efforts on behalf of the

policies, since the Conservative party claimed that the Netherlands was a Calvinist state. On the opposite side was the Groningen movement, which sought to overcome religious divisions on the basis of the Dutch traditions of Erasmus and the Brethren of the Common Life. Johan Rudolf Thorbecke

was a Lutheran prime minister, who because of his support for 'Christianity beyond religious division' did not resist the restoration of the Roman Catholic hierarchy in Holland in 1853, which led to his political downfall. Education led the Roman Catholics to change sides politically. Whereas the Groningen

an entire pastoral to the perils of alcohol; elsewhere sex outside marriage seemed to be the prevailing sin. 'Yet in spite of this, the faith is preserved intact and there is much religious enthusiasm.'8 So the priests made a distinction between morality and piety: their people were pious but sinful. Moral laxity

was a feature of Latin American Catholicism that impressed all the emissaries from Rome. An apostolic delegate reported from Honduras at the end of the century: 'As for morals, behaviour is so lax that it can only be attributed to an exaggerated confidence in God's mercy or to the scandalous example

minister dying in 1852.6 A third characteristic of evangelical religion was its insistence on the need for conversion. Thus in 1859 a Bible Christian reached 'a happy daywhen the peace of God first became his blest possession'.7 Although therewas no unanimity onwhether a datable experiencewas imperative, there

was agreement that a change of life was essential. And a fourth feature of the evangelical movement was its activism. 'Brethren', Spurgeon urged the ministerial students he trained, 'do something; do something; do something. While committees waste their time over resolutions, do something.'8 The energy

some Palestrina advocates of the 'revival', such as A. E. Grell, from taking a thoroughly dogmatic and didactic position condemning instrumental music as an anathema to church, school and domesticmusic-making. Mendelssohn's eclectic background, which assimilated Bach and Handel as well as the Classicists,

was also open to a Romantic interpretation of Renaissance polyphony and the Gabrielis, a fact evident in his setting of 'Ehre sei Gott in der H¨ohe', 'Heilig, heilig ist Gott', the brief but sublime 'Kyrie' and the Sechs Spr¨uche Op. 79 written after he was appointed director of Berliner Domchor in 1843.

It should be stressed that the breach was a long time in the making and that it was not necessarily destined to end in the separation of church and state. Nevertheless, tensions were apparent from the Restoration, which renewed the alliance of throne and altar, especially after Charles X - the chief Ultra -

was crowned king at Rheims in 1824 with medieval pomp and ceremony to symbolise the indissoluble bond between church and state. The Sacrilege Law of 1825, bywhich sacrilegewas made a crime punishable by death,was another spectacular symbolic gesture guaranteed to affront the liberal conscience of

land Islands, Iceland and the Faeroe Islands.4 Even Greenland is sometimes called a Nordic nation, but in the period from 1815 to 1914 it was a Danish colony, closed to the rest of the world. From the age of Reformation to the time of the Napoleonic wars, Norden

was divided intoWest- and East-Norden.West-Norden consisted of Denmark- Norway, a kingdom including Iceland, the Faeroe Islands and the duchy of Schleswig-Holstein, while East-Norden consisted of the kingdom of Sweden including Finland, and since the treaty ofWestphalia (1648) thewestern part of

the turbulence of the 1790s and provided the legal basis for relations between church and state until 1905, but it did not of itself end all religious conflict, since Bonapartewas soon embroiled in a titanic struggle with the papacy after his annexation of the Papal States in 1809. Thus, when the revolutionary era

was finally over and the Bourbons were restored definitively to the throne of France in 1815, the French church was confronted with a formidable task of reconstruction. To the surprise of many, it achieved a phenomenal success, though it was a success purchased at a high price.

whole of a community, became increasingly associated with particular places of worship. By the late Victorian period they were overwhelmingly popular. At the end of the queen's reign a single metropolitan Congregational church boasted more than 2,600 pupils together with 284 teachers.12 Although there

was heavy leakage of teenagers out of the chapels, their earlier teaching sowed seed that could subsequently yield a harvest through outreach efforts. Likewise weekday education tended to reinforce the message of the chapels. The chief textbook for learning to read in elementary schools during the early

Protestant minority time and again took a political stand against the new nation-state. The writer and pastor Jeremias Gotthelf belonged to this line of thought. After 1875 the Eidgen¨ossische Verein mobilised Protestant conservatives, and in the canton of Berne the Protestant opposition movement

was led by the Bernische Volkspartei of Ulrich D¨urrenmatt. Conservative alliances for popular votes were not merged into a common party; different confessionally defined identities played a much more important role in the conservative movement than in the liberal-radical one. Towards the end of

the Catholic religion. Only when the Austrians uncovered the sect's initiation ceremonies, which ridiculed church ritual, did Rome act. In mid-September, Pius VII launched an excommunication against the carbonari for their blasphemous misuse of Roman ritual. Justified on spiritual grounds, its motivation

was political, and as such proved a failure. While it did little to suppress the unrest or undermine the sects, it alienated Italian nationalists by identifying the papacy with Austria and reaction.3 Pius VII, assisted by Consalvi, balanced his religious responsibilities with political reality to the end of his pontificate

Theology and the revolt against the Enlightenment was a close friend of the great Italian novelist Manzoni. However, powerful elements in Roman Catholic orthodoxy, not least the Jesuits, were deeply suspicious of such efforts of mediation, and this hostility to modern thought

was reinforced by the activity of both men in revolutionary political activity prior to the Risorgimento and unification of Italy. In many respects both men were anticipating Catholic Modernism. Coleridge, like Gioberti andRosmini,was a liberal conservativewhowanted

The churchwas originally intended to be cuboid in formwith two lowtowers at its west end, but these were abandoned and replaced by a high dome rising above the church on a drum of Corinthian columns. The supremely elegant dome, which dominates the town, was completed only in 1849. The church

was restored after severe damage in the SecondWorldWar. In Presbyterian Scotland, where prejudice against the 'Catholic' Gothic of the Middle Ages remained strong, three remarkable, and highly original, Classical churches were constructed in Glasgow. All were the work of

Despite sporadic attempts to formulate social thought in the church, only in the nineteenth century did a true flowering take place and the foundations of Catholic social teaching were laid. Austria, Germany, France and Belgium were to the forefront, while England, as the anvil on which industrialisation

was shaped, made a precious contribution. North America did likewise, but chiefly as a reaction to novel ideas on land ownership. Ona practical level, the Sorbonne university professor and learned historian of the middle ages Fr´ed´eric Ozanam left an enduring legacy to the church by

laissez-faire liberalism and call for the workers' right to form trade unions. Wilhelm Emmanuel von Ketteler, bishop of Mainz since 1850, saw Manchester liberalism as 'a form of State absolutism masquerading under liberal phraseology and administered by a bourgeoisie whose guiding ideal

was that of rampant egoism'. Leo looked on Ketteler as his 'great predecessor', and Rerum Novarum elaborated on Ketteler's idea that the worker question could only be solved by combining state intervention and workers' associations.13

to assess the balance of church action in the sierra. The majority of priests in the Indian areas were white or mestizo, though many spoke Quechua or Aymara. But the allegiance of the Indians to traditional Catholicismwas never in doubt, even during times of revolution, and there is no evidence that religion

was used as a palliative or became an inhibiting factor in the Indians' struggle against abuses. The absence of social conscience in the nineteenth-century churchwas perhaps seen above all in Brazil,where the churchwas a slave owner and a notable

Regardless of such assumptions, it became more intellectually difficult if by no means impossible, for the educated at least, to adopt the literal view of Scripture which emerged from the premillennial movement of the 1820s. At a more popular level, traditional attitudes to hell fire and predestination were

weakened, and some Protestant bodies were deeply influenced by a post- Enlightenment optimism and progressivism which harmonised with political liberalism. The new evolutionary biological science of Darwinism, seeming to require a view of the creation and of man very different from the one set

1 Ehler and Morrall (eds.), Church and state through the centuries, p. 285. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 The papacy an older social order, and that he did not, in the manner of liberal Catholics,

welcome that element in liberalism which was, as Pius VII had recognised, an outgrowth of Christianity itself. Meanwhile, great international gatherings of priests and bishops in Rome, for the canonisation of the Japanese martyrs in 1862 and for the eighteenth

Ultramontanism's achievements also fuelled an increase in interconfessional polemic during the 1850s and 1860s. Although many Protestant churchmen longed for a similar increase in devotion among their own flocks, they were sceptical of what passed for piety among Catholics. Individual pastors as

well as many laymen with only weak ties to the organised churches (often called 'secular' or 'cultural' Protestants (Kulturprotestanten)) took a dimmer view of the situation. Pointing to the Westphalian Protestants who attended Jesuit missions and the Boniface Society's proselytising activities, they charged

Owen and his circle of Anglican patrons to retain the perception of providential design, not in concrete, functional adaptations but at an abstract, general level, by interpreting the archetype in terms of a Platonic idea - a blueprint in the mind of the Creator that had produced unity of design in nature, as

well as through geological time, from the earliest and lowest creature up to 'man'.32 The disappearance of the language of design from scientific discourse furthermore reflected the fact that such language had become unfashionable.

processes to shape the natural order. As an example, the conservative Presbyterian Benjamin B.Warfield (1851-1921) of Princeton Theological Seminary championed the inerrancy of Scripture but also held that biblical faith could accommodate evolution. The problem was rather that more and more

well-known intellectuals were using evolution as a grand idea to replace traditional views of God and his design of the world. They embraced instead the vision of a future guided by science, but a science triumphant in what an early president of Cornell University, Andrew Dickson White, called A history of the

pensioned) their salaries. In practice, the Lawwas applied with leniency:where religious practice was high, the church continued to use the churches for services and the faithful paid the clergy. But where religious practice was low or the commune was hostile to funding repairs, churches became ruinous or

were abandoned. On one reading, therefore, the French church suffered for bad papal diplomacy and papal intransigence. It would never have happened under Leo. As the state had renounced its authority over the appointment of bishops,

These mechanisms become apparent in the constructions of history and memory. The nation on the one hand, and political and social Catholicism on the other, can each be described as communities of memory, with parallel and partially overlapping narratives. Competing conceptions of the nation

were created, especially where contemporary conflicts seemed to reflect historical conflicts, which applied especially to the history of the Reformation period. There, the confessional factor became an instance of difference in the construction of a Swiss national history. National-liberal and Protestant discourses

roles flourishedwhen denominational hierarchieswereweak,when therewas a strong emphasis on charismatic leadership that did not view education and ordination as prerequisites to public preaching,when therewas a 'low' viewof the sacraments, and when growth and expansion, rather than consolidation,

were denominational priorities. Such features were particularly evident in new religious movements, and throughout the nineteenth century women found that it was within these groups that their leadership skills were most highly valued. However, as these movements became institutionalised they

appointment of bishops and relations with Rome, and guaranteed toleration for other faiths. A culture of compromise was born. Fromthe 1860s the Argentine church renewed its mission.The metropolitan diocese of Buenos Aireswas created, with its own archbishop.Newseminaries

were established and old ones revived. Seculars were joined by religious, and native priests by immigrant clergy. The Jesuits returned and in 1868 founded the Colegio del Salvador in Buenos Aires, successful enough to be burned down in 1875 by an anticlerical mob led by an apostate Spanish priest. The

that catered for significant numbers, though far less than 0.1 per cent of the population. The only other body to attract a reasonable proportion in 1851, though again far less than 0.1 per cent, was the dynamic group, lay-led and observing the Lord's Supper weekly, that rejected all labels but whose members

were known, from one of their early centres, as the Plymouth Brethren. Another new organisation, founded in 1878, was the Salvation Army, which deployed bugles, flags and war cries to mount a strategic assault on the citadels of Satan among the very poor. Many missions, often erected on

and priests, leading to requests that it establish houses in Spain (1850), Canada (1855) and England (1860). From Spain the congregation undertook missions to Mexico in 1902, making use of Spanish-speaking sisters, and from Canada it expanded into the United States in 1877, following the French Canadians who

were migrating to the north-eastern states in search of work. From England a foundation was made in Ireland in 1912, this time not as a mission but in response to the wishes of the many Irish sisters in the congregation and as a way for the congregation to recruitmore for its internationalwork. In the same

Women also encountered unprecedented opportunities to exercise their preaching aspirations in the rapidly expanding foreign mission field and took advantage of the freedom and latitude they were given to become not only evangelists, but doctors, administrators and church planters. By 1900, there

were over forty female Protestant missionary societies in the United States representing over 1,000 female missionaries.18 By 1909 approximately 60 per cent of the Church of England's missionaries were women.19 However, such authority was the result more of racial attitudes, which viewed the 'heathen'

and resentment'.5 Or at least incomprehension. The Catholic elite in Mexico had little contact with the popular sectors of the church, while they were marked off from other leading groups by their religion and their politics, steadfast in defence of hierarchy in church and state. Catholic conservatives

were politically destroyed by their liberal enemies during the civil wars of the Reform and subsequently kept a low profile. In Argentina immigration had mixed effects on religion. Many Spanish, Italian and French immigrants were enemies of the church, political exiles

their personal opposition to the Revolution, first when Groen entitled his 1847 magnum opus Unbelief and revolution,30 and then when both of them referred to their political group as the 'Anti-Revolutionaries', and eventually as the Anti-Revolutionary Party, founded in 1879. In theology the progressive trends

were represented by humanistic and individualistic tendencies, and in church politics by a desire on the part of the state to distance itself from any one religion or established church. The state also wished to break down religious resistance to liberal reforms and, in the early stages at least, to use church

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Women preachers and the new Orders sisters and nuns.25 At the beginning of this period there had been around 20,000, but the number multiplied rapidly with each decade. Predominantly

western European and North American, they lived and worked on all continents by the end of the century, being present in such jurisdictions as China and India as small groups of missionaries and embryonic indigenous groups, and in others, such as Italy and the United States, in large-scale and deeply

and he was dismissed, but his appointment later as director of the Tuileries Chapel under Napoleon meant that his ideas could be reintroduced. After the Revolution the choir schools (the maˆıtrises) were abolished and there followed a period of silence for almost twelve years, until the concordat of July 1801,

when little or no sacred music was composed or sung publicly. After the signing of the concordat, Napoleon, as first consul, quickly resolved to continue the traditions of former French kings by establishing a chapel in the Tuileries. An admirer of Italian opera, notably the music of Paisiello and Cimarosa, he

workplaces. Control of theirworking conditionswas minimal, and the concept of a just wage was a mere ideal. Grinding poverty was everywhere apparent, while the owners of capital accumulated riches, often immense riches based on capital rather than on land. Gradually,workers realised their potential strength

when united in organisations of their own, and signs of upheaval increasingly caused alarm among the self-satisfied and comfortable, and in government circles. 9 Ibid., pp. 108-16, 212-19, 298, 160, 232.

eager to convert the world to the 'faith of their fathers', by about the middle of the nineteenth century it had become clear, even to the most sanguine, that most non-Christian peoples were either indifferent, or actually hostile, to the 'good news' being brought to them by European missionaries,

whether Protestant or Catholic. The 'Catholic Revival' which followed throughout most of Europe and the New World, and which distinguished itself from earlier missionary endeavour by turning its focus almost exclusively on whites, thus came, in practice, to be amovement of significance only

attached to its own particular brand of miracle, rather than uncritically to have adopted those of its neighbours. What was true of claims of the miraculous was equally true of devotional practices, all of which were increasingly available to Catholics, but none of

which could be imposed upon them by force. As even the most hard-line or 'Ultramontane' campaigners for papal authority - among them cardinals Henry Manning of England and Paul Cullen of Ireland - were ready to admit, no devotion could be expressly forbidden so long as it did not contradict

nature'. Leo rejoiced that the slaves had been set free in Brazil to honour the golden jubilee of his priesthood in 1888 and asked for common action to end slavery in Africa.9 Leo's principal encyclical before Rerum Novarum (1891) was Libertas (1888)

which dealt with the nature of human freedom. Although he held that 'natural freedom is the fountainhead fromwhich liberty of any kindwhatsoever flows', he denied the alleged principle of liberalism that 'man is the lawto himself ' and insisted that law, in particular the natural law 'engraved in us all', commands

to maintaining the status quo and he declared in Diuturnum (1881) that 'those who refuse honor (sic) to rulers refuse it to God', but reaffirmed that the purpose of the state is the good of the people, rather than of its rulers.7 Soon after his election he issued an encyclical, Quod Apostolici Muneris (1878), in

which he lumped socialists, communists and nihilists together as striving for 'the overthrow of all civil society' and said that, if these tendencies were not checked, 'the greater portion of the human race will fall into the vile condition of slavery'. He appealed to 'Catholic wisdom, sustained by the precepts of

an obituary in the Review in 1889; he himself had been active in what was often called 'municipal socialism' in the last third of the century,whenmunicipal corporations took over the provision of many public services. Andrew Mearns's The bitter cry of outcast London (1883) put the spotlight on the extent to

which the working classes suffered from poor housing conditions, such that those living on immoral earningswere able to afford better rooms than honest labourers. The outcry of Nonconformists and others led to the establishment of a Royal Commission on the Housing of theWorking Classes. John Clifford,

international campaign against it. At the end of the nineteenth century, Hungary was still predominantly an agrarian society. Industrial development only began in 1890, in Budapest, and as a result the capital city also became the centre of the workers' movement,

which was supported by the Hungarian Social Democratic Party. The Social Democrats' manifesto included plans for the nationalisation of church property and religious schools, and extensive laicisation of the state. Church Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

brotherhoods themselves are essentially lay in organisation, composition and leadership.33 The urge to restrain the popular was not confined to Roman Catholics. In Scotland the traditional summer communion seasons had been occasions

which were widely attended, not just from the village concerned; indeed there is some evidence that people travelled from village to village. Theywere often contexts for religious revival; but they could also be occasions for rather 29 See chapter 6 above, pp. 94-102.

Most of his confr`eres agreed, and had no difficulty in accommodating themselves to the concordat and in establishing a good working relationship with the Ministry of Ecclesiastical Affairs. The best of them were skilled administrators, possessed of finely honed diplomatic skills, men of tact and judgement

who could mingle easily with the social and political elite of their day: zealots they were not. As late as 1850 Ultramontanes were a distinct (if active) minority (seventeen out of eighty) on the bench of bishops, and after 1830 the church also numbered fewbishopswho united their Gallican ecclesiology to a

nickname 'Nazarenes' from their long hair and the eccentric semi-biblical vesture they chose to adopt. Prominent amongst the founders were Franz Pforr (1788-1812) and Johann Friedrich Overbeck (1789-1869). They were later joined by Peter Cornelius (1783-1867), Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld (1794-1872,

who remained a Protestant), Friedrich Olivier (1791-1859), FriedrichWilhelm Schadow(1788-1862) and PhilippVeit (1793-1877).The early paintings produced by the group were stiffly 'medieval' in character and indicated a rejection of both academic perspective and neo-Classical line. Overbeck's Entry of Christ

Unitarianism, and in this forma very powerful force in the Anglo-Saxonworld in the nineteenth century. It bequeathed a determination to submit Christian doctrines to rules of logic and morality. The Trinity was deemed logically incoherent and the atonement declared ethically sub-Christian. Coleridge,

who was a Unitarian for some years of his life, felt this challenge very deeply, and in his later intellectual career devotedmuch attention to the coherence of Christian logicalandmetaphysical claims (especiallybydistinguishing 'Reason' from 'Understanding') and the charge that the doctrine of salvation is immoral.

were very small, but they were at the heart of a major schism or Afscheiding of 1834, and they were often persecuted in the Erastian state of the 1830s. By 1850 they had become a small but recognised group in Dutch religious life. A larger and less inflexible group was formed by those orthodox Calvinists

who were not as severe in their doctrine as the strict orthodox, but who were determined to keep to the principles, if not every single letter, of the church of Calvin and the Dutch Revolt. Often they were reluctant to leave the Dutch Reformed Church, preferring to try and work from within, although in 1886

the greatest evangelistic asset of Methodism. The Old Dissenting tradition, deriving from the seventeenth century, included the Unitarians, the Congregationalists, the Baptists and the Quakers. The Unitarians, the heirs of the 'rational Dissenters' of the previous century

who were usually Presbyterian by background, insisted that God is one and 3 Proportions from the 1851 census relate to England alone and are taken from Watts, Dissenters, p. 28. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

century and were united in the Schweizerische Caritasverband in 1901. In 1887, the Verband der katholischenM¨anner- und Arbeitervereinewas founded by Joseph Beck, Caspar Decurtins and Ernst Feigenwinter. They proclaimed corporatist models aiming at an antimodernist restructuring of society as a

whole, and their idea of self-help resulted in the foundation of Catholic health insurances and savings banks. At the beginning of the twentieth century, the old social movementwas replaced by the Christian social labour movement.20 The Catholic networkswere also essential for the foundation of the University

their ranks. In 1829 there was schism: those holding these views withdrew to Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 The growth of voluntary religion form a Remonstrant Synod, and eleven years later the Synod of Ulster, now

wholly evangelical, united with the Seceders to create the vigorous Presbyterian Church in Ireland. Methodism, which was also a major force in parts of Ulster, expanded in a pulsating rhythm that reflected its commitment to revivals. It was the Presbyterians, however, who were caught up most

sale of some 25,000 copies and were syndicated to newspapers throughout the English-speaking world. Although he enjoyed none of the privileges of the established Church of England - and in part because of that circumstance - Spurgeon achieved enormous popularity. The Nonconformists of England

whom he championed were at the height of their influence. The descendants of the Puritans,who had left the established church in the seventeenth century and whose ranks had been augmented in the eighteenth by the Methodists, had grown to a position of rough numerical equality with the Church of

the biggest cities of the world, gained fresh impetus as transport became cheaper. Although new places of worship were erected for suburban dwellers, the older congregations near the city centres thinned as former members moved out to homes on the edge of the countryside. The lay leaders on

whom voluntary organisations depended were specially likely to possess the initiative to prosper and depart to the suburbs. Meanwhile rural churches, though sometimes flourishing, were often, especially in Britain, hard hit by agricultural depression and so no longer able to pay a minister. The urban

the divine: 'In nature everything must be His work or nothing.'19 What united the great theological minds of the nineteenth century was the conviction that the inherited orthodoxies required interpretation in an increasingly democratic and industrial context in which natural science was

widely seen as the sole path to legitimate knowledge. An unmediated return was impossible. The Enlightenment was correct to dwell upon the ethical dimension of faith - even if it tended to neglect the aesthetic dimensions. Conclusion

from 1815 to 1914. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Spain and Portugal: the challenge to the church

william j. callahan The transition from royal absolutism to liberalism in nineteenth-century Spain and Portugalwas turbulent and diverse.1 Civilwars between defenders of absolute monarchy and liberalism, periodic revolutions, military interventions,

evangelicalism, and contributed to the disruption of the Church of Scotland in 1843, with the formation of a new Free Church which was voluntarist in practice though not in principle. The great British church-building boom after 1830, partly sustained by denominational rivalry, did not in itself

win back the slums for religion, as popular alienation from formal religious practice, if not from faith itself, had more complicated causes, which partly lay in the middle-class character of so much British Christianity. On the continent, the urban working classes were influenced by anticlerical socialism and,

to create mutually favourable agreements with the states on such issues as ecclesiastical pay, clerical nominations, education and the Catholic Church's general ability to manage its internal affairs. This resulted in the Bavarian concordat in 1817, a Prussian convention in 1821, and more informal arrangements

with Hanover andW¨urttemberg. In Austria, however, Metternich held firmto the policy of Josephinism,whereby the clergy functioned as state agents of religion, morality and public order. Taken together, the post-Vienna settlements put the Catholic Church in a position vis-`a-vis the state remarkably similar to

challenges confronting religion in the latter part of the nineteenth century. In both the United States and Canada, the churches succeeded in fashioning what may genuinely be regarded as 'Christian societies'. But that fashioning always mingled tragedy with triumph, irony with achievement, ambiguity

with advance. The construction of 'Christian America', 1815-1844 The driving force inthe religious historyof the United States during the first half of the nineteenth century was evangelical Christianity. Following theWar for

responsibility formostof the province's schools aswell as its hospitals and social services. None the less, a rising professional class of doctors, lawyers and small businessmen resisted episcopal authority. When Louis-Joseph Papineau (1786- 1871) began to agitate for republican political reform, he put himself at odds

with both British governors and the church. The armed revolt that followed in 1837 was quickly put down; its leaders were executed or, like Papineau, fled to the United States. During the early 1840s, events centred in Montreal promoted a more homogeneous

human remnants in prehistoric, diluvial deposits. Yet a further reconciliatory adjustment became necessary when by the end of the 1850s the discovery of primitive tools made of chipped flint mingled with the bones of extinct Pleistocenemammalsmade it undeniable that humans had been contemporaneous

with extinct mammals and, as the Scottish geologist Charles Lyell (1797-1875) showed in his Geological evidences of the antiquity of Man (1863), were of much greater age than allowed for by traditional biblical chronology.20 The third and least literal exegesis was the idealist, which stated that the

common among men than women, it is remarkable how many found their religion strengthened in new and alien surroundings. This Irish Catholic appeal to a sense of traditional, local and international community was reflected in their initial generally low rates of intermarriage

with non-Catholics. Indeed the enormous effort of creating a separate Catholic world within and against a largely Protestant one was fed by memories of ancestral wrong and sustained by both continuing disadvantage and newfound prosperity, and also conferred and reinforced a definite sense of unity

but received special emphasis in the Hispanic tradition, perpetuated by preachers who urged their congregations to 'flee all familiarity with persons of the other sex, and to avoid the slightest touch of even a thread of clothing'. The laity knew the church as a parish, and their most immediate contact

with organised religion was through their parish priest. The church had a strong pastoral presence in the older cities and provincial towns of Latin America,where numerous churches, convents and schools served the faith and enriched the skyline. In the countryside the framework was more stretched,

been approvingly discussed by eighteenth-century theosophists and attained a strong following during the 1820s and 1830s among nature philosophers of the school of FriedrichWilhelm Joseph Schelling (1775-1854). Henrik Steffens (1773-1845), for example, in his Anthropologie (1822), imaginatively combined it

with the 'day-age' interpretation. The notion of restitution accommodated the dualism, demonology and Satanology of their developmental view of the world inwhich constructive forces appeared interlocked with destructive, and the 'tohu wabohu' of Genesis 1 verse 2 referred to one of a series of ruinous

was the concert hall, a tendency he shared with the earlier conceptions of Beethoven's monumental Missa Solemnis (1819-23) and Schubert's late masses in A flat (1819-22) and E flat (1828). Indeed, during the later nineteenth century, the mass and requiem developed into a large-scale choral genre comparable

with the oratorio in terms of its dramatic and narrative possibilities, and open to a wide range of heterodox interpretations ranging from those of traditional believers (Dvoˇr´ak, Liszt, Bruckner, Gounod and Stanford), through the sceptical (Berlioz, Brahms and Faur´e), to the outright atheist (Verdi and Delius).

Scotland The Church of Scotland split in 1843 as a result of the paradoxical conviction of the founders of the Free Church that integrity of witness as a national church required, under then current circumstances, the renunciation of formal connections

with the state. Presbyterianism north of the Border had, however, already been divided before 1843, by the departure of those in the United Secession Church and the Relief Church who felt unable to accept state connections under any terms. In 1847 these two groups came together to form

Prussian zones and great liberty in the Austrian. Resistance One can understand the force of social resistance to the pressures imposed by such powerful states only by recognising the strength of the links of Polish society

with traditional Catholicity and with customs on the margins of folklore and popular religion. There were no traces of significant dechristianisation at this time. The overwhelming majority of Poles, up to 90-95 per cent, followed obligatory practice: mass on Sunday, confession once a year, etc. The

patronage came through its grant to the chief Irish seminary at Maynooth, founded in 1795, which was made permanent in 1845 but was abolished when the Protestant Church of Ireland was disestablished by W. E. Gladstone's Liberal administration in 1869-71, leaving Ireland as almost unique in Europe

without a state church. The popularity of the Irish Catholic Church as a voluntary institution was not even disturbed by its general opposition to the minorrevolution against British rulebythe 'YoungIrelanders' of 1848andto the more serious Fenian rising of 1867, both of which were condemned by leading

to recognise that a corporate state would be a sham democracy in which a powerful few would suppress deviation in a spurious desire to bring about a harmonious society.12 Theoretical considerations aside, it was rather the conditions of the workers

witnessed by Catholics such as Franz von Baader, professor of philosophy at Munich from 1826, that inspired some of them to respond. A foundry manager in England, he had observed at close quarters 'the abyss of the physical and moral misery of the Proletariat'. This led him to condemn Manchester

of German and English Protestant thinkers to answer the problems posed by the spirit of the age in terms sympathetic to it, as by Hegel and Coleridge. The Romantic movement was in revolt against eighteenth-century rationalism and brought with it a renewed sense of the value of awe and mystery and

wonder. Romanticismwas, therefore, strongly inclined to Christianity, in both its Protestant and Catholic forms, and had a major influence upon the Christian dimension of nineteenth-century literature, especially in English-speaking countries, the subject of a separate chapter here.TheRomantic insistenceupon

Israelite religion that had been anticipated by de Wette over seventy years earlier. Four sources, or documents, were proposed. The J source (so called because it primarily used thenameYahweh for God), probably written in Judah in the ninth century, and the E source (so called because it used the Hebrew

word Elohim, meaning God), probably written in the northern kingdom, Israel, in the eighth century, reflected a period when God was worshipped at many sanctuaries and there was no centralised priesthood or sacrificial legislation. The reforms of Josiah in 622 in response to the preaching of the prophets

of Rome.1 The events of the French Revolution and the defeat of Napoleon gave rise in Britain to intense speculation that biblical prophecies had been fulfilled and that the second advent of Jesus was imminent. Such speculation had several consequences. First, there was renewed interest in missionary