Family Stress and Coping Exam 1

minority stress

Gay, bisexual, lesbian, and LGBQ encounter stigma and fear of acceptance from the society; though their life is visible in the society, yet many fail to acknowledge and accept them as normal couples. Social stigma and unequal rights may lead LGBQ couples and their families under immense stress; this is also called as minority stress.

proximal processes

The daily interactions people have that shape their development

Ethncity

groups of individuals who share a common origin and culture.

marginalization

Rejection of both host and one's native culture.

Regenerative power of the family

-It is the capability of a family to recover from the stress or crisis. -The purpose of regeneration or restoration is to pacify the disruption caused in the family and bring it back to a state of homeostasis.

Double C Factor

-Perception of the initial stressor. -Perception of the current stressor.

The Vulnerability-Stress-Adaptation Model: Enduring Vulnerabilities

1. A personal trait: -The vulnerabilities and emotional functioning inherent in one's personality largely convey how much a person or family can cope with daily hassles. -More stable and resilient traits help a person as well as the family to collectively sway away everyday hassles. -Individuals with high level of negative affectivity, type A personality, low self-esteem, neuroticism are more likely to succumb under stressful conditions while facing everyday hassles. 2. Gender differences: -The extent to which enduring vulnerabilities or resilience moderate the link between daily hassles and the stress of the family will differ from men to women. -Wives are more sensitive to marital arguments. -Marital arguments were exacerbated by women who had psychological distress, neuroticism, mastery, extroversion, and self-esteem. -As opposed to this, self-esteem alone moderates the link between marital arguments and daily hassles for men.

developmental disabilities

1. According to U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, severe, persistent mental or physical developmental impairments are referred to as developmental disabilities. 2. Developmental disabilities show before age 22 and lasts throughout life appearing in the areas of self-care, language, learning and so on. 3. Developmental disabilities could be either physical (epilepsy) or cognitive (Down's syndrome).

Adjustment of Children of Immigrant Families. 1. Adaptive effects of parentification. 2. Maladaptive effects of parentification.

1. Adaptive effects of parentification: -When a child takes up the responsibility of caregiving their siblings and parents, it is called as parentification. -The children who are born or raised in the United States have better language and life skills than their foreign born parents. -Often, they have to work as a mediator between their parents and the outside world by assisting their parents with translation, paperwork, driving, and so on. -Parentification reflects better adaptability of the child and improves parent-child bonding. 2. Maladaptive effects of parentification: -Parentification may lead to stress or caregiving burden and children might feel overwhelmed to carry endless tasks for their parents. -They may feel agitated or distressed with very demanding work. -Many times, parents report negative feelings while asking their children for hand-holding. -They might be susceptible to compromise their self-esteem and self-efficacy.

adaptive processes

1. Adaptive processes shield the harm rendered to a family due to daily hassles. 2. It is a way families cope with difficult everyday situations. 3. There is an inverse relationship between adaptive processes and daily hassles. 4. Depending on the adaptability a family can moderate or appraise the potentiality of daily hassles.

Ambiguous loss:

1. All the stressors/events do not affect the equilibrium of the family directly; some of these are ambiguous, indicating incongruency between physical and psychological/emotional presence or absence of the variables. 2. There are two types of ambiguous loss: -Person being physically absent but psychologically present: a lost family member, divorced partner, or immigrants. -Person who is present physically but absent psychologically: Alzheimer's disease or a chronic mental illness, chronic substance abuse; a spouse preoccupied with work.

Hassles alongside a major life event

1. Although everyday hassles constitute minor and more frequent disruptions to a family, if these are paired with a rare life occurrence or a major stressor, it could expose the family to greater damage. 2. For example, a family still coping with sudden death of a family member may have to continue with their routine work after few days of grieving.

Anticipated and unanticipated hassles

1. Anticipated hassles are mundane and predictable, for example: getting late or work, children not finishing their school tasks, long hours of work, medical checkups etc. 2. unanticipated hassles are episodic, like a flat-tire on the way to work, unannounced meetings, or children falling sick.

Stress: Anxiety and Coping

1. Anxiety denotes stress and is the central component in determining clinical psychopathology. 2. Personal coping resources accrued during the adolescent-young adult years are thought to be integrated into the self-concept and shape the process of coping throughout adulthood.

Ambiguous Loss: special needs

1. Boss (1999) defined ambiguous loss as an incongruence between the psychological and physical family. 2. A significant component of Boss's ambiguous loss is the concept of boundary ambiguity, which refers to the experience of not knowing who is in or out of the family or relationship.

Stress vs Crisis

1. Boss defines crisis as -a disturbance in the equilibrium that is overwhelming, -pressure that is so severe, or -change that is so acute that the family system is blocked and incapacitated. 2.Family crisis is a dichotomous variable; that is, either the family is in crisis or not. 3. Unlike crisis, family stress is a continuous variable; it is a change in the state of equilibrium or normalcy of the family. 4. The degree of stress may vary depending on the resources available with a family and the type of stressor event.

Contextual Model of Family Stress: special needs

1. Boss's (2002) contextual model of family stress is based on the ABC-X model. -The stressor, A, is the initial diagnosis of the disability. -B constitutes resources that help the family to cope with the stressor and mitigate its effect. -The factor C is perception of the stressor by the family; this is further extended by boundary ambiguity and various social factors that build or affect the perception. 2. Families may experience ambiguity after diagnosis of the disability; this is ever changing as the disability transitions from one stage to the other. 3. Additional factors that accumulate to determine the degree of stress the family may experience: -Elements of the external context (i.e., culture, historical, economic, developmental, and heredity) and -Internal context (i.e., structural, psychological, and philosophical factors that are part of the family).

Cognitive coping strategies

1. Cognitive coping strategies are the ways in which families associate or disassociate with a stressor or a worrying life event, it is the overall perception towards an event. 2. There are three types of family coping response: -Direct action (saving, acquiring resources, developing new skills, etc.). -Intrapsychic (attaching meaning to a problem or looking at the positive side of the change or its aftermath). -Controlling the emotions generated by a stressor (spiritual sessions, advise of a teacher or guru, alcohol, social support, etc.).

Aging Immigrant Health 1. Cohesive neighborhood. 2. Positive spousal support. 3. Stress due to overreliance.

1. Cohesive neighborhood: Acculturation and migration related stressors may have negative impact on aging immigrant health; this is buffered by a cohesive neighborhood with strong emotional and social support. 2. Positive spousal support: Positive spousal is a definite predictor of strong mental and emotional well-being. 3. Stress due to overreliance: Overreliance on social and family support may have negative bearing on psychological stress of older cohorts.

Undocumented Families 1. Deportation. 2. Limited access to community resources. 3. or lower-paying jobs.

1. Deportation: -3.7 million undocumented immigrants were deported from the United States between 2003 and 2013. Out of those, 91% were from Mexico and Central America. -Separation of families due to deportation is growing rapidly because of the federal anti-immigrant drive; the families of immigrants who pose such threats face immense stress and chaos in their lives. 2.Limited access to community resources: -Immigrants with undocumented legal stature face multiple challenges, like: Indiscrimination in the community, at schools and at workplace; Limited access to health care; Marginalization in the society; Missing employment benefits. -As a result of these fluctuations, they are less likely to use resources from community or government to avoid their exposure and being detained eventually. 3. Unemployment or lower-paying jobs: -Many undocumented adults face discrimination and marginalization at their workplace. -Employers demand documentation proof and legal clearance from all their employees. -Not being able to provide this and without a legal status many immigrants accept low-paying or physically demanding labor.

Double ABC-X factor

1. Double A factor refers to stress pileup. 2. This includes three types of stressors: -An unresolved initial stressor. -Onset of another stressor regardless of the initial stressor. -The results of changes or coping that family undergoes in order to face these stressors.

Reunify with family

1. Due to limited resource and financial difficulties, people cannot bring their family with them. 2. Immigrants are vulnerable for their separation from the family members. 3. The Immigration Reform and Nationality Act of 1965 has made it possible for immigrants to bring their family in the host country and reunify with them. 4. The families reunify and start living in the United States as immigrants.

Interparental Conflict and Parent-Child Conflict. 1. Economic and social conflict. 2. Conflict due to violence. 3. Interparental conflicts.

1. Economic and social conflict: Stress from unemployment and disadvantageous economic and social situations are likely to affect family stability and these families are more likely to experience conflict, compared to other families. 2. Conflict due to violence: Distance from family and lack of social support, economic instability, and alcohol use by males were few factors that triggered violence in immigrant families making women and children more vulnerable. 3. Interparental conflicts: The parent-adolescent conflict mediated the association between interparental conflict and emotional distress.

Definition of the Event/Perceptions: Belief system or value orientation

1. Families having a mastery orientation believe in their problem solving capabilities and think that they can control any adverse situation. 2. Families having fatalistic orientation believe that everything happens at God's will and all the events are predetermined and not in their control.

feminist scholars

1. Feminist scholars used qualitative tests and have highlighted the multidimensional aspects of a hassle. 2. They conferred that women may find some hassles as difficult or unpleasant. 3. However, they also view it as important and find contentment in caring for their loved ones.

support for special health care needs:

1. Functional limitations faced by individuals with special health-care needs includes difficulties in comprehension, communication, and basic self-care. 2. These difficulties affect the activities like education, employment, and social well-being. 3. Often these individuals need specialized service and support in terms of nursing care, counselling, and special education planning.

The Vulnerability-Stress-Adaptation Model: Everyday Hassles

1. Gender disparities and everyday hassles: -To understand the links between everyday hassles and family relationships, one must recognize that family labor is multidimensional and time intensive, involves both routine and occasional tasks, and is highly variable across and within households. -Furthermore, because much of the "worry-shift" is mundane, tedious, boring, and generally performed without pay, most women and men report that they do not like doing it. 2. For example, employed wives recorded having more positive emotions during work hours and this depleted drastically at home during evening hours. 3. Whereas, men recorded more emotional decline at work and a positive mood at their home when they are relaxing or spending leisure time. 4. The difference between how men and women experience everyday hassles in their family labor is by whether they choose to perform it freely, voluntarily or by compulsion. Everyday hassles for different age groups: People record less everyday hassles at old age (60-70 years). Socioeconomic status and everyday hassles: Sociopolitical changes like anti-immigration policies have increased the fear of separation and deportation amongst immigrant families in the U.S.

Aging Immigrants and families 1. Growth due to high fertility rates. 2. Growth in elderly population.

1. Growth due to high fertility rates: Immigrants are more healthy than the U.S. adults; they have higher fertility rates with successful child birth. 2. Growth in elderly population: The prolific growth among foreign-born individuals will also cause an increase in the number of people who are 65 years and above. There are two causes of these growths: Long-term immigrants are aging and joining the rest of the native population; Reunification policies have allowed aging immigrants to join their children who work in the United States.

Disability as a social construct: Stressors for family

1. Having a child with intellectual and developmental disabilities is often stressful for families as the experiences vary based on individual and contextual factors. 2. Families with children having developmental disabilities must foster resilience and better coping skills alongside other parental responsibilities.

Family resilience model (FRM)

1. Henry and colleagues (2015) describe the FRM as when family risk interacts with family protection and vulnerability in such ways that result in short-term and long-term family system adaptation, family resilience is present. 2. Family resilience has four key elements: -Presence of family risk. -Family protection. -Family vulnerability. -Adjustments (short-term) and adaptation (long-term).

Supra System

1. Individuals and families constitute a part of the larger social system. 2. The external environment in which families exist and operate is called an ecosystem. 3. Thus a family's response to a stressor may depend on the historical period, economy, political upheaval, or cultural associations.

intellectual disabilities or mental retardation

1. Intellectual disability originates before the age of 18 and is characterized by significant limitations both in intellectual functioning (reasoning, learning, problem solving) and in adaptive behavior. 2. Intellectual disability is the most common developmental disability, with an estimated prevalence rate of approximately 1% of the population (American Psychiatric Association [APA], 2013).

Daily Inventory of Stressful Events (DISE)

1. It is a semistructured telephone interview that records participants response through a series of open ended questions about daily stressors across various domains of family life for eight consecutive days. 2. This is a time-intensive method and reliable as it uses investor's rating on every stressor rather than self-rated appraisals of the participants.

VSA Model

1. Karney and Bradbury's (1995) VSA model includes and expands principles from various social and behavioral studies to establish a link between how families experience stressful events and what is its relational outcome on the family eventually. 2. While applying Karney and Bradbury's model every hassle or stressful event is explored around the vulnerabilities of the family being exposed as well as their adaptive process to ensure well-being of the family. 3. Opportunities and constraint offered by the ecological surrounding also plays a vital part in the application of this theory.

Resources to moderate the impact of family stressors

1. Moderate the impact of stressors: McCubbin and Patterson (1985) defined resources as traits, characteristics, or abilities of: -Individual family members, -The family system, and -The community that can be used to meet the demands of a stressor event. 2. Family system resources: -Family system resources are the internal strength of the family that protect the family from the effects of stressors and help it to adapt during stress or crisis. -Family cohesion (bonds of unity) adaptability (ability to change) are two very important factors to help families make adjustment to stress. 3. Community resources: -Community resources refer to those capabilities of people or institutions outside the family upon which the family can draw from to deal with stress. -Social support is one of the most important family resources; this includes support from friends, neighbors, relatives, and societal institutions.

normal vs non normative events

1. Normal events are a part of everyday life and represent changes in every family, for example: children starting school, death, retirement, early bird, marriages. 2. Although inherent, these events may disturb the equilibrium and normalcy of the family causing stress. 3. Nonnormative events are sudden and unpredictable events like, natural disasters, loss of a job, accident, riots, and communal violence. 4. These events affect the normal routine life of a family and increase its stress manifolds.

Parents of Children with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities: impact

1. Parental responsibilities increase in complexity layered by grief when their child is diagnosed with intellectual or developmental disabilities. 2. For caregiver, increased financial load, medical care, assistance, education. and many more including the future concern of their child poses a challenge. 3. Researchers found that mothers of the disabled spent more time engaged as the primary caregiver for their children, less time socializing with other parents, and less time engaged in activities outside the home. The presence of a child with intellectual or developmental disability may have a negative impact on the married life.

Considerations for Interventions 1. Peer-based intervention. 2. School-family-community partnership. 3. Psychoeducational approach.

1. Peer-based intervention: Peer-based interventions involve peers in the treatment, support and care, and accessing various health-related services. Participants like children of immigrant families have impoverished communities that lack in psychological assistance and acclimatization of children in the new culture. Children may not have regular contact with their peers who live in other countries. Relying at a peer support group could help individuals overcome various immigration stressors and they feel welcomed in the new environment. 2. School-family-community partnership: Schools provide various community-based intervention to the immigrant students, while also keeping their families in the close loop. Such facilities bridge the cultural gap, help children to become resilient, and thus reduce the stressors that they face otherwise. This association has higher success in helping families with disadvantaged background who do not have such support available in their communities. 3. Psychoeducational approach: A psychoeducational approach applies a more informal way to disseminate information. For example, distributing or displaying pamphlets to raise awareness about migrant stressors and support available to them, without putting any psychological pressure on the target population.

Refugees 1. Refugee versus immigrant families. 2. Well-being of family members in home country. 3. Retaining cultural identity.

1. Refugee versus immigrant families: While refugee families have few similarities with immigrant families, their experiences are more overwhelming in the host country. Refugee population symptomatically have: PTSD, depression, anxiety, depression, and other psychological distress more commonly than other children. 2. Well-being of family members in home country: Though staying in a host country that has better avenues and is safer than the home country, refugees are distressed about the well-being and safety of close family members who were forced to be left behind in their homeland. 3. Retaining cultural identity: In addition to family and emotional hardships, acculturation and a sense of lost identity culturally inflict distress among refugees.

Stress: Response to a stimulus

1. Stress is variably defined as a stimulus, an inferred inner state, and an observable response to a stimulus or situation. 2. Stress is an orchestrated set of bodily defenses against any form of noxious stimuli. 3. He described the body's short and long term reaction to stress through a term called General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS).

Two broad components of literature

1. Stressful events or experiences that families may have. 2. How families respond to or cope with said experiences.

Subsystem

1. Systems theory states that the system is more than the sum of its parts. 2. A collection of family members is not only a specific number of people but also an aggregate of particular relationships and shared memories, successes, failures, and aspirations. 3. Systems theory also involves study of every individual and understand how they would respond collectively as a family to any stress posed.

Definition of the Event/Perceptions: Individualistic/collectivistic culture

1. Taking actions, standing up for oneself and one's cause, and confronting the problems are the approaches of individualistic cultures. 2. Thoughtfulness, harmony, and interdependence define the decision making and approaches of collectivistic culture.

Stress: change in family's steady state:

1. The degree of stress varies based on the type of stressor event and the adequate resources a family has to meet the demands of the change. 2. Stress is not always detrimental; it is problematic only when the it affects the routine functioning of the family and disrupts the equilibrium.

Diagnosis and initial stressor: Special needs

1. The diagnosis of a child with intellectual and developmental disabilities may introduce initial stressor to the families. 2. However, these stressors may be dealt negatively as well as positively. 3. For example, appraisals or various perceptual mechanisms adapted by parents may combat the adversity these stressors pose for a family.

social support systems

1. The initial diagnosis of intellectual and developmental disability isolates the family from social groups and community interactions. 2. It is often characterized with withdrawal; social support to the affected family and counselling can further help families to reintegrate. 3. The care-givers find themselves in great distress and feel psychologically compelled to gather all their energy around the child. 4. A strong formal as well as informal support from the social groups and acquaintances act as a potent resource to help caregivers cope with the adversities.

Definition of the Event/Perceptions: Stage of family life cycle

1. The response to stress varies based on the different stages of life cycle of a family. 2. For example, when a child is born, children leave the home, and retirement.

Limitations of VSA model

1. This model eliminates important aspects like ecological niches and sociocultural background, which play a major role in helping families to adapt to everyday hassles. 2. For example, families with decent income can afford a house help that will ease out their everyday work load and the mundane tasks could be handled by a capable assistant.

Daily hassles and family interactions

1. Through a labor intensive and methodical study, researchers in the 21st century are able to establish direct connections between daily hassles and how families interact within. 2. This method included time diaries, experience sampling, and within person examination of day-to-day happenings in response to daily hassles.

Staying Connected 1. Transnational family interactions 2. Financial and emotional connections 3. Remittances

1. Transnational family interactions remain financially and emotionally connected across borders 2. Remittances are defined as an exchange of goods and resources across borders by people in a host country and their counterparts in their country of origin 3. Family members in the receiving country often rely on remittances Remittances can be informal or formal

positive and negative stressors

1. Various negative as well as positive events trigger family stress. 2. Industrialization, urbanization, increased population density, advances in technology and so on show development and growth of an economy; however, these are viable positive stressors that affect the people as well as community. 3. Where as, community violence, threats of terrorism are some common negative stressors.

family roles

1. With changing social norms and diversity, families are becoming more fluid and lack foundational support to the individuals. 2. Some common family stressors are: 1. Changing family structures. 2. Immigrations. 3. Economics. 4. Financial challenges.

Same-sex couples: factors causing separation

A higher income among gay men, which protects against stress and relationship dissolution; and A greater likelihood of adopting children with special needs among lesbian women, the demands of which contribute to intrapersonal and interpersonal stress (Farr & Goldberg, 2019).

Coming out and being out

A unique life experience and a turn-point in the life of sexual minorities in which individuals move from a stage of confusion to acceptance of their identity. Social fear while coming out: LGBQ people often consider their social context and surrounding before coming out or disclosing their truth, as they fear the rejection that may follow such disclosure. For example: A female working-class sexual minority employed in a male-dominated workplace may find it more difficult to "come out" than their middle-class counterparts. Race and ethnicity while coming out: LGBQ people who are also racially and ethnically minor may face extreme marginalization or suppression, if they disclose their sexual orientation. Family rejection while coming out: Families exhibit a hostile attitude toward heterosexual individuals and hence LGBQ consider concealing their sexual orientation, as they fear losing emotional and financial support from their parents.

Family Stress Literature: ABC-X models

A: represents the stressful event. B: represents the resources that families have to respond to said event. C: represents the perspective of the event that the family has. X: represents the resultant crises that the family experiences having undergone the stressful event. The multiple stressors model: Families can experience multiple stressors overtime; an extension of the ABC-X model by McCubbin and Patterson. Assumptions made by the model: Families address a stressful experience by adapting and moving on. Stress pileup: Chronic stressors; caused by one stress leading to another stress. The need for a new model: To: 1. Account for the multiple stressors that families can experience; 2. Demand on existing resources from other experiencing stressors, 3. How stressors change the perspective of the current stressful event, and 4. The accumulation of family adjustments to the combined stressors.

integration

Adapting to the dominant culture norms while retaining the native culture.

Adaptation versus adjustment

Adjustment is the coping or response from the family to deal with the stressor temporarily. Adaptation involves transformation in family rules, values and belief system by evolving over a long time period.

Family Pathways to Mindfulness: Dialectical behavior therapy

Adults: Effective in controlling and stabilizing: 1. Borderline personality disorder; 2. Self-destructive behavior; 3. Violence; 4. Decreasing the frequency of use of psychiatric crisis services; 5. Addressing intimate partner violence. In adolescents: 1. Utilizes a biosocial model. 2. Emotional dysregulation due to interaction of an invalidating environment; 3. Effective in depression, self-injury, anxiety, and suicide risk. Skills used in DBT: Mindfulness, interpersonal effectiveness, emotional regulation, and distress tolerance. Program: 6 to 12 months: Multihour groups; participants learn, practice, and utilize a skill. Systematic implementation and framework: A broad framework supporting acceptance and change as central opposites occurring simultaneously. Similarity to MBSR: Including both formal practice time and informal learning experiential practices as part of daily life. The need to be modified and adapted: 1. To meet the needs of marginalized populations. 2. To meet developmental needs and contexts. 3. To cultivate relationships. Improvements seen from the programs: 1. Improved relationship stress, overall stress, happiness, and coping efficacy; improvements seen with practice. 2. Mindfulness-Enhanced Strengthening Families Program (MSFP), combines mindfulness activities with an already evidence based family program.

Stress: A state of Alienation

Alienation was conceptualized as synonymous with powerlessness, meaninglessness, and self-estrangement, clearly under the general rubric of stress.

Parent and Child Functioning Children of same-sex parents: strengths. Children of same-sex parents: vulnerabilities.

Children of same-sex parents: strengths: Children of LGBQ parent do not appear lacking remarkably from other children in terms of their emotional and behavioral adjustments. Compared to children of heterosexual parents, children of same-sex couples demonstrate better psychological adjustment and social competence. Children of same-sex parents: vulnerabilities: Both parents and children of a LGBQ family find themselves vulnerable and are stigmatized by rejection from their family of origin. They also face isolation and bullying in school context. Finally, they also confront mistreatment from health-care systems.

Coping: not maintaining the status quo

Coping may lead to greater complexities as it itself becomes a source of stress. 1. Sometimes it is better to "fail to cope" and learn by reorganizing the family for a new start or outlook. 2. There are three ways through which coping itself becomes a source of stress for a family. -By causing indirect damage to the family. -By causing direct damage to the family. -By interfering with adaptive behaviors.

Acceptance and Change

Dialectic: Joining of opposites and in particular: acceptance and change is emphasized in Linehan's DBT model. Factors heightening stress response: 1. Systemic oppressive practices; 2. Discriminatory policies; 3. Culturally condoned heterosexist, racist practices including healthcare, education, and justice. Taking the stance of acceptance: Acceptance of the person just as they are; especially when the individuals have not caused the stressor conditions yet they impact their experiences. Questions for future research: 1. What strengths do minoritized and systematically oppressed develop to manage through their lives? 2. How can "home practice" or "informal practice" be cultivated through various forms of inquiry in order to understand and expand the availability of mindfulness among families who may not have access to traditional programming? 3. Could there be a family 'dispositional mindfulness'? 4. How can we as practitioners, researchers, and facilitators be open to new categories and new possibilities designed to empower and support mindfulness for families using a more participatory and culturally proficient lens?"

Case 2: Parental Involvement in Education Against the Model Minority Myth Different educational outcomes based on ethnicity. Model Minority Myth. Applying ABC-X model perspective.

Different educational outcomes based on ethnicity: Diversity in familial, ethnic, cultural, and social characteristics has resulted different educational outcomes for various Asian American groups. Asian American parents are often perceived to be uninvolved at their children's schools. Often, these parents do not be have the resources required for involvement. Some Asian American parents believe that a lack of communication or interference with teachers and educational facilities communicates respect. Model Minority Myth: The model minority myth (MMM) stereotypes Asian Americans as high achievement-oriented, diligent, and rule-following, with high incomes, education levels, and low involvement in social welfare programs. Applying the ABC-X model perspective: The model minority myth toward Asian Americans is the A in this case. The co-ethnic groups and social capital that various Asian American groups create and maintain is B. The third factor, C, is immense pressure and social withdrawal due to the MMM that many Asian American families undergo. Many Asian Americans are constantly pressured to prove themselves or live up to unrealistic expectations. The inequality and the marginalization of Asian American families is X.

Donor Insemination

Donor insemination or adoption: Same-sex couples who decide to become parents have several options to consider, like: donor insemination (lesbian couples), surrogate, or adoption. The most common route for LGBQ couples is either donor insemination or adoption. Biological parent: Lesbian couples who choose to have children by insemination must decide who among the two would be the biological mother of the child (one who experiences pregnancy and undergoes childbirth). This can be well thought in advance and is an easy decision for few couples, while others might find it very sensitive to arrive at a decision. Unknown donor: Female couples who opt for insemination must also decide whether they want to go for a known or an unknown donor. Couples who choose unknown donors do so to avoid ambiguity and unclear or undefined relationships for their child or custodial claim by the biological father in future. Known donor: Women who choose artificial insemination by a known donor may choose this so as to give their child a biological heritage or to avoid interfacing sperm banks or fertility centers to have a child.

-Effects on mental health. -Effects on family. -Effects on marital relationships. -Effects on children.

Effects on mental health: Economic stress (unemployment, reduction of income, overwhelming debt, national crisis, etc.) influences the mental well-being of an individual. Economic distress is associated with multiple forms of emotional and psychological distress including short temperedness, anger, hostility, depression, anxiety, panic attacks, behavioral issues, over-indulgence in alcohol or drugs, social isolation, and so on. Effects on families: Economic troubles disrupt family relationships. It also leads to changing roles and responsibilities. Often, expectations are unmet and every member of the family struggles with self-fulfillment. Effects on marital relationships: When experiencing adverse financial situations, couple relationships are strained and both individual experience more stress and anxiety. Adjustment issues appear, including conflicts around family roles. The loss of a job instills a feeling of self-worthlessness in men. Many become irritable and more hostile. In this state, they are not able to make appropriate decisions for the family. Effects on children: Children also experience family economic turmoil. They exhibit symptoms of depression, anxiety, psychological disturbance, behavioral issues, aggressiveness, low levels of self-esteem, and so on. Are more likely to partake in deviant behaviors including alcohol and substance abuse. Many may also socially isolate.

tools in response to stress

Families have to respond to that stress using tools; the effectiveness of the tools matters.

Case 1: Parenting Expectations and Practices Against the Perpetual Foreigner Stereotype Technology and Transnationalism. ABC-X model perspective.

Family Obligations and Parenting Expectations: Family interdependence: Asian American families believe in interdependence among family members and forming strong parental expectations. For example, the Confucian ideology that is prevalent in Korean and Chinese families emphasizes obligations between parents and children. Providing support for children's social achievements and intellectual growth is an important expectation from parents. Filial obligation makes children responsible for respecting and honoring their parents and repaying their parents' selfless devotion and sacrifice toward their children. Strong parent-child bond: Korean and Chinese families nurture strong bonds between parents and children by prioritizing it. Ga jung kyo yuk: Parents provide informal education and socialization at home through various cultural processes. Chiao shu and guan: Parents are devoted to parenthood and love and care for their children. Authoritarian parenting: Parents are given authority over their children. Technology and Transnationalism: Recent advancements in technology, including internet connections and social media, can be phenomenal resources for immigrant or transnational families, who are more easily able to stay in touch with loved ones. Those who have limited English proficiency can access resource and information in their own language through the internet. ABC-X model perspective: Here, A would be the perpetual foreigner stereotype toward Asian American families. B is the strong commitments individuals have toward families and technology, which helps Asian American families stay connected transnationally. C would be the parents' understanding of the impact of the perpetual foreigner stereotype on their parenting experiences.

-Family life cycle model. -Family economic life cycle: three phases.

Family life cycle model: The family life cycle model describes the saving and consumption patterns of a family. Here, it is assumed that the expenses of a family gradually stabilize and are used to maintain the standard of living with marginal savings when income flow is low. Family economic life cycle: three phases: The family economic life cycle is comprised of three key phases, identified by the relationship between expenditure and earning levels that define the life-cycle savings hypothesis.

Net Worth: A Measure of Family Wealth -Family net worth. -Factors affecting family net worth. -Net worth disparity.

Family net worth: High family net worth predicts better financial stability and independence. During economic hardship, high family net worth can support a child's education or sudden unemployment. It can help families manage their financial liabilities regardless of minor disruptions. Net worth is the totals asset of a family. It includes: savings, retirement plans, holdings in stock, houses and cars minus liabilities like paying school fees, regular expenses, credit card bills, mortgages, and so on. Factors affecting family net worth: Net worth increases with income. The higher the income, the greater the net worth. It also increases with age, status, education, family inheritance, gender, and the financial output of every family member. Net worth disparity: There is alarming disparity in net worth levels among ethnic minority groups. In 2016, white-only households had a median net worth of $146,400 compared to net worth of $13,600 for non-Hispanic Black or African Americans and $14,200 for Hispanic households.

Organizational Patterns 1. Family resilience: bouncing forward. 2. Family: a survival net for its members.

Family resilience: bouncing forward: Many refer resilience as having the capability to bounce back from difficulties, Walsh (2006) defined it contrarily as a bouncing forward mechanism that made the family to drive past difficulties and prepare themselves in a better way for future challenges. During adverse situations, families must remain united to face their challenges and succeed in overcoming it as a functional family unit. Family: survival net for its members: By respecting the relationship and valuing it and placing the success of the family unit over individual needs, families can focus on becoming resilient as a family when faced with a crisis.

Meditations on Systematic Oppression

Family stress theory and change: Family stress theory is a lens to mindfulness as both a resource or mechanism for perceptual change. Stressors: 1. Minoritized and systematically oppressed families and individuals not reflected in mindfulness health-care literature. 2. Many ongoing stressors are created by heterosexist and racist U.S. policies and practices: the long battle of GLBTQ persons and families. 3. The exposure to stress among ethnic and racial minority groups and in particular Black and U.S. Hispanics is disproportionate. 4. The multigenerational segregated poverty were co-created by many policies. Oppressive system and mindfulness: The oppressive systems is an impetus for recruiting folks whose needs and pain are not eased through a disease care system; they may benefit from a mindfulness-based program. Mental health system and mindfulness: For women diagnosed with BPD in a mental health system not designed to meet their needs, mindfulness is a tool.

types of family stressors

Family stressors are described in eight dimensions by Lipman-Blumen (1975); these have been added with two more dimensions based on research literature. 1. Internal versus external. 2. Pervasive versus bounded. 3. Precipitate onset versus gradual onset. 4. Intense versus mild. 5. Transitory versus chronic. 6. Random versus expectable. 7. Natural versus artificial generation. 8. Scarcity versus surplus. 9. Perceived insolvable versus perceived solvable. 10. Substantive content.

Familial Unity and Reciprocity 1. Filial obligation of children. 2. Significance of elders in family.

Filial obligation of children: Parents invest their time, resources and emotions in well-being of the children. It is quite obvious that they expect the children to reciprocate the same by assisting them in all possible ways when they are old. This is called filial obligation that children bear for their parents. Significance of elders in family: Aging immigrants believe in collectivism, family system, and values as necessary for their survival in later life. Late-life immigrants rely on their adult children to survive in the American culture. They seek youngers assistance in navigating, communicating, and financial matters.

Stress: Changing Life Events

Holmes (1960) and Rahe (1967) researched on various life events and their connection toward onset and progression of stress in individuals and families. They developed Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRSS), which includes various family related life events of varying magnitude.

Case 1: The Single-Mother Experience With an Infant Single-parent household. ABC-X perspective.

Impact of contemporary structure on families: The contemporary structure of African American families has resulted in an amalgamation of problems that produce stress for African American families. Single-parent household: Single-parent households are prevalent in African American families, In the United States as a whole, 34% of children live with one parent. Among African American families, this number is 64%. Single-mothers encounter many hardships due to work in and out of the home. For mothers of infants, this is compounded by the need for 24-hour care. The stress affecting single-mother families varies based on differences in education, income, self-efficacy, and social support. ABC-X perspective: In this case, A is the stress faced by a single mother with an infant. B represents the resources available to a single parent, in terms of support from the family and community. C is the perception and self-efficacy of a single-mother in relation to her situation. X is the crisis that has resulted from becoming a single parent. For example, single-parent households face severe economic disadvantages.

assimilation

In order to acclimatize with the dominant culture, individuals abandon their native culture completely.

Income: Family Livelihood -Income volatility. -Effects of income.

Income volatility: Fluctuations in income on a month-to-month basis. Families that spend more than their income on a monthly basis face more volatility or fluctuation. Studies show that families that spend beyond their income are more likely to be in financial distress. According to the U.S. Financial Health Pulse survey, almost half of Americans reported that in the past 12 months, their spending equaled or surpassed their income. Effects of income: Income deprivation can lead to: stress in family relationships as well as psychological distress among individuals. Stable income is an indicator of increased marital satisfaction.

Income: Family Livelihood -Income: an indicator of family economic condition. -Income versus financial stress.

Income: an indicator of family economic condition: Income is an important variable to measure economic health of a family. It allows families to meet their expenses, pay bills and mortgage, and invest in children education and well-being. Income versus financial stress: During difficult times like a recession, income can be a direct predictor of the family well-being. Any fluctuation in income or sudden drop may cause irregularities, unplanned chaos, negative relationships, and immense stress.

individual resilience

Individual resilience helps in rebounding and surviving the difficult situations; various family dynamics and processes help individuals to develop resilience skills. However, ecosystem also plays a major part in shaping the individuals and families, and hence it cannot be excluded from this perspective. Considerable part of immigrant family life are regulated by society and community beyond individuals and the family, such as policies of immigration, housing and employment regulations, and education systems.

Family Pathways to Mindfulness

Intensive practice-based programs: Mindfulness-based stress reduction. Intensive skill-based programs: Dialectical behavior therapy. Family-focused interventions: 1. Based on MBSR and DBT models; 2. Family therapy: various exercises, practices, and programs adjusted to meet the developmental, topical, or contextual needs of a particular individual, family, group, or community.

Endure vulnerabilities

Karney and Bradbury (1995) defined enduring vulnerabilities as family members' relatively stable intrapersonal characteristics (e.g., personality, child temperament) and family background variables (e.g., structural and behavioral patterns in family of origin).

Barriers faced by LGBQ

LGBQ couples and their families face stigma and rejection from the society. They have difficulties forming and maintaining relationships especially with their coming out experiences. Becoming parents leads to further discrimination and can affect the mental health of the child as well.

The Health-Care Context -LGBQ families: negative experience with health-care. -LGBQ mothers: experiencing heteronormativity or homophobia. -Supporting federal law and policies.

LGBQ families: negative experience with health-care: LGBQ families are apprehensive of the health-care system and the discrimination they face during any treatment. The health practitioners as well as caregivers are biased and do not support either the parents or their children, starting from family creation. LGBQ mothers: experiencing heteronormativity or homophobia: A review of the literature of lesbians becoming mothers predicts that many lesbian women who were seeking maternity or mother care felt that the care-providers and medical staff were primarily heteronormative and homophobic. Types of homophobia included exclusion, heterosexual assumptions, inappropriate questioning, and refusal of services (see Hayman et al., 2013). Supporting federal law and policies: Children of same-sex parents are less likely to have private health insurance than their peers with married different-sex parents (Gonzales & Blewett, 2013). This difference will inevitably diminish amid the recent legalization of same-sex marriage throughout the United States.

Stressors for LGBQ families

LGBQ parents as well as their children may face stressors related to the origin of their family, discrimination at schools and in the health-care system.

Structural Support for Mindfulness Practice

Universities exploring mindfulness: 1. The Mindfulness Center at Brown University; 2. UMass Medical School Center for Mindfulness in Medicine; 3. Health Care, and Society; and 4. UCSD Center for Mindfulness. Collaboration of institutions: Fosters a culture of contemplation and holistic engagement and pursues a just, compassionate, and sustainable society. Mission of the institution: 1. Work with individuals, groups, organizations, and communities requesting evidence-based mindfulness program facilitation; 2. Targeted support or programming based on identified wants and needs; 3. Create community around mindfulness and other contemplative practices.

Other Challenges LGBQ parents: nonsupport from society. LGBQ parents: asymmetries in relationship. Preference of transracial adoption.

LGBQ parents: nonsupport from society: In comparison to a heterosexual parent, a LGBQ couple find themselves less privileged to become a parent. They receive less support from the society and also from their family of origin. LGBQ parents: asymmetries in relationship: Female same-sex couples who choose parenthood via insemination face many asymmetries in life and relationship, like: pregnancy, child birth, breast feeding, nurturing the child, and all of these combined with a partner who is genetically not related to the child. Such asymmetries may create feelings of jealousy on the part of the nonbiological mother or conflicts over who the child "belongs" to (Goldberg, Downing, & Sauck, 2008) Preference of transracial adoption: Same-sex couples are more progressive and open-minded, when it comes to having an inclusive family. National survey shows that 17% of White same-sex couples choose a child of color as compared to 3% of heterosexual couples. In turn, same-sex transracial adoptive households may face additional challenges related to their multiple stigmatized and highly visible family structure, in that these families are vulnerable to the stresses associated with both heterosexism and racism (Goldberg, 2009, 2012).

Liminal Legality 1. Liminal Legality: legal nonexistence. 2. Immigrants: quasi-legal persons.

Liminal Legality: legal nonexistence: Victor Turner (1969) defined liminality as a state of being, "neither here, nor there"; and Susan Coutin (2000) referred to it as "legal nonexistence." Liminal legality is a phase of "in-between" where the status of an individual lies between documented and undocumented. Immigrants: quasi-legal persons: Liminal legality gives an advantage to the immigrant officials to place an immigrant as a quasi-legal persons who face legal barriers without still having received a citizenship.

An examination of stressors faced by families:

Many models and frameworks in family science literature examine the stressors families face and how they respond to them, particularly how these factors relate to their race or ethnicity.

context and time

Micro, meso, exo, macro; opportunities and constraints presented to individuals in a given developmental period.

-Varies by demographic characteristics. -Use of economic indicators. -Economic resources relate to family functioning.

Varies by demographic characteristics: Most measures of economic well-being vary substantially by demographic characteristics such as gender, education, marital status, minority group status. Use of economic indicators: Family scientists use a variety of economic indicators to measure and estimate the prevalence of economic stress in families. Studies by family scientists have documented the critical role economic resources play in the quality of family functioning.

stressors for younger generation

Youth are facing challenges like increased cost of living, fewer resources and opportunities, and unidentified responsibilities toward the elderly population.

Phase II. Repaying Debt and Saving for Retirement -Other liabilities. -Retirements planning and pursuing. -Passing on wealth.

Other liabilities: As families age, they plan to retire and start evaluating various options available to them. At this stage of life, they are often overwhelmed by additional educational expenses on behalf of their children, which may restrain them from adopting an appropriate plan to retire the debt incurred in earlier days. Retirement plan: Individuals identify retirement resources. This is subtracted from retirement needs and a gap in the savings is established. Next, they calculate and establish the additional annual contribution needed to fill the savings gap. The mode of savings, along with an accurate plan is identified with minimum risk and good return. Tax and medical insurance is also included while calibrating the retirement plan. Living in retirement: Post retirement, some families have reduced income. Less social security, fewer pensions and retirement benefits ,and economic instability akin to the Great Recession force many older adults to delay their retirement. Many Americans report that they need to work as long as possible because they can not afford to retire. 65% report they will "probably" or "definitely" work past 65, and more than half of Americans predict that they will probably or definitely retire after 65 years of age. Passing on wealth to the next generation: Many have to distribute their assets to charities, family members, and younger generations. These wealth transfers and planning for them becomes an additional source of stress and conflict due to competition for assets between many beneficiaries. Associated stress is due to: Legal complexities in fund transfers and establishing transfer norms after death. New roles of family members in the financial process.

Case 1: The Family With Children of Different "Races" Racial diversity in Latinx families. Colorism. ABC-X model perspective.

Racial diversity in Latinx families: It is typical for Latinx families to experience marginalization based on skin color, though members may not be aware of their low status within society until they encounter such discrimination. Latinx people, even in one family, may be phenotypically diverse, including in skin color. Latinx members who have a lighter skin tone are perceived to hold a more favorable status both outside and within the home. Colorism: Discrimination based on the idea that lighter skin tones are superior to darker skin tones. This belief persists even when families have mixed racial composition. ABC-X model perspective: The stressor, A in this case is the experiences of marginalization due to skin color within Latinx families. B is the amount of resources parents have to understand the discriminatory practices that are present within a racialized society. C is the overall perception of Latinx families and individuals about race. X is the crisis erupting from racial discrimination that a darker skinned child may experience.

sociostrultural stressors to immigrants

Racism, discrimination, workplace difficulties, community, bias, social inequality, and so on are some stressors that are external and these macro-level factors can impact the individual as well as immigrant families to a great extent.

Siblings of individuals with intellectual and developmental disabilities: Impact

Research and findings do not show a remarkable effect in the individual functioning of the siblings of a differently abled child.

Exploring contextual factors:

Researchers must study and develop theories to understand diverse contextual factors that families experience at an individual, family or community level.

Same-sex versus heterosexual couples: similarities. Same-sex versus heterosexual couples: differences.

Same-sex versus heterosexual couples: similarities: Same-sex union share similar feelings and characteristics like a heterosexual couple. However, they are impacted by sexual stigma existing at institutional, interpersonal and intrapersonal levels. Same-sex versus heterosexual couples: differences: Some studies show that same-sex relationships have better quality than heterosexual relationships as there are less barriers and expectations unlike a heterosexual union (e.g., legal recognition, children).

Savings: Family Safety Net -Savings: key to economic stress reduction. -Savings for emergencies. -Savings to meet unexpected expenses.

Savings: key to economic stress reduction: When income surpasses expenses and a family has a positive cash flow, they can save money to protect them from unexpected economic stress. Increasing and safeguarding themselves against any financial distress in the future is a proactive approach for families. The personal savings rate of Americans is 6.1%, which is the percentage that a person sets aside from the income for savings (U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis, 2019). In 2016, the proportion of American families who reported saving over the past year was 55.4%. Savings for emergencies: Families must save a proportion of their income to avoid any precarious shortage of money due to medical emergencies, sudden loss of job, and so on. Financial experts suggest 3 to 6 months of emergency savings in case of sudden job loss or a work-limiting disability. Savings to meet unexpected expenses: Small expenses are challenging and families find it difficult to cover up these expenses in addition to their regular expenses every month.

Household Debt and Families: Borrowing Against the Future -Secured debts. -Unsecured debts. -Personal bankruptcy.

Secured debts: Loans that guarantee the return of a particular asset. This increases family wealth over a period. Debts that hold a collateral against a secured amount are secured debt (for example, a house mortgage provides a collateral, the house predicting long-term financial benefit, or a student loan that predicts a long-term return on human capital). Unsecured debts: The most malicious debts are unsecured debts as they guarantee no return, are completely collateral-free and lead to financial misery if not used strategically. This includes credit card bills, medical bills, and so on. Impact of debts: Taking on unsecured debts may lead to health troubles, obesity, depression as well as suicide, if used unscrupulously. Borrowing secured debts are, in the long-term, associated with higher socioeconomic status, family prosperity, and happiness. Personal bankruptcy: When debts become overwhelming and an individual fails to pay debts, they declare themselves as bankrupt by filing a petition in federal court. Personal bankruptcy often leads to selling of all assets and properties to repay debt. This leads to crisis for families and can disrupt their well-being in future.

-Self-efficacy. -Restructuring resources and relationships. -Other coping strategies.

Self-efficacy: Individuals who have high levels of self-evaluation, self-worth, and resilience face personal crises with greater control and rebound quickly. Self-efficacy and one's locus of control are sources of inner strength. These traits enable individuals to ward off challenges and endure with resilience. These personality traits moderate the impact of an economic stressor and help the individual transform after difficulty. Restructuring resources and relationships: Families often restructure roles, responsibilities, and their collective outlook of a demanding situation. Restructuring has a placebo effect, it may relieve the situation for some time without improving or eradicating it. Other coping strategies: Coping strategies such as problem-solving, social support, acceptance of the situation, positive-thinking, and distraction have been associated with fewer somatic complaints as well as fewer symptoms of anxiety and depression among families suffering from chronic economic stress.

-Vulnerability to social and legal challenges -LGBQ families demonstrate remarkable resilience -Subtle and overt heterosexism, isolation -Reduction of stigma LGBQ relationships

Social and legal challenges undermine the integrity of relationships Resilience is likely facilitated by the formation of strong and stable relationships that are characterized by equality, mutuality, and compassion, access to and engagement with active or visible LGBQ community, and perceptions of support and affirmation from one's family or friendship network Professionals are urged to work on behalf of LGBQ persons and families to identify and ameliorate the conditions that underlie their oppression Practitioners should strive to communicate a philosophy if inclusion and acceptance Visible support of LGBQ couples important Awareness of federal and state laws that discriminate against LGBQ people Overall, practitioners should Foster acceptance Ensure the protection of these families via the provision of standard rights and benefits Promote the stability and security of LGBQ-parent families and their health and wellbeing

SFS Model 1. Modification of ABC-X model. 2. SFS with ethnicity and racial context.

Sociocultural family stress (SFS) model: The SFS model is a modification of the ABC-X model. It includes the contextual elements of family stresses and everyday environmental stresses. Here, ethnicity and race are considered to be the context, because it represents how families may respond as a result of their unique characteristics. Specific examples of family stress among families of color may be based on: Group positioning within society (e.g., access to resources). Structure of families (two-parent or single-parent family). Multiple identities that combine to produce unique stressors (being a single-parent, being Asian American, being a woman). SFS with ethnicity and racial context: There are multiple factors, and some combination of them, that result in family stress; however, sometimes family stress is context specific. Families of different groups may face similar stressful events but their race or culture may lead to different experiences of that stress.

Phase II. Repaying Debt and Saving for Retirement -Stabilizing expenses. -Financial strategies.

Stabilizing expenses: During this phase, the family minimizes their expenses. Also, with time, income increases, households are settled and established, and the family seeks an opportunity to save more and repay the debt accumulated in phase I. Financial strategies: In this phase, families pay their taxes, make investments, and take measures to reconsider their assets and mobilize it differently. The complexity of these financial decisions may add to family's stress. Many families seek advice of financial mangers to help them retire their debts and invest in more stable assets with maximum return. Once the debt is determined, a reversal plan to allocate some savings toward debt repayment can be made. Additionally, Consumer Credit Counseling Services are established to assist individuals with debt management. These are nonprofit organizations that reestablish more manageable payment plans.

Strengths and Challenges of immigrant children and youth

Strengths of immigrant children and youth: Healthy and unbroken or undivided family, strong ethics, aspirations, and ethnically strong enclaves are the strengths characterized by immigrant families. Children of immigrant families are born healthy, with good birth weight and no impairments than those children born from the U.S. parents. They live in a bigger community and develop better life skills than their U.S. counterparts. Immigrant children have better adaptability, flexibility, and strong determination to succeed, as their parents came to the United States to have a better life. Challenges of immigrant children and youth: Many immigrant parents have not graduated from high school and have low education compared to native parents. Also, immigrant parents struggle with their language skills and find it difficult to communicate, understand instructions and legal documents, and so on. This brings additional responsibilities on children to assist their parents in day-to-day transactions. Immigrant families have to endure poverty; almost half of children of immigrant families live in households that qualify for some type of U.S. government aid, compared to one-third of children with U.S.-born parents.

Deviation of source of stress:

Stress can derive from the interactions between individuals and families and the environments in which they are embedded. A person's race or ethnicity is key to how those features or characteristics match up with environmental demands.

The Family of Origin Context -Support from the family of origin. -Nonsupport from the family of origin.

Support from the family of origin: Family members of LGBQ couples may keep aside their feelings for non-heterosexuality and bridge the gap they had established with their children, by welcoming their grandchild compassionately. Such association strengthens the family ties and gives an opportunity to the LGBQ parents to connect with their family instead. The warmth of the relationship between grandparents and their grandchild also depends on whether the child biologically belongs to their family. Nonbiological grandparents still are not much involved if the child is not related to them genetically. Family members may be uncomfortable acknowledging their new grandchild (or niece, or nephew) based upon their own racist beliefs or find it difficult to embrace a child that looks different from them (Goldberg, 2012). Nonsupport from the family of origin: Same-sex couples who do not receive a moral support in raising their child especially from their immediate family perceive their parenthood to be more complicated and full of day-to-day challenges.

-The Great Recession. -Adversities during economic recession. -Some economic indicators of recession.

The Great Recession: The American economy has made a robust recovery after experiencing one of the worst economic declines in history: the Great Recession. During the Great Recession (December 2007 to June 2009), families faced the prospect of job loss, record-breaking unemployment, nation-wide job shortages, dramatic decreases in income, and a substantial rise in poverty. Adversities during economic recession: During an economic recession, marriage, fertility, and education suffer. Negative family outcomes like divorce, suicide, and family violence increase. Some economic indicators of recession: Americans believed in achieving their dream by hard work and self-sufficiency, this became a rare reality for many during the Great Recession. There was a decline in the middle class population, their income was stagnant, families found it difficult to keep up with increasing costs and to maintain a standard of living.

Observation of adjustment process:

The difference in adjustment process of the families with intellectual and developmental disabilities must be studied and standardized.

Double X factor

includes the original response of the family crisis and the consequent adjustments during that crisis.

family adaptation

is defined as the degree to which the family system alters its internal functions (behaviors, rules, roles, perceptions) or external reality to achieve a system (individual or family)-environment fit.

Resilience: rebounding and growth from crisis:

is referred to as the ability to stretch (like elastic) or flex (like a suspension bridge) in response to the pressures and strains of life.

identify hassles

1. "those irritating, frustrating, distressing demands and troubled relationships that grind on us day in and day out." 2. In a study, participants were presented with a list of different kinds of hassles and they had to rate the severity and frequency with which these occurred in their life. 3. The method however did not take into account how individuals experienced these hassles.

humanitarian reasons for immigration

1. A growing number of families move to the United States for humanitarian reasons. 2. Examples: political persecution, wars, internal polity and conflicts, disasters.

Children with Special Health Care Needs

1. Children with increased risk for a chronic physical, developmental, behavioral, or emotional condition require health and related services of a type or amount beyond. 2. Special health-care need is a broad term that includes chronic health issues and disabilities. 3. However, for this designation developmental delays and disabilities are considered, for example: physical disabilities, mental health diagnosis, learning disabilities, and long-standing conditions (asthma, epilepsy, and diabetes).

Perception of parents and family members:

1. Families often have negative perception and stigma concerning the susceptibility of an intellectually and developmentally disabled child. 2. The findings prove that overall experience of such parents is of resilience and an overall positive growth.

coping

: a process not an outcome: -Coping is adaptational; it refers to all the steps and measures expended by a family to manage the stressor. -Families do not learn to cope instantly; however, this is learnt progressively.

ABC-X Model components

A component: The cause or stressor of sufficient intensity that may change/disturb the equilibrium of a family. B component: The resource or strength of a family that helps them cope with stressor. C component: The meaning or importance attached to an event/stressor by the family. X factor: It is the stress that is produced as a result of the A, B, and C components.

bioecological theory

A theory of human development; can be used to understand how stress potentially influences stress that people experience or how they respond to said stress.

Communication and Communal Problem Solving 1. Clear and direct communication. 2. Clear family roles.

Clear and direct communication: Clear communication helps in binding the family together, set clear expectations and reduces conflicts; communication in healthy families is direct, clear, specific, and honest, regardless of cultural differences. Clear family roles: To keep family in homeostasis, it is imperative to have well defined family roles this ensures all the needs of a family are met. Family members who know their roles can find a purpose in fulfilling it and taking complete charge of it for good of the family.

Theoretical framework on disabilities and stress:

It helps researchers to understand the stressors, their types, and coping strategies that families must adapt when they have a sudden diagnosis of intellectual or developmental disability.

stressor event

an occurrence that provokes a variable amount of change in the family system -both positive/negative

Definition of the Event/Perceptions:Faith and spirituality

1. Faith can be a major coping mechanism promoting family resilience. 2. Spirituality can be practiced within or outside a religious institution. 3. It provides meaning, purpose and a way to connect with others thus averting the impact of stress.

Isolated versus accumulated events:

1. The family's level of stress is determined by accumulated effects of several events than just an isolated event. 2. This assembling of various stressor events (normative or nonnormative) leads to stress pileup.

Disability as a social construct: Special health-care based on the evaluation of disability

By careful evaluation of intellectual and developmental disabilities, social helpers, NGOs, and health-care providers can identify the associated social and contextual factors and accordingly facilitate the special care needed.

seperation

Non-acceptance of host culture and maintaining one's own culture.

SFS approach:

The SFS approach helps us to understand that the same event has different meanings for different groups, based on historical and social context. Though the event is the same, its impact may vary based on race and ethnicity. Similarly, the response may be affected. These stressors are often part of mundane everyday environmental stress (MEES).

minority stress models

Understanding stress of minority families: Mundane extreme environmental stress theory; framework to understand how minority families in the United States experience stress. Mundane and extreme environments: 1. Mundane: bigotry and discrimination was so common that it become mundane in the daily lives of minority groups; 2. Extreme environment: was created for families in such a context; affects the health and well-being of these families. Expanding the framework: Intersectional approach; allows broader application to many structures of families and the processes within them.

outdated scripts

-Today's families are still defined on an outdated breadwinner-husband-homemaker-wife script, where the breadwinner is assured an handsome pay to meet the provisions of the family, with a full-time work commitment and a linear rise. -The homemaker manages the unpaid chores and the non-work aspects of managing home. -This outdated script contrasts starkly with the contemporary reality that the majority of American families (e.g., single-parent and dual-earner families) experience as they work in an economy where family-wage jobs are reserved for the highly educated. -Secure manufacturing jobs are few, job growth is limited to low-wage 24/7 service-sector positions with little security or hope for advancement, and income gains are disproportionately situated among more advantaged individuals.

everyday hassles

-are the occurrences in daily life, these are routine but proximal and could lead to common annoyances, thus affecting the family at a broader level. -These could be cooking, performing house chores, dropping or picking up children, commuting to and from work, work difficulties, bills, meeting deadlines, caring for elders, joining community events, celebrations, and other activities.

Citizen Children 1. Citizen children with undocumented parents. 2. Refrained from using community services.

1. Citizen children with undocumented parents: -The immigrant children who are citizens with a mixed status of the family experience elevated stress and fear of having undocumented parent getting detained or taken away. -When this fear is prevalent and repeats everyday, it leads to severe emotional and developmental issues in children. - After a parent is deported, children experiences changes in their sleeping and eating patterns and an increase in fear, crying, and anxiety expressed as aggression, clinginess, or withdrawal. 2. Refrained from using community services: Though citizen children are eligible to access services and community benefits, their parents may abstain them from using these, if they are undocumented, to avoid exposure and getting detained.

Developmental milestones and delays

1. Developmental milestones gives a basic idea of general skills that children develop at certain age. 2. A child is said to lag in developmental skills if he or she does not meet the milestone requirements for his age group in one or two domains. 3. Majority of developmental delay happens during gestation due to a genetic cause or complication in the pregnancy.

Health-care Systems:

1. Family having a child detected with intellectual or developmental disability has to deal with medical facilities, multiple visits to the hospitals and care-givers. 2. There is a need to train and develop the social as well as emotional skills of health-care providers when they deal with a child having ether intellectual or developmental disability. 3. They must deliver the first diagnosis sensitively, be careful about the discretion while passing the information to private special-care providers. 4. Empowering families and individuals with intellectual and developmental disabilities to develop health literacy and actively engage in collaborative and integrated health care is critical to meeting long-term needs.

Double B factor

1. Family resources are of two types: -Inherent resources already available to the family. -Resources acquired or developed in response to the stress.

Stress factors influencing the family

1. Family's perception of the stressor; 2. Coping ability of individual members and the family system; 3. Access to resources: within and external to the family system; 4. Characteristics of the stressor itself.

Social Isolation 1. Low language proficiency. 2. Loss of socioeconomic status. 3. Stronger networking in enclaves.

1. Low language proficiency: Low proficiency of English language is a major reason why late-life adults hide and isolate themselves from interacting outside the family. Their reliance on adult children for socialization and the busy life of children in a nuclear family grieve them further, leading to more stress. 2. Loss of socioeconomic status: Aging immigrants do not have the same socioeconomic status or privilege that they enjoyed in their home country; a common reason reported for social isolation. 3. Stronger networking in enclaves: The loss of indigenous culture, distancing from children, and fitting in a new country/lifestyle could be mitigated by creating new networking in their surrounding or enclave with similar ethnic values.

Intervention: Toward a New Family-Responsive Policy Agenda (2 of 2)

1. Low-wage workers: -Low-wage workers are not entitled to insurance benefits, family leave, or 12 weeks of unpaid leaves as compared to a high-wage worker. -This leaves them with very few choices and rare resources to utilize in case of an emergency or meet a sudden demand of the family. 2. Family caregiving: an employee's right: As long as the culture of the workplace equates work commitment with overwork and fails to recognize the legitimacy of family caregiving as an employee right, those seeking a reasonable balance between work and family life are likely to be penalized. 3. A family-responsive employer: Valcour and Batt (2003) profess that family-responsive employers must offer employees the following: -A work life that helps them control their work time while meeting their personal and family needs. -Adequate pay, benefits, and employment security. -The work should be designed systematically so that it helps them to meet their work demands as well as personal responsibilities at home. -A workplace culture that values and supports the work-life integration of all employees.

Disability as a social construct: Person oriented or social origin

1. Most recently, the social construct of intellectual and developmental disabilities evolved from a person-oriented approach to a more inclusive approach. 2. It shifted from a description of a personal limitation or deficit to a characteristic that originates from organic or social factors. 3. By improvising the environment or social support systems, these disabilities can be strengthened.

Better economic opportunities

1. People migrate to the United States for better economic mobility. 2. Many families find it difficult to make the needs meet in their home country and move to the United States for this sole hope. 3. The arrive in the United States expecting better socioeconomic status, lifestyle, and upward mobility in life.

Grandparents of children with intellectual and developmental disabilities:

1. Research suggests that grandparents may experience similar emotional reactions as parents to the news of a grandchild's diagnosis with intellectual and developmental disabilities. 2. Their experience is described as an emotional rollercoaster that elicits a range of initial reactions.

The Vulnerability-Stress-Adaptation Model: Adaptive Processes

1. Workdays with heavy workloads: Heavy workload and chaotic workday is the prime cause for families experiencing everyday hassles this can lead to either increase in spouses'/parent-child conflict or social withdrawal. 2. Daily relationship stress: -Hassles related to the sharing of housework, different goals, and partners' annoying habits may also be important in understanding the link between everyday hassles and couple functioning. -Though daily hassles are beyond the control of the couples, some are able to protect their relationship by empathizing with their partners and adding meaning to their relationship. -This helps them reduce the negative effects of everyday hassles and lead a more fulfilling life. 3. Buffer everyday hassles: -Buffering is an adaptive strategy that has both short- and long-term benefits in facing everyday hassles. -The nature of the relationship and understanding the individual pattern of how one expresses or vents their anger or even the extent to which the work must spill over into family interactions may help to buffer the effects of everyday hassles. -Additional family vulnerabilities or strengths may influence the extent to which daily hassles transfer to family stress. -Information and communication technology helps buffer everyday hassles; it blurs the distance between work and home and provides flexible opportunities to handle both with some ease. -Use of ICT helps to manage daily schedules, communicate easily and organize or prioritize work.

Nonnormative challenges for families:

1.A sudden or alarming problem may accentuate the overall stress of families already dealing with intelligence and developmental disabilities. 2. The stress could be due to a diagnosis, extended care, and extra resources and time that parents would have to provide.

Immigrant Families physical and mental health 1. Better physical health. 2. Stronger mental health. 3. Healthy immigrant effect.

1.Better physical health: Immigrants have low mortality, better life expectancy, and less disability than the U.S.-born individuals. 2.Stronger mental health: Immigrants exhibit positive psychological traits with negligent psychotic or emotional disabilities, agitations, distress, neurosis, anxiety or depression-like symptoms. 3. Healthy immigrant effect: Despite all the challenges, lower financial support, and limited access to health-care, immigrants report better health than their U.S. counterparts The "healthy immigrant effect" or "positive immigrant selectivity" hypothesis postulates that immigrants are healthier and stronger than those who chose to remain in their home country. Studies also report that immigrants have less indulgence in health-risking behaviors like smoking and alcohol and substance abuse.

Phase I. Family Formation: Starting a Credit and Debt Management Program -Acquiring debt. -Debt management plan.

Acquiring debts: During the formation of a family, couples are likely to accumulate considerable debt in order to purchase a home or car, as well as to raise a child, using consumer credit installments to repay. Debt management plan: Repaying this debt and avoiding any default in the disbursement becomes a source of distress for the family. A debt management plan requires the following: Establishment of credit goals and debt limits. Exploration of various types of credit. Comparison between the costs of different types of credit. The actual cost of the credit must be determined (principal sum and the total interest amount). families should set realistic goals to pay the debt and plan thoroughly. Sustaining expenses and retaining income is the best way to prepare for such financial emergencies. Saving is a primary mechanism for achieving economic stability.

Understanding long-term needs:

An important next step is to further awareness of the long-term needs of families of individuals with intellectual and developmental disabilities.

Challenges faced by families: special needs

Behavioral problems and special health-care needs of the individual, increased financial expenses, life cycle transitions, and caregiver stress, and compassion fatigue due to the ongoing demands.

family belief systems

Belief systems, organizational patterns, and communication patterns are few family processes that work in tandem with sociostructural factors at a boarder level and influence immigrant families' adaption processes.

Home Ownership: The American Dream -Drop in home ownership in America. -Home ownership: building home equity.

Drop in home ownership in America: American families aspire to own a home. However, the opportunity to purchase a home has been stagnant. There has been a negligible increase in the percentage of home owners in America since 1960, from 63% to today's 69% (U.S. Census Bureau, 2019). Affordability has been the greatest challenge for a majority of low income families in the United States. Home ownership: building equity: Home equity is fundamental to building wealth; it is the total value of the house minus the mortgage. Owning a home is a very promising financial asset for Americans. Owning homes promotes better physical and mental health for individuals, improved educational performance of children, enhanced family bonding, and overall community or social well-being.

-Economic stress and family life. -Financial planning as preventive strategy. -Importance of investigating strategies.

Economic stress and family life: Economic stress exacts social and psychological costs on the quality of family life. Families vary significantly in their vulnerability to changing economic events. Differing levels of resources and adoption of coping strategies explains family resilience under economic stress. Family financial planning as a general preventive strategy: The process of family financial planning over distinct life cycle stages helps families reduce the social and psychological costs associated with economic stress. Importance of investigating strategies: A robust literature supports the family stress model; however, further research investigating the strategies and coping mechanisms that help ameliorate the impact of economic stress on individuals and family relationships would benefit policymakers and practitioners.

Characteristics of Healthy Relationships: Same-Sex Couples

Equality: Same-sex couples perceive their relationship to be egalitarian, i.e., they want equal contribution in decision making, sharing of household work, and financial liabilities. LGBQ couples may be sensitive to their power imbalance owing to the stigma they already face from the society. Both female and male same-sex couples also tend to share housework more equitably than heterosexual couples (Goldberg, 2013; Solomon, Rothblum, & Balsam, 2005). Discrepancies between ideal and actual levels of equality are also related to lower relationship quality for both lesbian and gay couples (Tornello, Kruczkowski, & Patterson, 2015). Conflict and Difference: Higher the conflict, lower is the stability of the relationship in both heterosexual as well as same-sex couples. Same-sex couples have better coping strategies, given their relational challenge, they adapt certain intra and interpersonal strategies of conflict management. Racial/ethnic differences between partners may create the potential for stress and misunderstanding. Racial/ethnic minority LGBQ individuals with White partners may experience alienation within their relationships if they feel that their partners cannot empathize with the intersecting forces of sexism, heterosexism, and racism that they face on a daily basis (Balsam, Molina, Beadnell, Simoni, & Walters, 2011). Partners within same-sex couples may also differ in sexual identity. In couples where one partner identifies as bisexual or queer (i.e., nonmonosexual) and one partner identifies as lesbian or gay (i.e., monosexual), rates of conflict may be higher than if both partners were monosexual (Goldberg, Garcia, & Manley, 2017). Social Support and Recognition: The intimate relationship of LGBQ couples can become complicated and immensely complex due to the positive or negative perception of the family, friends, communities, workplace and government by large. Until 2015, when federal marriage equality in the United States became a reality, same-sex couples in committed relationships lacked all of the benefits that marriage affords, including automatic financial decision-making authority on behalf of a spouse, the ability to make medical decisions for an incapacitated partner, and the ability to file joint income tax returns, among numerous other benefits (Shapiro, 2013).

The School Context -Exclusion from school. -Children experiencing homophobia. -Economic status and difficulties faced by child. -At par academic progress.

Exclusion from school: A survey conducted by the Gay, Lesbian and Straight Education Network (GLSEN) found that more than half (53%) of over 500 LGBT parents described various forms of exclusion from their children's school communities. Like being excluded or prevented from fully participating in school activities and events, being excluded by school policies and procedures, and being ignored. Some schools encourage a culture of indifference toward sexual orientation, color, and ethnicity, and have policies protecting the students as well as parents. LGBQ parents and their children have reported lower levels of misconduct than schools which do not have such policies. Children experiencing homophobia: Indeed, Gartrell et al. (2000) found that 18% of lesbian mothers reported that their 5-year-old children had experienced some type of homophobia from peers or teachers. However, by the age of 10, almost half of children had reportedly experienced some form of homophobia (e.g., in the form of teasing; Gartrell, Deck, Rodas, Peyser, & Banks, 2005). Economic status and difficulties faced by child: Strong socioeconomic status (middle or upper class) of LGBQ parents keep their children less exposed to harassment and bullying at school. They have resources and means to choose a community or school that are inclusive and more progressive. At par academic progress: Despite their potential vulnerability to teasing and stigma, the academic progress and performance of children of LGBQ parents appear to be on par with that of children of heterosexual parents (Potter, 2012; Rosenfeld, 2010).

gender equity

Feminists argue for gender equity in daily tasks as a solution to the disproportionate burdens that mothers, wives, and daughters carry in families, but they also warn that even with gender equity, many contemporary families would still have too many hassles to manage on their own.

Coping and resilience:

Grant et al. (2007) described the key elements that enhance the resilience of families are: 1. Establishing a sense of meaning, 2. Gaining a sense of control over the situation, 3. Maintaining personal identities for each family member (separate from the disability), and 4. Boundary maintenance within the family system (e.g., having a clear structure and defined roles and rules within the family).

Factors influencing family stress:

How families are positioned in society and their access to resources, what counts as a stressful event (A), the resources the family has at their disposal to address said event (B), and how they perceive the event (C), can influence the manifestation and level of family stress (X).

Family Pathways to Mindfulness: Perspective Taking

Impacting experience of time: Participating in mindfulness meditation exercises may impact one's experience of time. Shifting emotional appraisal of pain: The intensity of physical pain is not reduced; the unpleasantness of it is reduced. Mindfulness as a cognitive phenomenon: When mindful, one allows: 1. New cognitive categories to be created, 2. Is aware of more than one perspective, and 3. Open to new information and flexible perspective taking. Mindfulness as a disposition or trait: 1. Inversely related to psychopathological symptoms: depression; 2. Associated with better emotional regulation and processing, and 3. Positively linked to adaptive cognitive processes: decreased pain catastrophizing and rumination.

Employment Instability and Insecurity: A Threat to Family Life -Job insecurity and unemployment. -Common symptoms of employment crisis. -Increase in number of gig workers.

Job insecurity and unemployment: The real or perceived treat of job loss is job insecurity. Forced early retirement, closure of a factory or organization, or dismissal from a job could be the reasons for unemployment. Poor health, depression (moderate to acute), emotional distress, anxiety, overdose of alcohol and drugs, substance abuse, family violence, disrupted relations etc., are associated with both job insecurity as well as unemployment. The unemployment rate is close to a 50-year low in the United States at 3.7% (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2019). Common individual symptoms of an employment-related crisis: Feelings of insignificance. Psychological and emotional distress. Moderate to severe anxiety or depression. Overdependence on drugs and alcohol. Strained family life. Poor performance of children and behavioral issues. Increase in number of gig workers: There has been a rise in number of gig workers in the past decade. Gig work is independent, freelancing job where the person is paid by task and not on hourly wage or a monthly salary. Gig work does not provide any employment benefits, security for job, or paid leaves.

Conceptualizing Mindfulness

Mindfulness: Connected to a rich deep cultural history; situated within a Western secular format as a program. Attentiveness to the present: As a mental factor it signifies presence of mind, attentiveness to the present. Eastern and Western philosophy: Derives from Eastern religion, philosophy, and practices; component of Western religion, philosophy, and practices. The religious landscape research: 1. Jehovah Witnesses: 77%, and Buddhists: 66%: Highest percentage of persons who meditate daily in the United States. 2. Other groups: Historically Black Protestant, Evangelical Protestant, Catholic, mainline Protestant, Muslim, Hindu, Jewish, agnostic, atheist, and nothing in particular. A robust academic theme: People in Western contexts learn about mindfulness as a component of a health-related program, experiential learning in P-16 education, or community education programs. Mindfulness-based stress reduction: Prominent model emerging early in the trajectory of mindfulness as a discipline. Varying descriptions of mindfulness: 1. Jon Kabat-Zinn: Paying attention in a particular way: on purpose, in the present moment, and non-judgmentally. 2. Bishop et al.: A process of regulating attention in order to bring a quality of non-elaborative awareness to current experience and a quality of relating to one's experience within an orientation of curiosity, experiential openness, and acceptance. Criticism of the empirical evidence: 1. Poor methodology; 2. Lack of attention to potential adverse effects; 3. Lack of information about teacher training.

More focus on lower socioeconomic families:

More emphasis needs to be placed on the experiences of lower socioeconomic families, single-parent families, and varying levels of impairment.

Family Pathways to mindfulness: Mindfulness- based stress reduction

Most empirically supported program: Serves as a model for multiple mindfulness-based interventions; mainly used to recruit non-responding hospital patients. The 8-week program: 1. Formal practices: Weekly; sitting meditation, walking, body scan, and gentle mindful movement. 2. Experiential exercises: impact of stress on the body and mind, 3. Opportunities to express practice experiences. 4. Materials to practice formally: home practice, and informally: interaction with the world. Helpful with health challenges: 1. Improves mental health: with depression, anxiety, distress, and stress, 2. Improves psychological functioning among vulnerable youth: improvements in interpersonal relationships, physical health, school achievement, and hostility. 3. Increases quality of life and reduces stress. 4. Shows more positive intervention outcomes. Addresses physical and emotional pain: 1. BMBSR and DBT: designed to address physical pain and emotional suffering. 2. PD clients doubly stigmatized: socially due to mental health stigma and medically by helpers or clinicians. 3. Dialectical cognitive therapy (DBT) is a skill-based program; addresses suicidal ideation, parasuicidal behavior, and relationship difficulties.

Normative and nonnormative economic stress:

Normative stress can result from milestones in the family lifecycle, such as marriage, childbirth, or retirement. Nonnormative stress emerges from unexpected events, such as divorce, the loss of a job, or illness.

Person Characteristics

The idiosyncratic qualities brought to human interactions that regulate their developmental and experiences.

adoption

Same-sex couples: preferential adopters: Same-sex couples often choose adoption before trying any routes to have a child, their first choice is adoption before trying to have child through a biological means unlike heterosexual parents. Hence, same-sex couples are "preferential adopters." The routes for adoption include: 1. International adoption. 2. Public domestic adoption (child welfare system). 3. Private domestic adoption (lawyers and adoption agencies). Sending countries: Sending countries are quite reluctant to provide services to same-sex couples; the only option left for these couples is to adopt the child as a single parent. However, recently sending countries are resistant to provide adoption to single parents as well, much less to the same-sex couples. Private and public open domestic adoption: Most of the same-sex couples prefer to adopt from private domestic agencies as they have "open" adoption protocol as compared to a "closed" one. In open adoption the agency maintains complete transparency and communication between the birth parents and adoptive parents before as well as after placement of the child. Choosing an adoption agency: Due to vulnerability in the adoption process, same-sex couples expend significant time and effort researching potential adoption agencies for evidence that they are open to working with sexual minorities (Goldberg et al., 2007; Kimberly & Moore, 2015).

Objective and subjective economic stress:

Some economic stress can be described objectively and is more tangible while other types of stress are subjective and cannot be quantified. Objective stressors might include joblessness, increased taxes, loan payments. Subjective stressors might include worry or panic caused by fear of losing a job Objective stressors might be examined by studying various situations like job loss and reduced income, and identifying the outcome of this stress (such as increased use of alcohol, irritability, marital dissatisfaction etc.), for unemployed and well as employed individuals. Subjective measurement of economic strain is "the perceived adequacy of financial resources, financial concerns and worries, and expectations regarding one's future economic situation."

Case 2: ¿Y Mami? Transnational Families Stress due to transnationalism. ABC-X model perspective.

Stress due to transnationalism: Another source of stress that may be present in Latinx families within the United States is sustaining transnational family connections. Fragmented families who lives in separate countries have different experiences. Transnational families communicate by sending money, traveling back and forth, or maintaining contact through phone or social networks. Often, the frequency of contact is so much within these transnational families that the label "virtual migrant families" has been applied. ABC-X model perspective: A U.S.-settled Latinx family with members living abroad (translational family) is the stressor, A, in this case. The resources for communication—social media, video conferencing, texting apps, and so on—between members who are geographically scattered—constitute B. The family's perception of or communication with members in other countries or the country of origin is the third factor, C. The X in this example is the crisis that follows from the work required to maintain transnational family connections.

Case 2: Differential Approach to Interactions With Law Enforcement History of police and Black communities. ABC-X model perspective.

Stress from law enforcement: a history of police violence against African Americans has led to potent mistrust. ABC-X model perspective: The stressor, A, in this scenario, is any interaction with a law enforcement agent or the anticipation of interacting with such agents. B is the resource families use to cope with stress. This might include filing a report about mistreatment (formal) or teaching children about how to safely interact with law enforcement (informal) C is the overall perception that the family has toward law enforcement. This perception is greatly influenced by past experiences (ABC-X) and the perception of the event as a result of prior events (double ABC-X). The crisis created from such events or episodes is X.

Temporary and chronic economic stress:

Temporary stressors are short-term crises that families recover from relatively quickly (the loss of a job, a change in a job role, or relocating to a new place with a higher cost of living). Chronic economic stress is constant. For example, a family member may have long-term income loss because of a permanent, work-limiting disability.

Managing Chronic Stress Through Mindfulness

The background of the case: 1. Jean is a teacher who comes from an abusive family. 2. Her responsibilities have increased further as partner is diagnosed with a chronic illness, 3. Her students tend to be unmanageable, disruptive, and unable to be supported at their home school. Participation in mindfulness practices: Although skeptical, Jean participates in a focus group of mindfulness practices; along with youth twice a week. Results of the process: 1. She gives a positive feedback on the program, and participates in teacher-staff-targeted MBSR components. 2. Jean's feels that she is able to improve her relationships with her partner better, than her performance at school. 3. Toward the end of the 6-week mindfulness program, she also reports sleeping through the night for the first time in months. The ABC-X model: 1. A: The family was dealing with a chronic stressor that created additional hardships and crises for the family. 2. B: Jean was introduced to mindfulness. 3. C: Jean's perception of family members and improved workplace morale shifted her ability to manage the stress. 4. X: This has altered the resulting stress the event has on the family.

Managing the Mundane Experience of Stress

The background of the case: 1. Tonya is an 8-year-old girl who attends after-school programming in her neighborhood. 2. Even though her father works multiple jobs, she along with her older siblings live in poverty. 3. She experiences a lot of stress due to her situation, which led to manifestations such as stomach ache. Participation in mindfulness practices: Tonya participated in the Mindful Schools curriculum once or twice a week in addition to their regular after-school activities. Results of the process: 1. Tonya specifically mentioned that when her sibling yelled at her she did not hit him, but used mindfulness to remain calm. 2. This led to lowered stomach ache, and her being able to complete her homework. 3. She also had asked the after-school program director to take mindful breaths with her when she arrived off the bus. The ABC-X model: 1. A: Chronic stress: poverty, lack of parent engagement; Acute stress: normative interactions between siblings. 2. B: The mindful program provided her with a breathing exercise. 3. C: This changes Tonya's perception of stress. 4. X: Tonya gains agency over coping strategies that produce outcomes; does not cause any somatic response. .

Family-responsive workplace policies

The policies most effective at improving family well-being take a holistic approach by integrating service delivery, prevention programs, universal high-quality services, and programs that are flexible to families' needs.

ABC-X Model 1. Process of family response to stress through three determinants. 2. Double ABC-X model.

This model was proposed by Hill in 1958 and explains the processes of families responding to stress they experience. There are three determinants to this: A is the actual stress or event, B is the family resource that helps them respond to the event (A), C represents the perception that families have of that event (A), X represents the crisis that the family experiences as a result of the original stress event (A), resources (B), and the family's perception (C). Double ABC-X model: The ABC-X model dealt with only one stress at a time, this being its major limitation. Later, in 1983, McCubbin & Patterson modified this double ABC-X theory by accounting for the multiple stressors families experience over time, also called stress pile-up.

Case 1: Parenting Expectations and Practices Against the Perpetual Foreigner Stereotype Perpetual Foreigner stereotype. Family Obligations and Parenting Expectations.

Two major stereotypes about Asian American families: The perpetual foreigner stereotype. The model minority myth or stereotype. Representation of Asian American parenting: Asian American parenting is often represented as a product of hierarchical, authoritarian, and collectivistic cultural values with a high emphasis on academic success. Authoritarian parenting in Asian American families focuses on socializing children with family interdependence and recognition, obligation and humility, and emotional controls. Perpetual Foreigner stereotype: A situation or stressor where individuals are perceived as foreigners even though they were born in the United States or many generations of their families have lived in the United States. Many Asian Americans are forever identified as immigrants from other countries.

Family Belief Systems 1. Understanding belief systems. 2. Religiosity and spirituality. 3. Family's outlook.

Understanding belief systems: Walsh (2006) refers to beliefs as being "at the very heart of who we are and how we understand and make sense of our experience." A strong and positive belief system strengthens the individuals and families to develop stronger resilience and coping mechanism. The belief system is a cultural and moral heritage that passes down in families from generation to the other. Religiosity and spirituality: Religiosity and spirituality always defend for a humanitarian approach, such thoughts and orientations empowers the person to face hardships, stay strong and focused on the positive outcome and reestablish homeostasis. Family's outlook: A positive outlook makes the family stronger when it has to endure difficulties; it drives resilience and also gives insight to act during adverse times. When individuals have hope and are optimistic, they can focus on their strengths and achieving their maximum potential. Positive illusions help buffer stress, promote strong mental health, and lead to adaptive coping.

study of family stress

Understanding how families respond to stress and stressors.

Stress duration

Varying experience of stress: how they experience stress varies; has implications influencing family dynamics. Chronic stress: A person living with asthma. Acute stress: A person who has fractured his arm and has healed.

race

categories based on shared phenotypic characteristics (e.g., skin color)