Fergs Flashcards for AP exam

127: Ibn Battuta •

14th-century Muslim traveler. • Most celebrated Muslim traveler in the postclassical world; an Islamic scholar who kept a record of his travels throughout the Dar al-Islam. • Traveled to India, the Maldives, the Swahili city-states of East Africa, and the Mali Empire. • Worked in government positions everywhere he went, usually as a qadi (adviser); supervised monetary affairs of the mosque and heard cases of law—strictly enforced Muslim standards of justice. • Through his various posts he promoted the proper observance of Islam in societies new to the religion and its beliefs; he was unsuccessful in persuading island and African women to meet Islamic standards of modesty in dress. • Displeased with the syncretic nature of Islam (i.e., how it blended with native beliefs).

360: Iranian Revolution •

1941: Muhammad Reza Pahlavi declared himself shah. Backed by the United States and Britain, he modernized and westernized Iran. • Pahlavi's reforms were in direct opposition to conservative Muslim beliefs. An opposition party quickly rose against Pahlavi, led by an Islamic fundamentalist—Ayatollah Khomeini, who believed in Islam as both a religion and a foundation for government. • 1979: Pahlavi fled Iran; Khomeini declared Iran an Islamic republic. • New government overturned all of Pahlavi's reforms: banned Western movies, books, and music and instituted strict adherence to conservative Muslim traditions. • As leader of Iran, Khomeini worked to establish Islamic republics throughout the Middle East.

362: Deng Xiaoping •

1976: Replaced Mao Zedong as leader of communist China; introduced new economic reforms but little extension of individual political rights. • Four Modernizations: In an attempt to promote trade and contact with the West, Deng introduced reforms in the areas of agriculture, industry, science and technology, and defense. • Deng reformed land distribution and allowed private ownership after government needs were met. Private businesses helped China's economy but also led to an increasing gap between rich and poor. • Deng encouraged foreign investments of technology and capital. • Tiananmen Square (1989): Chinese students peacefully protested lack of political freedoms. On Deng's orders the government opened fire on defenseless citizens and killed or wounded thousands. This was a demonstration of the importance that government placed on maintaining order; Deng, as a moderate leader, was willing to make economic reforms, but not political ones.

361: Iran-Iraq War •

1979: Saddam Hussein became the leader of Iraq and seized control over a disputed border area. • Hussein used power to invade Iran in 1980; his goal was a quick victory over Iran and a pan-Arab movement throughout the Middle East. • War lasted eight years and killed one million soldiers. • The United States got involved when both sides attacked oil tankers in the Persian Gulf. • Persian Gulf War followed: In 1991, Iraq invaded Kuwait and seized control of oil fields. The United States, leading a coalition of United Nations' forces, intervened and liberated Kuwait.

69: Rome: From Republic to Empire •

87 B.C.E.: invasion and subsequent occupation of Rome led by Marius until his death. • Sulla took over, labeling state enemies and encouraging slaughter; civil war and a reign of terror ensued, which lasted five years and resulted in over 10,000 deaths. • Sulla died in 78 B.C.E. and left as his legacy a conservative legislature that weakened the power of the lower classes and returned power to the wealthy. • Latifundia—land conquered by the Roman Empire, controlled by wealthy elites, and organized into plantations—increased tensions between rich and poor.

250: Karl Marx •

A 19th-century philosopher, he developed a socialist theory with Friedrich Engels in response to the changing nature of the workplace that resulted from the Industrial Revolution. • He and Engels outlined their theory in The Communist Manifesto. • His ideas on class struggle and the evils of capitalism influenced reform movements throughout Europe and in the 20th century would form the backbone of numerous political parties, including the Bolsheviks in Russia. • Defined class struggle as the proletariat working to make money while the bourgeoisie obtained their income from the work of the proletariat, i.e., the bourgeoisie exploited the working class. • In 1917, the Bolshevik Party, led by V.I. Lenin, a Marxist, took control of Russia and made it the world's first communist state. • After World War II, a number of nations adopted Marxist ideology, including China and Vietnam.

243: Simón Bolívar •

A Creole from South America who led a successful revolutionary movement against Spanish rule. • Inspired by Enlightenment ideals and the success of the American and French Revolutions. • For over a decade he led military campaigns against the Spanish, ultimately winning independence for Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia. • Together with José de San Martín, he gained independence for Argentina and Chile. • Hoped to unify the independent regions into a single state, Gran Colombia, but was unsuccessful.

183: Martin Luther •

A German monk often credited with sparking the start of the Protestant Reformation in Europe. • In 1517, he wrote the Ninety-five Theses, a list of arguments directed against the Roman Catholic Church's practice of selling indulgences (the pardoning of sins). • Believing that faith in God alone would allow people to get into Heaven, that no authority on Earth could pardon people for their sins, and that the Bible was the only source of religious truth. • Although he was excommunicated from the Catholic Church, his ideas spread across northern Europe, in large part due to the printing press. • The founder of the Protestant denomination called Lutheranism.

58: Polis •

A Greek word meaning a city, city-state, and body of citizens. • Attracted large populations because it offered safety; became center of trade. • Levied taxes; took farming surplus from countryside to feed inhabitants. • Political models could include, but were not limited to, monarchies and tyrannical rulers.

200: Matteo Ricci •

A Jesuit scholar from Europe who journeyed to the Ming court in the late 1500s. • Representative of Western efforts to bring Christianity to the East and the hopes of missionaries to win the approval of the Chinese emperors. • Missionaries brought new scientific and mathematical knowledge to the imperial court, for example, the mechanical clock, which was well received. • Ming emperors generally welcomed missionaries, yet the missionaries were overwhelmingly unsuccessful in gaining converts.

353: Jomo Kenyatta •

A Kenyan nationalist leader who led a movement to gain independence from Great Britain. He was jailed in 1953 by the British government in its effort to suppress all nationalist movements. • As resistance to colonial rule increased, the British responded by increasing military strikes with artillery and jet fighters. • 1956: Resistance was crushed and 12,000 Africans and 100 Europeans were dead as a result of the conflict. • Kenya ultimately gained independence in 1963; Kenyatta was elected Kenya's first prime minister.

225: Catherine the Great •

A Russian czarina (r. 1763-1796), she continued Peter the Great's policy of modernization while ensuring the absolute authority of the monarch. • Continuing to expand the empire, she gained land from the Ottoman Empire and took control of Alaska. • Gained access to a warm-water port, a goal never realized by Peter, and took control of Poland. • Known as an Enlightened despot, she built schools and hospitals and was tolerant of the different religions found throughout her empire, yet remained an autocratic ruler.

196: Deism •

A belief system that recognizes that a powerful god played a role in the creation of the universe but asserts that God simply oversees the world and allows it to function on the basis of natural laws. • Emerged in the wake of Scientific Revolution and has a clear focus on an orderly universe based on nature and reason. • Influenced many scientists and philosophers in Europe in the late 17th and 18th centuries, for example, Thomas Jefferson.

283: Panama Canal •

A canal built through the Isthmus of Panama connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. • When the United States took control of the project, Panama was under Colombian control, and it failed to give its permission to build. U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt offered Panamanian rebels the support of the U.S. Navy as an incentive to seek Panamanian independence. • In 1903, Panama declared its independence and soon granted the United States the right to build the Canal and the Canal Zone. • The Canal was completed in late 1913, opened in 1914, and quickly became—and remains—an important commercial waterway. • In 1999, control of the Canal Zone reverted to the Panamanian government.

60: Athens •

A city-state in classical Greece whose government was based on democratic principles. However, only free adult males could participate in government. • Debt forced many poor farmers into slavery; gap between rich and poor widened. Aristocrat Solon became a great mediator between the classes: aristocrats kept land, canceled debts, and forbade debt slavery for poor. • Pericles encouraged democracy, public works, and the development of science, philosophy, poetry, and the arts. • World's first democracy (women and slaves, however, could not vote—only approximately 40,000 of the 450,000 inhabitants of the polis were eligible to vote); had a great impact on the development of later governments.

59: Sparta •

A city-state in classical Greece—conquered neighbors and forced them into servitude. • Helots—bound to land, role—to provide food; outnumbered Spartans ten to one. • Spartans were characteristically simple, frugal, and austere. • Known for military talent; from age seven all boys lived in barracks and trained; served in military at age 20. • Women exercised regularly—physical fitness was associated with bearing strong children.

52: Mauryan Dynasty •

A classical Indian dynasty that developed out of a political world created by the failed invasions of Persian emperor Darius, it was subsequently controlled by the kingdom of Magadha for two centuries. • Flourished during the late 320s B.C.E., when Chandragupta Maurya took over and laid the foundations for a centralized, unified government that included all of India from the Indus to the Ganges rivers. • Ashoka (ruled 268-232 B.C.E.) conquered the kingdom of Kalinga through bloody battles, uniting the entire subcontinent; better known as a governor than as a conqueror. • Ashoka built irrigation systems for agriculture, constructed roads for trade and travel, supported Buddhism, and encouraged religious tolerance. • Ashoka's death to decline of the empire.

161: Joint-Stock Company •

A commercial venture that spurred exploration by bringing together many investors in order to minimize the risks and costs of the investment. • Privately held, with government support. • Shares/stock were brought by individuals, and the shared investment was used to buy ships and finance trade. • Two of the most profitable companies were the Dutch East India Company, which established a monopoly over the spice trade (by securing trade routes to Indonesia), and the English East India Company.

282: Telegraph •

A communication system that transmits electric signals over wires from location to location and translates them into a message. • In 1828, the first telegraph in the U.S. was invented by Harrison Dyar, who sent electrical sparks through chemically treated paper tape to burn dots and dashes. • In 1830, an American, Joseph Henry (1797-1878), sent an electronic current over one mile of wire to activate an electromagnet that caused a bell to strike. • In 1835, Samuel Morse proved that signals could be transmitted by wire. He used pulses of current to deflect an electromagnet, which moved a marker to produce written codes on a strip of paper: the invention of Morse Code. The following year, the device was modified to emboss the paper with dots and dashes. He gave a public demonstration in 1838, but it was not until five years later that Congress (reflecting public apathy) funded $30,000 to construct a 40-mile experimental telegraph line from Washington to Baltimore.

188: European Balance of Power •

A concept originating after the Thirty Years War and the Peace of Westphalia as a result of the fear of sovereign nations that any single nation in Europe might come to dominate the others. • Alliances among nation-states were formed (and reformed as necessary) in response to perceived threats in the balance of power as nations sought to limit the power of any one nation. • Pursuit of the balance of power led to frequent conflict in Europe as nation-states competed with one another for control and influence. • This concept led to the formation of alliances that played a critical role in the start of World War I (see 1900-present).

192: English Civil War: Causes •

A conflict between supporters of the English monarchy and members of the English parliament, who sought a constitutional state. • James I was an absolute monarch who, asserting the divine right theory, felt no obligation to meet with Parliament. • James's son, Charles I, refused to meet with Parliament until it became necessary, when he needed money; Parliament forced Charles to agree to the Petition of Right, which limited taxation and forbade arbitrary arrest and imprisonment. • Charles ignored the petition and Parliament. He did not call upon them again until 1640, when he again needed money. • The Long Parliament met and sought to limit the authority of the monarch; Charles responded in 1642 by leading a group of soldiers into Parliament in an attempt to arrest his biggest critics; civil war quickly followed.

318: Chinese Civil War •

A conflict between the Kuomintang and the Communist parties. • The Qing dynasty had been overthrown in 1911, and Sun Yat-sen emerged as the leader of the new Chinese republic. • Sun Yat-sen's party, the Kuomintang (the Nationalist People's Party), promoted the Three Principles of the People: nationalism, democracy, and livelihood. • In 1934 the communist retreated; during the Long March they traveled over 6,000 miles before settling in northwestern China, spreading their ideas along the way. • During the Long March, Mao Zedong emerged as the leader of the communists. • During World War II, the civil war was suspended in an effort to fight the Japanese invasion. • After World War II ended, the civil war resumed and the People's Liberation Army, the army of the Communist Party, quickly seized control. • On October 1, 1949, Mao Zedong announced the creation of the People's Republic of China, a communist nation; the Nationalists fled to nearby Taiwan. • China remains a communist nation; the Nationalists still control Taiwan.

187: Thirty Years War •

A conflict centered in Europe and fought between 1618 and 1648, resulting from the attempts of the Holy Roman Emperor to force his subjects to return to the Roman Catholic faith. • Much of Europe participated in the conflict, including Spain, France, and the Netherlands. • The Peace of Westphalia negotiated at the end of the war left a weakened Holy Roman Empire. • German states were given their independence; Prussia quickly emerged as the most powerful. • Switzerland was given its independence, and France added new territories to its land. • The most significant aspect of the peace was the beginning of the nation-state in Europe; sovereign states were given the authority to govern themselves.

265: Opium War: Causes •

A conflict fought between Britain and China (1839-1842) over British sale of opium in China. • China maintained a favorable balance of trade; Europeans demanded Chinese goods, including silk and tea, and paid for these products in silver. • In the late 1700s, the British East India Company began importing opium into China, where they traded it for silver and thus threatened the trade balance. • In 1839, Lin Zexu, a Chinese government official, ordered the confiscation and destruction and destruction of opium and took British merchants hostage. • In response, the British took military action against the Chinese.

342: Warsaw Pact •

A defensive military alliance of communist nations designed to counter the collective defense formed by the democratic nations of NATO. • Original members: Soviet Union, Poland, East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria. • NATO and the Warsaw Pact provided the foundation for the Cold War.

149: Porcelain •

A delicate, yet durable ceramic made of clay. • Although it was likely produced during the later Han period, it was during the Tang dynasty that production was mastered and it became a luxury product in high demand in the Islamic world. • The Tang had a complete monopoly as the world's only producer and supplier. • During the Ming dynasty (1368-1644), a blue and white style was developed.

169: Encomienda System •

A feudal-like system that used forced labor was established by the Spanish in the New World to ensure a cheap labor supply. • An encomienda was the grant of Indians to an encomendero, a Spanish landowner. • In return for this labor supply, the encomendero was responsible for safeguarding the natives' health and safety, as well as encouraging their conversion to Catholicism. • The natives were treated harshly and were so overworked that the Spanish eventually had to import slaves from Africa to replace the diminishing native labor supply. • Christian missionaries, appalled at the system, unsuccessfully fought to end it.

186: Holy Roman Empire •

A fragmented empire centered in modern-day Austria and Hungary, controlled by the Hapsburg family. • Through alliances of marriage, the empire included Germany, Bohemia, Switzerland, and northern Italy. • The empire declined as the result of invasions by the Ottoman Turks and the Thirty Years War. • The Ottoman Turks, threatened by the strength of the Christian empire, conquered Hungary in 1526. • Following the peace negotiated at the end of the Thirty Years War, the empire was significantly reduced and lasted, with no real power, until 1806.

240: Napoléon Bonaparte •

A general in the French army who gained control of France in a coup d'état in 1799, seizing control from the Directory, a small group of governing aristocrats. • He instituted a new constitution and crowned himself emperor in 1804. • His political and social reforms brought much needed stability to a country that had been in the midst of revolution since 1789. • His Civil Code extended political and legal equality to all adult men, and religious toleration was promoted. • His armies conquered much of Europe, and monarchs across the continent were replaced with Napoléon's family members. • His invasion of Russia in 1812 ended in disaster when his troops were unable to continue fighting in the harsh conditions of a bitter cold Russian winter. • After his failure in Russia, Napoléon's enemies, led by the British, forced him into exile in 1814.

377: Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs) •

A group that has no connection to a government; not funded by a government. • United Nations (outgrowth of unsuccessful League of Nations): Created after World War II in an attempt to find solutions to global problems through mediation, economic sanctions, and other methods short of direct conflict. Led to the creation of other international organizations, such as the World Health Organization. • The Red Cross: International humanitarian agency, created to help prisoners of war, the wounded, and civilians in wartime; later extended to peacetime. • Greenpeace: Environmental organization. Goal: preserve Earth's natural resources and wildlife.

359: Nelson Mandela •

A leader of the ANC (African National Congress), arrested for military protests against apartheid and sentenced to jail for life. • Became a symbol of the anti-apartheid movement and white oppression. • Released from jail by President F. W. DeKlerk in 1990. • 1994: Became first black president of South Africa following the nation's first free elections.

111: Manor Life •

A manor is a large estate consisting of fields, meadows, forests, domestic animals, lakes, rivers, and the serfs bound to the land. • In medieval Europe, manors were self-sufficient communities that maintained bakeries, mills, breweries, and wineries. Under the lord's direction, serfs produced most of the necessary iron tools, leather goods, textiles, and domestic utensils. • Small local markets (usually located near monasteries) provided manors with goods they could not produce themselves (examples: salt). • Lord of the manor (usually a political and military leader) established and provided government, police services, and justice for the manor. • Three-field system was used to rotate crops and preserve nutrients.

228: Printing Press •

A mechanical device invented in the 15th century in Europe. • Johannes Gutenberg is credited with perfecting the process that pressed ink onto paper, printing his famous 42-line Bible between 1452 and 1453. • Knowledge of the press quickly spread across Europe and led to the mass production of books. • Producing thousands of pages a day, compared to the few that could be produced by hand, allowed for the spread of new ideas from humanist thinkers such as Erasmus and reformers such as Martin Luther.

241: Congress of Vienna •

A meeting held from 1814 to 1815 in Vienna and attended by representatives of the nations that had defeated Napoléon Bonaparte. • The goal was to restore Europe to the way it was prior to the French Revolution. • Led by Prince Metternich of Austria, the representatives wanted to reestablish boundaries, restore legitimate monarchs, and negotiate a balance of power in the hopes of preventing any one nation in Europe from ever gaining too much power. • An unstated goal of the congress was to limit growing nationalistic desires, which had emerged as a strong new force after the French Revolution. • Although the balance of power would be subsequently tested, it was not until World War I that Europe would again be faced with a war that would have a lasting effect upon the entire continent.

264: Berlin Conference (1884-1885) •

A meeting of European powers in which the rules for colonizing Africa were established: European powers had to notify one another of their intentions to take control of an area. • Occurred in response to the establishment of British and Belgian colonies in Africa as European nations scrambled to get a piece of the continent. • Africa's indigenous population was not represented at the conference. • The entire continent was completely divided up by 1885 with the exception of Liberia and Ethiopia. • Before the conference, the European presence in Africa had been limited to coastal trading posts. • The drawing of new boundaries with no regard for the natives who lived there eventually contributed to numerous problems, including civil wars.

262: Indian National Congress (INC): Origins •

A nationalist group formed in British India in 1885 by upper-class Hindus. • Although most members were middle- and upper-class Hindus, the INC sought to serve all Indians. • Initially a forum to express concerns to colonial officials on taxes and other such subjects, by the turn of the century, the INC was calling for Indian self-rule. • Fearful that Hindus did not have Muslim best interests at heart, Muslim leaders created the Muslim League. • In 1906, the INC joined forces with the All India Muslim League, and together the two groups gained limited rights for the Indian colonists. • The INC and the Muslim League partnered to lead a mass movement to gain self-rule for the subcontinent.

319: Mao Zedong •

A nationalist leader in China, he successfully defeated the Kuomintang in a civil war in large measure because of the support of the peasants. • Influenced by Marxist ideology, China became the world's largest communist nation, and Mao sought to make it a modern, industrialized nation. • The Great Leap Forward was a five-year plan aimed at increasing industrial production and agricultural output; communes and production quotas were established. • The Great Leap Forward failed: quotas were not met, products were of poor quality, and little incentive existed to work hard; agricultural output actually declined. • Next Mao introduced the Cultural Revolution, aimed at renewing/restoring communist loyalty following the disaster of the Great Leap Forward. • Mao created policies to improve the status of women, including banning the ancient practice of foot binding. • After Mao's death in 1976, a new, more moderate leader emerged.

254: Zionism •

A nationalist movement that emerged in the late 1800s with the stated goal of establishing a Jewish state in Palestine; led in large part by Theodor Herzl. • Jews began to settle in Palestine, especially after World War I, when the land became a mandate of the British; migration had significantly increased after the British issued the Balfour Declaration, expressing their support for a Jewish homeland in Palestine. • After World War II, Zionist goals were realized. Following years of conflict between the Arabs of Palestine and the more recently arrived Jews, the United Nations took control of the region, and in May 1948 the state of Israel was proclaimed a Jewish state. • The creation of the state of Israel led to the Arab-Israeli conflict, a conflict that continues to this day; since 1948, Zionists have continued to support the country and the efforts of its Jewish population to maintain Israel's security.

91: Magnetic Compass •

A navigational tool that determines direction; the magnetic compass does this by using the magnetic poles of Earth. • Its origin is hard to date, but it is certainly a Chinese invention that was in wide use during the time of the Song dynasty (960 C.E.-1279 C.E.). • The Chinese used a magnetic needle floating in water. • Knowledge of the compass spread from China across the Indian Ocean; used by Arab and Persian sailors in the 100s (C.E.). • Europeans began using the magnetic compass in the 1100s (C.E.). • This technology played a key role in European exploration.

239: French Revolution: Convention to Napoléon •

A new constitution gave the convention the power to govern; the convention abolished the monarchy. • A group of radicals seized control, and the Committee of Public Safety was created; led by Maximilien Robespierre, the Jacobins jailed and killed anyone suspected of antirevolutionary thought or action. • A new constitution, drawn up in 1795, ended this phase of the revolution and led to the creation of a five-man Directory. • The Directory lost power in a 1799 coup d'état led by General Napoléon Bonaparte, who named himself emperor in 1804 and began to conquer France's neighbors. • Napoléon ruled until 1814; the following year the Congress of Vienna met and restored the monarchy to France.

159: Mercantilism •

A new economic theory adopted by many European nations with the goal of maintaining a favorable trade balance—whereby a country exports more than it imports. • European countries depended on raw materials and natural resources from their colonies; colonies were also viewed as markets for finished goods. • This policy encouraged competition among Europeans to establish more colonies. • Theory rejected in Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations (1776).

325: Nazi-Soviet Pact (Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact) •

A nonaggression treaty signed between Germany and the Soviet Union in 1939 in which the two nations publicly agreed to avoid armed conflict with one another. • Secretly, another agreement was negotiated in which Germany and the Soviet Union agreed to divide the countries of northern and eastern Europe into spheres of influence; Poland was to be divided between the two. • World War II began with Germany's invasion of western Poland, followed by the Soviet's invasion from the east; soon states in the Baltic region fell under the control of the Soviet Union as Hitler systematically gained control of nations throughout Eastern Europe. • Germany violated the pact by invading the Soviet Union in June 1941 and quickly took control of the Soviet spheres of influence in the Baltic countries and Eastern Europe. • Ultimately, the Soviet Union was able to push back the Germans, and its goal of extending Soviet influence across Eastern Europe was realized after World War II with the creation of satellite nations.

21: Vedic Age •

A period in Indian history, between 1500 and 500 B.C.E., when the Vedas—the primary texts of Hinduism—were recorded; Rig Veda is the first of these. • The Aryans recorded a number of literary and religious works in Sanskrit; the earliest works, the Vedas ("knowledge" or "wisdom"), a collection of songs, hymns, and prayers honoring Aryan gods, were handed down by Brahmin priests. • The Vedas also provide a view of early Aryan society in India. • In this period, the Aryans and Dravidians frequently fought among themselves—there was no common centralized government. • Hundreds of chiefdoms based on herding communities and agricultural villages were established. • Permanent communities, relying more on agriculture than herding, were established into a regional kingdom c. 1000-500 B.C.E. • Social hierarchy, based on caste, maintained order and stability; the Aryans also constructed a gender hierarchy based on a strong patriarchal society.

203: Single Whip Tax System •

A policy put forth by the Ming in the 1570s requiring a single national tax and that all taxes be paid in the form of silver, including those taxes paid by tributary states. • This change in policy had global implications, as China now had to fulfill the demand for silver. • Silver made its way into China from both Japan and the Americas, resulting in enormous profits for both Spain and Japan.

247: Liberalism in Europe •

A political ideology asserting that individuals possess certain rights such as liberty and equality and that the purpose of government is to protect these rights. • Developed in response to Enlightenment ideas and the changes brought about by the American and French Revolutions. • Liberals, unlike conservatives, believed that change was necessary and normal. • Following the Industrial Revolution, many liberal thinkers gave their support to capitalism and laissez-faire economics, abandoning mercantilist policies.

246: Conservatism in Europe •

A political philosophy that sought to return things to the way they were before the political revolutions that spread across Europe in the 19th century and to maintain traditional ways. • Developed in response to the changes that resulted from successful revolutions in North America and France. • Conservatives, such as Edmund Burke, held that change takes place and that when it occurs, it should be a natural occurrence, not the result of revolution. • Conservatives argue that, since change occurs naturally over time, the existing social order should be respected.

267: Taiping Rebellion (1850s and 1860s) •

A rebellion by Chinese peasants that threatened the Qing dynasty. • The Taiping offered a new vision of China that included the redistribution of land, public education, and rights for women. • Although they were successful in gaining supporters and even captured Nanjing, the rebellion ultimately ended at tremendous cost of life. • The Qing organized a powerful army and had the support of the scholar-gentry, the class most threatened by the Taiping reforms. • Although the rebellion failed, the destruction and death it caused were massive and forced the Qing to make reforms; the most well-known was called the Self-Strengthening Movement.

41: Zoroastrianism •

A religion based on the teachings of Zarathustra, who left his family at the age of twenty in search of wisdom; after ten years he proclaimed that visions revealed to him the supreme god, whom he called Ahura Mazda ("wise lord"); this supreme being had chosen him to be his prophet and spread his message. • Major belief: The material world is a blessing; teachings of Ahura Mazda allow enjoyment of everything the world has to offer (wealth, sexual pleasure, and social status)—but in moderation. • Influence of Zoroastrian religion can be found in Judaism and Christianity; for example, the concept of good and evil and the concept of Heaven and Hell as reward or punishment.

261: Sepoy Rebellion •

A revolt led by Indian soldiers against the British East India Company (BEIC) in protest of rules that threatened their religious traditions. • The BEIC had trading rights in the nation and employed sepoys, Indian soldiers, to protect their interests. • The sepoys' gun cartridges were greased in pig and cow fat, an insult to both Muslim and Hindu Indians. • Rebellion broke out, and although it was quickly put down, the British government took direct political control of India. • The Indian colony was the most profitable, the "jewel in the crown," of the British Empire.

290: Chinese Revolution, 1911 •

A revolution in 1911 led to the abdication of the last emperor of China and the end of the Qing Empire. • The overthrow of the existing government came as a result of the rise of revolutionary and nationalistic feelings across China. • Dr. Sun Yat-sen, a Western-educated reformer, led a revolutionary movement based on the Three Principles of the People and in 1912 declared a Chinese Republic. • Dr. Sun Yat-sen was president of the new republic, but the new government lacked stability and soon the nation was involved in a civil war.

89: Sternpost Rudder •

A rudder is used to steer a ship. • The Chinese mounted rudders on the sterns of their boats beginning in the 1st century C.E. • The use of the sternpost rudder spread across the Indian Ocean. • Europeans began to use the sternpost rudder in the 1100s C.E. • This technology played a key role in European exploration.

216: Akbar the Great •

A ruler of the Mughal Empire (r. 1556-1605), he clearly established the absolute authority of the emperor and a policy of tolerance toward the many religions in his empire. • Eliminated the jizya, a tax imposed on Hindus, and allowed Hindus to rise to positions of power in his government. • Modernized the army and encouraged long-distance trade. • Generous patron of the arts.

168: Seven Years War •

A series of conflicts fought on a global stage from 1756 to 1763. • Significant because the war reflected the intense commercial rivalries that developed from European exploration and Europeans' resulting desire to establish trading posts in the Americas and Asia. • Conflicts in India, the Caribbean, and North America ultimately established British hegemony. • In North America, the French and Indian War was the stage for direct fighting between the French and the British. • By the end of this time period, Britain dominated global trade and would use this advantage to establish a global empire.

245: Toussaint Louverture •

A slave who helped lead a revolt in Haiti against white settlers. • He was educated and had knowledge of Enlightenment principles, as well as of the success of the American Revolution. • He organized an effective army made up mostly of rebelling slaves. • In 1798, the slaves were granted their independence, but Toussaint continued his fight, calling for Saint Domingue's independence from France. • In 1802, French troops were ordered to put down the rebellion and Toussaint was captured and eventually died in a French prison. • The rebellion continued after his death, and in 1804, Haiti declared its independence.

204: The Great Wall •

A stone and brick fortification in the north of China built to protect China from outside invasion. • Although construction of a defensive wall began in the 4th century B.C.E. under Shi Huangdi, it was completed under the Ming (in large response to the Mongol invasion of the previous period). • The wall generally prevented attacks; only when the empire was suffering internally were outsiders able to go beyond the wall and invade.

303: V. I. Lenin •

A student of Marxism, Lenin saw in revolutionary Russia the seeds of a communist revolution. • Following the abdication of Czar Nicholas II and the creation of a provisional government, he took control of the Bolshevik Party, whose members supported the ideals of communism. • In October 1917, the Bolsheviks seized control of the provisional government. The Bolsheviks, soon renamed Communists, immediately set to transforming the nation politically and economically. • Lenin pulled Russia out of World War I and began a series of land reforms. • Civil war broke out, and as a result, Lenin instituted his policy of war communism. • War communism was nationalization on a massive scale. All major businesses were put under the control of the government, the government made all planning and production decisions, food was rationed, and private ownership of businesses was prohibited. • When civil war ended, war communism was replaced by the New Economic Policy (NEP).

174: Indentured Labor •

A system in which people from Europe promised to work for a certain amount of time in exchange for their paid passage to the New World. • The system developed as the result of the demand for cheap labor for the large colonial plantations in North America, which by the 1600s were focused on the production of cash crops such as tobacco and cotton. • Unlike the Spanish, who had success in drafting the native population for labor needs, colonists in North America were unsuccessful in forcing natives to work on their plantations and thus needed an alternative labor supply. • Although this system lasted until the 20th century, plantation owners in the 17th century looking for an even cheaper supply of workers began to import African slaves.

259: Social Darwinism •

A theory based in part on Charles Darwin's theories of evolution and natural selection. • According to Darwin, man evolved from apes over a period of millions of years and all species compete in order to survive. • Social Darwinists, such as Herbert Spencer, used this concept—the survival of the fittest—to explain why some businessmen are more successful than others; it later served as justification for European capitalist powers to control other nations.

217: Taj Mahal •

A tomb built by the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his wife, who died giving birth. • An excellent example of Islamic and Hindu architecture. • Design elements include a large dome, minarets, a reflecting pool, expansive courtyards, and the use of symmetry.

115: Hanseatic League (Hansa) •

A trade network that developed in the Baltic and North Sea (1400s-1600s); encompassed the commercial centers of Poland, northern Germany, and Scandinavia; linked to the Mediterranean through the Rhine and Danube rivers. • Traded grain, fish, furs, timber, and pitch. • Frequency of trade led to the adoption of credit and banking systems, which made trade possible on a large scale. • Commercial partnerships further increased the volume of trade in Europe. • Impact on class structure of northern Europe made social mobility possible.

88: Lateen Sail •

A triangular-shaped sail that improved upon the traditional square sail. • By the 500s C.E., the lateen sails had extensively replaced the square sail. • The sail was easily maneuverable due to its ability to "catch" wind on the sides, as well as from behind. • It can be traced to the early Roman Empire and was used in the Mediterranean Sea. • Knowledge of the sail spread to Southeast Asia and India in the 100s C.E.; the sail was used in Indian Ocean basin trade. • This technology played a key role in European exploration.

276: Sino-Japanese War •

A war fought between China and Japan for control of Korea. • Korea became a target of Japan's expansionist policy (following rapid industrialization in the Meiji era). • In 1894, when a rebellion led by pro-Japanese reformists broke out in Korea, the Korean government asked China to send in troops to help restore order; Japan in turn sent troops and captured the Korean emperor. • Japan's modern army quickly defeated the Chinese troops, and in April 1895 the Qing signed the Treaty of Shimonoseku. • The Qing agreed to stay out of Korea, gave up rights to parts of Manchuria, and ceded Taiwan to the Japanese. • The war was a clear indication of Japan's imperial aspirations in Asia and a reflection of China's inability to keep pace with a fast-changing world.

378: Machine Gun •

A weapon invented by Sir Hiram Maxim in 1884. The Maxim used energy from recoil force to expel the spent cartridge and insert the next one. It could fire 400 to 600 rounds per minute, but it was heavy and cumbersome. Also, it required a team of men to operate it and needed a constant supply of water to prevent it from overheating and shutting down. • Despite numerous drawbacks, it was used as a defensive weapon during World War I. • It was used as an offensive weapon when mounted on aircraft, tanks, and other vehicles. • Improvements were made on later models, and by 1918 the machine gun was operated by one man and was portable.

138: Development in Oceania •

Aboriginal peoples of Australia, isolated from other societies, created trade and exchange networks with other hunting and gathering societies as far away as 1,000 miles. • Traded items such as stone clubs, trinkets, flowers, and iron axes (aborigines had no metallurgy). • New Guineans herded swine and cultivated root crops. • No contact with advanced societies until late 1700s.

55: Buddhism •

About 537 B.C.E. Siddhartha Gautama, a Hindu of the Kshatriyan caste, left his family to live as a holy man. • After meditating 49 days under the Bodhi tree, said he understood the problem of suffering and how to eliminate it; became the Buddha ("the enlightened one"). • Dharma is the principle or law that orders the universe according to the teachings of the Buddha. • Four Noble Truths: nothing is permanent; all life involves suffering; desire causes suffering—eliminate desire and you will eliminate suffering. Follow the Eightfold Path, the fourth Noble Truth: right belief, right resolve, right speech, right behavior, right occupation, right effort, right contemplation, right meditation. • Goal: to achieve Nirvana (a state of spiritual independence). • Appealed to lower castes because it de-emphasized class distinctions. • Cultural diffusion responsible for spread of ideas—in Japan developed into Zen Buddhism; in China, Mahayana Buddhism; in northern India, Theravada Buddhism.

92: Muhammad •

About 610 C.E., Muhammad had a transformational spiritual experience and traveled through the Arabian Peninsula proclaiming that he was the last prophet of Allah. • He believed in one God (Allah). • Allah's words were given to Muhammad and collected by his followers and compiled in the Qur'an. • The Hadith, a record of the sayings attributed to Muhammad and accounts of the prophet's deeds, serves as a guide for interpretation of the Qur'an and for social and legal customs; the Hadith lays out the concepts of the five pillars, tenets central to Islam.

102: Technological Development of Tang and Song Dynasties •

Advances were made possible as a result of abundant food supplies. • High-quality porcelain—produced as a result of firing with glazes—became utensils and works of art; later diffused to other societies. • Metallurgical technologies: Iron and steel were made stronger by using coke, instead of coal, under higher furnace temperatures. • Military advances: Gunpowder (a mixture of charcoal, saltpeter, sulfur, and arsenic) was ultimately used effectively in military battles. • Printing technology: Thanks to movable type, texts were produced faster, cheaper, and in greater quantities.

180: Impact of Atlantic Slave Trade in Africa •

Africans who participated in the traditional slave trade enslaved Africans in the interior regions and then sold them to the Europeans (Europeans lacked both the military strength and the immunity to diseases, such as malaria, to go beyond the coast). • The export of so many millions, particularly men (it is estimated that two out of three were men), impacted family life, and in many of the areas from which the slaves were taken there tended to be majority female populations. • Even with the export of so many Africans, the population did not decrease on the continent; the introduction of new food crops from the Americas helped to stabilize the population and may have even led to an increase. • This form of chattel slavery led to an increase in intertribal warfare and over time the dissolution of once powerful kingdoms, particularly those located along the coast.

275: Meiji Restoration •

After Japan ended its isolation, rebellion led to the overthrow of the shogun, replaced by an emperor, who initiated a series of social, economic, and political reforms. • A centralized government, established with a new constitution, set up a two-house system, although the emperor retained most control; the government successfully resisted imperial encroachment. • Fearful that Japan would experience the same fate as China, Meiji reformers sought to modernize the nation by selectively borrowing Western ideas. • The Japanese economy quickly industrialized with the support of the government, which built factories, railroads, and banks. This is known as state-sponsored industrialization. • Japan modernized its army and navy and improved health care and the education system. • Japan modernized quickly and by 1900 began to follow a foreign policy of empire building that would lead to conflict with its neighbors in the region and would establish it as a global power.

332: U.S. Occupation of Japan •

After Japan's unconditional surrender in World War II, Japan was occupied by U.S. forces under General Douglas MacArthur. • MacArthur ensured that Japan's transformation would benefit the United States and its allies. • A new constitution, adopted in 1947, instituted democratic reforms. The emperor retained his title but had no military or political power. The country developed a parliamentary democracy; a diet made the political decisions. • Japan's military was severely limited, although in 1954 the nation was permitted to create separate land, sea, and air forces for self-defense. • The occupation ended in 1952, although the United States still maintains bases in Japan. • Following U.S. occupation, Japan's resources were committed to a course of aggressive industrialization. As a result, today Japan is one of the world's economic superpowers.

344: Korean War •

After World War II, Korea, which had been annexed by Japan, was occupied by both the Soviet Union and the United States—the Soviet Union north of the 38th parallel and the United States south of it. The occupation was to be for a limited time while the terms of uniting the country were negotiated. • Each occupied zone adopted the political ideology of its occupying nation. • In 1950, the communist leader of North Korea, Kim Il Sung, invaded South Korea. The U.S. policy of containment ensured U.S. intervention on behalf of South Korea. • The United Nations condemned the invasion, and under the leadership of the United States a multilateral force fought to push North Korea out of South Korea. China eventually entered the war on the side of North Korea. • A 1953 cease-fire agreement divided Korea along the 38th parallel; the nation remains divided by a demilitarized zone. • The Korean War, the first major armed Cold War conflict, led the United States to a more aggressive containment policy, extending military and economic support to nations throughout Asia.

351: Indian Independence •

After World War II, overseas empires became increasingly difficult to maintain. Great Britain held on, but election of the Labour Party ushered in a movement toward home rule. • Leaders of the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League worked with Mohandas Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru to start a movement called communalism—an effort to get Indians to act and feel as one nation. • Gandhi advocated passive resistance and nonviolence—methods of peaceful protest that were designed to draw public support from around the world and identify the British as forceful tyrants. • Boycotts of British goods and against British policies were conducted (example: the Salt March). • India was granted independence in 1947. • In 1947, India was partitioned: India gained its independence, and the country of Pakistan was created as an Islamic republic. • Partition led to conflict that still exists today.

219: Russian Empire: Rise and Expansion •

After breaking free of Mongol control in the late 1400s, Muscovite princes began to take control over much of Russia, eliminating the authority of local princes. • Ivan III, a grand prince of Moscow, developed a policy that encouraged Cossacks (peasants) to settle in the lands that he had conquered. • Ivan centralized his authority, claimed divine right to rule, and name himself czar. • Moscow was established as the capital of the new Russian Empire.

99: Sui Dynasty •

After centuries of turmoil following the Han dynasty, the Sui emerged to restore peace and order. • Built a strong central government with work done by peasants. • Public works projects included palaces, granaries, and repair of defensive walls; most elaborate project was the Grand Canal. • Grand Canal: a series of artificial waterways that connected Hangzhou to Chang'an (almost 2,000 kilometers); said to be forty paces wide with service roads running on either side. These waterways accounted for large expenditures from the government treasury; money came from taxes and dividends from Grand Canal, which linked northern and southern economies; the people of China reaped its benefits for years to come. • 610s: Rebellions broke out in northern China. • Emperor Sui Yangdi was assassinated and dynasty ended.

10: Nile River Civilization •

Agricultural settlements emerged as early as 5500 B.C.E., but Egyptian history begins when King Menes united Upper (southern) and Lower (northern) Egypt. • Society was ruled by a pharaoh, considered an incarnation of the sun god, who controlled access to the Nile. • Many cities were built during the Middle and New Kingdom periods, and an economic network developed. • Women were responsible for handling household finances and educating children. • A woman had the right to divorce, receive alimony, own property, manage a business, and become a priestess. • Hatshepsut, female pharaoh of Egypt. • Elaborate polytheistic religion based on concept of life after death—subject of religious text the Egyptian Book of the Dead. Chief deity, Re, sun god. • Worshipping dead led to mummification and the building of tombs/pyramids. • Achievements: written language (hieroglyphics), papermaking, field irrigation, bronze tools and weapons, 365-day calendar, monumental architecture (pyramids, temples).

6: Neolithic Era—Culture •

Agriculture allowed for a food surplus, which in turn led to an increase in population. • Permanent villages appeared as people turned to farming and away from hunting and gathering. • Jericho, in modern-day Israel, was one of the world's first Neolithic villages. • Village life encouraged the development of specialized labor—everyone was no longer dedicated to food production. • Early industries developed in pottery, metallurgy, and textiles. • Specialized labor encouraged the accumulation of wealth and eventually led to the emergence of social classes. • Sedentary agricultural societies saw the role and status of women diminish compared with that of hunting and gathering societies.

40: Economics of Classical Persia •

Agriculture was the foundation of the Persian economy—surpluses were necessary to support military forces, government administrators, and residents in the cities. • Empire controlled fertile land in Mesopotamia, Egypt, Anatolia, and northern India. • Imperial court consumed almost 800,000 liters of grain per year, in addition to vegetables, fruits, meat, poultry, fish, oil, beer, wine, and textiles. • Persian Royal Road and sea routes through the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, and Arabian Sea assisted in trade throughout the empire. • Markets in large cities, such as Babylon, also housed banks and companies that invested capital in commercial ventures.

197: The Enlightenment •

Also known as the Age of Reason. • The application of natural laws and reasoning led to new thinking in regard to human behavior. • In Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries, thinkers began to reject traditional ideas and apply principles of reason and nature to government. • Philosophers such as John Locke, Baron de Montesquieu, and Voltaire were among the most influential Enlightenment thinkers; their ideas caused people to question traditional forms of government, most notably absolutism.

340: Marshall Plan •

Also known as the European Recovery Program, a massive economic aid package, part of the containment policy, designed to strengthen democracy and lessen the appeal of communism (developed after WWII). • Over 13 billion dollars was sent to war-torn western European countries to help them recover from the war. • A U.S. offer of aid to Eastern Europe was refused by Stalin. Established by the Soviet Union, the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON), an alternative to the Marshall Plan, offered increased trade in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union in an effort to supplement funds not being received by denying the Marshall Plan.

316: Mohandas Gandhi: Early Years •

An Indian nationalist leader who fought for India's independence from Great Britain. • After attending law school in London, he took a job in South Africa; his experience there working with the Indian population in their struggle against racial inequality laid the foundation for his efforts in India. • While in South Africa, he adopted the practice of nonviolence (ahimsa) and created Satyagraha, passive resistance, as techniques of fighting against unfair laws. • Upon his return to India, he found the Indian National Congress struggling to establish a nationwide nationalist movement aimed at gaining India's independence.

175: Songhay Empire •

An Islamic empire established in the 1400s (following the decline of the Mali Empire) and lasting until the 1600s. • The capital city, Gao, was commercially successful. Following a campaign of expansion led by Sunni Ali, the empire reached its height and included the city of Timbuktu. • Much like the West African kingdoms that preceded it, the kingdom of Songhay had control of the trans-Saharan trade routes, which allowed for the exchange of gold and salt. • Timbuktu was not only an important trading city but also a leading cultural center. • The emperors of Songhay, all Muslims, encouraged the building of mosques and schools to teach Islam to the citizens of the empire. • In the late 1500s, the Moroccan army, armed with guns, attacked and seized the unarmed Songhay Empire.

215: Mughal Empire •

An Islamic empire, established in India following the defeat of the Delhi Sultanate by the Mughals in 1526. • Mughals were an Islamic minority ruling over a Hindu majority. • The Mughals unified much of the subcontinent and under the leadership of Akbar established a strong centralized empire in the region. • During the Mughal golden age Islamic art and architecture flourished as evidenced by the building of the Taj Mahal. • The empire began to decline in late 1600s: Emperors abandoned policies of religious toleration, and the arrival of Europeans posed a serious challenge to Mughal rule.

144: Zheng He •

An Islamic eunuch admiral who led seven exploratory voyages for Ming China from 1405 to 1433, commanding an extensive naval fleet. • Traveled to Southeast Asia, Ceylon, India, the Persian Gulf, Arabia, and the East African coast, where he established tributary relationships. • Brought porcelain and silk from China; luxury gifts (tributes) he received from the countries he visited included animals from Africa, which went to the Ming dynasty zoo. • Ming emperors abruptly pulled funds from Zheng He's expeditions because the government was concerned about domestic problems and frontier security. • They did not trust Zheng He and thought the funds would be better spent on agriculture and protecting themselves from Mongol invasions from the north. They destroyed his nautical charts and allowed ships to fall into a state of disrepair. • Zheng He's voyages demonstrated China's ability to be a military, political, and economic power in the Indian Ocean.

298: Mandate System •

An article in the covenant of the League of Nations stated that colonies and territories needed assistance as they prepared for self-government and that more advanced nations would act as guides for the less experienced ones. • Influenced by the idea of self-determination, a principle originating in U.S. President Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points at the end of World War I. • Self-determination: the idea that a nation should have the right to determine its own future. • Mandates were established in the former German colonies and in territories once belonging to the Ottoman Empire. • France and Great Britain took control of most of the Middle East, including Iraq and Palestine; France gained control of Syria and Lebanon. Arab nationalists had hoped that the British and French would make good on promises of independence for the former Ottoman territories.

270: Boxer Rebellion (1899-1900) •

An internal rebellion led by a group known as the Boxers, who unsuccessfully sought to rid China of foreign influence. • The Boxers had imperial support for their efforts, which included attacking and killing foreigners and Chinese Christians. • Following their attempt to gain control of foreign embassies in Beijing, foreign forces moved quickly to put down the rebellion. • The defeat of the Boxers allowed foreigners to gain even more concessions from the Qing; China had to pay for damages to foreign-held property. • The rebellion further weakened the ruling family, who within a decade would be overthrown by Chinese nationalists.

364: OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) •

An organization of producers of oil, established in 1960. Member nations include Algeria, Ecuador, Gabon, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, and Venezuela. • Goal: To control the price of oil through cooperation. • Power lessened in the 1980s as a result of overproduction and the Iran-Iraq and Gulf Wars.

1: Hominids •

Appeared 3 to 4 million years ago in southern and eastern Africa. • Humanlike creatures called primates. • Mary and Louis Leakey excavated hominid fossils in the Great Rift Valley. • "Lucy," an Australopithecine fossil, found in 1974. • Three major differences from earlier primates: bipedalism (gives ability to walk upright), a sizable brain (enables abstract thought and fine motor control), and a larynx (allows for complex speech). • Thought-processing ability led to alteration of the natural environment to suit human needs.

97: Influences on the Dar al-Islam (Persian, Indian, and Greek) •

Arabic tem referring to the "house of Islam" and the lands under Islamic rule. • Persian influences: administrative techniques; ideas of kingship (greatly influenced caliphs); Persian language, written and spoken, used in literature, poetry, history, and political thought (for example, The Arabian Nights). • Indian influences: mathematics, Arabic/Hindi numbers, symbol for zero, algebra, trigonometry, geometry. • Greek influences: philosophy, science, medical writings (especially Plato and Aristotle). Arabic libraries and museums held translated Greek and Roman works.

269: Spheres of Influence •

Areas of economic influence/control. • Several were established in China in the 19th century; at first foreigners took advantage of a weakened China and seized control of China's tributary states (for example, France took control of Vietnam in 1885). • Eventually Western powers, including Germany and France, gained exclusive trading rights within China. • In response to the presence of foreigners in the nation, Chinese nationalism increased as evidenced by increased internal rebellions, most notably the Boxer Rebellion.

271: Monroe Doctrine •

Articulated in 1823 as part of U.S. foreign policy, it sought to limit European interference in the Americas. • President James Monroe regarded the Americas as a U.S. protectorate and thus saw threats to the region as threats against the United States. • The doctrine indicated that an attempt by Europe to take control of land in the Americas would be viewed as a hostile act and that, in theory, the United States would respond. • Most significantly, the doctrine would provide (in later years) justification for the United States to intervene in the affairs of the Western Hemisphere.

260: Direct vs. Indirect Control (of Colonial Possessions) •

As European nations sought to extend their authority over weaker lands, they needed to determine if rule was to be direct or indirect. • Direct: The colony, normally the result of conquest, was under express control of the mother country. • Indirect: The colony was given a degree of autonomy. • In Africa, the French tended to employ direct rule, while the British preferred indirect rule.

211: Süleyman the Magnificent •

As sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1520 to 1566, he expanded the empire into southern Europe and created an efficient centralized bureaucracy. • Modernized the Ottoman army. • Known as the Lawgiver for improving the legal system—laws were based on sharia, Islamic law. • He was a great patron of the arts and was known for his religious tolerance.

112: Holy Roman Empire •

As the Carolingian Empire ended, local authorities extended their power, including Otto of Saxony, who established himself as the king in northern Germany and invaded Italy in the name of peace and the church. • Ultimately encompassed Germany and at times Eastern Europe and Italy. • To thank him for reestablishing Christian authority in the region, Pope John XII declared Otto the Holy Roman Emperor in 962. • Impressive title coupled with a lifelong power struggle between the pope and secular leaders throughout Europe. • Germany: Pope Gregory VII's ending of the practice of lay investiture (by which emperors could select and install church officials) was challenged by Henry IV, who was immediately excommunicated; a rebellion by German princes led to reinstallation of Henry.

337: Nuclear Arms Race •

As the Cold War progressed, a new reality emerged: The struggle between the United States and the Soviet Union to claim political hegemony across the globe led to an expensive arms race and the proliferation of nuclear weapons. • Although the United States had been first to test and use the atomic bomb, the Soviet Union tested their own by 1949. • Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, both nations continued to build nuclear arsenals. Each side also had the technology, intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), to directly attack the other. • This arms race redefined war and diplomacy. An awareness on both sides that any direct fighting between the two could lead to nuclear war led to a new Cold War reality: mutually assured destruction (MAD). • Weapon building continued and a new concept emerged—deterrence: as long as each side had enough weapons, neither would attack. • In the mid-1960s, the United States began to explore the possibility of arms control and/or reduction. In 1972, SALT I (Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty), signed by the two nations, established limits and restraints on their weapons programs.

226: Serfdom in Russia •

As the result of unpaid debts, many peasants were forced into serfdom. • Serfdom provided a labor force for the agrarian-based economy. • Serfs were laborers who were tied to the land, although not slaves, they could be sold. • Czars passed laws limiting the rights of serfs, in large part to gain the favor of the nobility.

324: Origins of World War II •

Axis powers: Nazi, Germany, Fascist Italy, and Japan; Allied powers: France and its empire, Great Britain and its empire, Commonwealth allies (Canada, Australia, New Zealand), Soviet Union, China, and the United States. • In an effort to fulfill imperialist goals, Japan invaded Manchuria, in violation of the League of Nations; Japan responded to warnings by withdrawing from the League and starting a full-scale invasion of China in 1937. • Italy attacked Ethiopia, in violation of the League of Nations; little effective resistance was given to Italy. • Germany violated Treaty of Versailles by remilitarizing the Rhineland and invading the Sudetenland. • Appeasement—Western democracies gave in to the demands of aggressor nations (such as Japan, Italy, and Germany) in an attempt to keep the peace. Example: Munich Conference.

135: Aztecs •

Aztecs (Mexica) migrated to central Mexico and established an empire based on military conquest; seized women and land from neighbors. • Settled on island in the middle of Lake Texcoco in 1345 and built capital, Tenochtitlan, modern-day Mexico City. • Fished at first, then developed farming system called chinampas (shaped mud from lake floor into small plots of land that "floated" in the middle of the lake); developed a system of canals to irrigate in the dry season and grew beans, squash, maize, tomatoes, peppers, and chilies for exchange in the marketplace. • Lake provided a natural defense in case of attack. • Attempts to expand into southwestern Mexico led to the formation of a triple alliance: Aztecs, Texcoco, and Tlacopan assessed tribute and left local governments in place as long as they paid up. • Known as "the cannibal kingdom" for their widespread practice of human sacrifice.

136: Aztec Religion •

Aztecs adopted indigenous religious beliefs. • Gods: Tezcatlipoca, "The Smoking Mirror" (the giver and taker of life), and Quetzalcoatl, "The Feathered Serpent" (supported arts, crafts, and agriculture). • Gods made the world work through personal sacrifice (blood flow led to irrigation of crops); practiced sacrificial bloodletting. • Sacrificed humans to appease war god, Huitzilopochtli; built a temple in the center of Tenochtitlan.

128: East African Cultures •

Bantus migrated to the eastern coast of Africa—bringing agriculture, cattle herding, and iron metallurgy—and developed complex societies governed by small, local states. • People living along the coasts supplemented Bantu advances with ocean fishing and maritime trade—builders of Swahili society. • The Swahili controlled the eastern coast of Africa from Mogadishu to Kilwa and the Comoro Islands and Sofala; spoke Swahili and supplemented it with Arabic. • Eastern coast of Africa attracted attention from Islamic merchants, who brought wares (such as pottery, glass, and textiles) from Persia, India, and China in exchange for local products (tortoise shells, leopard skins). • Important cities for trade: Mogadishu, Lamu, Malindi, Mombasa, Kilwa, Mozambique, and Sofala.

109: Feudalism •

Basic concept refers to the political and social order of medieval Europe; based on a hierarchy of lords and vassals who controlled political and military affairs. • Established by European nobles in an attempt to protect their lands and maintain order during a time of weak central power and frequent invasions. • Local lords had the power to administer local affairs, collect taxes, mobilize armed forces, and settle legal disputes. • Land (called fiefs) was given in exchange for protection; lords lived off the surplus crops of their vassals. • Characterized by a strong connection between local political and military authorities. • A feudal system was also instituted in Japan under the Tokugawa Shogunate (independent of the European system).

117: Education and Religion in the European Middle Ages •

Basic education was occasionally provided to the elite and their children in schools by monasteries or political leaders who brought scholars to their courts. • Curriculum had its foundations in the Bible, but by the 12th century the formal curriculum, based on writings in Latin, focused on liberal arts (literature and philosophy), and works by St. Augustine, St. Jerome, Plato, and Aristotle. • Schools organized in the cathedrals of Paris and Bologna (which became the first universities) attracted students from across Europe. • Faculty guilds entrusted teachers with the ability to award academic degrees (licenses to teach in other cities) and transformed cathedral schools into universities. • Reintroduction of Aristotle led to the development of scholastic theology—movement spearheaded at the University of Paris by St. Thomas Aquinas, who suggested that God's existence did not depend on faith but could be rationally proven.

14: Patriarchal Society •

Basis of Mesopotamian and Egyptian societies—men made decisions about the division of household chores among family members, and they arranged marriages. • Men dominated public life: They ruled as kings and pharaohs and made decisions about public policy. • Evidence of patriarchal society seen in Hammurabi's Code, which entrusted men with all major decision making and judgment, and in Confucian society with the five relationships. • Women were punished for adultery by drowning; men could engage in consensual sexual relations outside of marriage without penalty. • A man could sell his wife and children into slavery to pay off debt.

233: Factory System: Social Impact •

Before industrialization, societies were agriculturally based. Although in some places in Europe the domestic system existed, in which individuals worked on one part of production (for example, making cloth from wool), most people still worked on farms. • As the mass production of goods drove down the price of consumer items, demand increased. Cheaper goods were more affordable; as a result, the standard of living rose for most Europeans. • Conditions in the factories in the early years were harsh and dangerous. Workers received little pay, worked long hours, and faced unsafe working conditions. Over time, governments stepped in to pass laws to protect workers (such as minimum-wage legislation). • Labor unions also emerged as workers organized to protect their rights and gain fair treatment in the workplace.

194: Scientific Revolution: Causes •

Beginning in the 17th century, scientists began to challenge the validity of classical ideas; the questioning spirit of the Renaissance and the Reformation reflected the growing secularization of European society. • Throughout the Middle Ages, it was generally believed that Earth was the center of the universe (the geocentric theory); this idea was supported by the church and based on classic Greek and Roman ideas. • In the mid-1500s, Nicolaus Copernicus, arguing in favor of a heliocentric theory, placed the sun at the center of the universe, and based his assertion on mathematical proof. • Although Copernicus's theory was widely debated and even rejected by the church, other scientists were inspired by his efforts.

218: British Economic Interests in India •

Beginning in the early 1600s, Mughal emperors granted concessions to allow the British to trade in India. • Trading posts were set up along the coast in places such as Madras and Bombay. • The British East India Company established forts to protect its commercial interest and controlled trade in India throughout the 1600s and early 1700s. • After the Sepoy Rebellion in 1857, the British government took control of trade and replaced the Mughals as the ruling authority in India.

257: New Imperialism: Causes •

Beginning in the late 1800s, modern, industrial nations sought economic control (and sometimes political and social control) over weaker nations. • Nationalism led to an increased sense of competition as strong nations sought to expand their empires. • Colonies in distant lands allowed nations to establish military bases across the globe. • Industrialization led to an increased need for raw materials and marketplaces. • Social Darwinism and the so-called White Man's Burden provided justification for the efforts of the imperialists. • Christian missionaries sought to spread the Gospel.

157: European Exploration of Pacific •

Between the 1500s and the 1700s, Europeans, motivated by trade, explored the Pacific. • Few colonies were established in the Pacific; trade in the Eastern Hemisphere was conducted mainly through the Spanish-controlled city of Manila, established in 1571, which connected the Spanish colonies with Asian markets. • Contact with Europe brought some changes to the Pacific, including new diseases and missionaries, who followed explorers in the hopes of converting natives to Christianity.

266: Opium War: Results •

Britain's superior military led to a decisive victory over the Chinese and the signing of a series of unequal treaties. • The Treaty of Nanjing required China to pay for the cost of the war as well as the cost of the destroyed opium; China was forced to open additional ports to foreign trade, give up control of Hong Kong to Britain, and grant British citizens extraterritoriality. • These treaties weakened China economically, and other foreign countries took advantage of China's weakened state and established their own spheres of influence there. • The sustained presence of foreigners in the nation led to conflict within China; Chinese nationalists blamed the government for the presence of foreigners in the country. • In the second half of the 19th century, Chinese nationalism increased as groups worked to rid the country of foreign influence.

33: Mayan Culture •

Built eighty large ceremonial centers, which included pyramids, palaces, and temples; large centers included Palenque, Chichén Itzá, and Tikal, the later with a population of approximately 40,000 people and the Temple of the Jaguar. • Approximately 800 C.E. people abandoned their cities, possibly as a result of civil war, internal divisions, invasions, or natural disasters.

286: Background Causes of World War I •

By 1900 nationalism was a powerful global force, at some times urging people to unite for a common purpose and at others acting to break groups up. Ethnic minorities living in the multinational empires of the Ottomans and Austria-Hungary were seeking independence. • The major industrialized nations of Europe were competing for control of foreign markets and access to materials and resources. Also, an arms race had emerged as these nations sought to create the world's strongest armies. • In the late 1800s and early 1900s, in an attempt to maintain the balance of power, many nations in Europe entered into alliances for protection. The two most significant were the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy and the Triple Entente, among Britain, Russia, and France. • Nationalism, militarism, and imperialism, combined with the new reality of entangling alliances, ensured that even the smallest crisis could lead to a war that would envelop the entire European continent.

179: Atlantic Slave Trade •

By the mid-1500s, European demand for a cheap labor supply to work on plantations and in mines of the New World led to an extensive trade in African slaves. • Often called the "triangular trade" because it linked Europe, Africa, and the Americas; the majority of slaves were exported from west and central Africa. • It is estimated that at least 11 million Africans were enslaved and made the Middle Passage across the Atlantic to arrive in the Americas. • Slaves were sent to the Caribbean to work on sugar plantations, to Central America and Peru to work in silver mines, and to North America to work on plantation cultivating cash crops such as cotton and tobacco. • The last country to legally abolish the Atlantic slave trade did so in the mid-19th century.

3: Paleolithic Era—Economy •

Called Old Stone Age (c. 10,000 to 2.5 million years ago). • Greatest concerns were steady and plentiful food supply and clothing. • Stone and bone tools included spears, bows, arrows, fishhooks, harpoons, clay pots. • Humans were nomadic hunters and gatherers. • Predates agricultural societies.

252: Otto von Bismarck •

Chancellor of the German state of Prussia, he worked to unite the German-speaking states into a single nation. • Unified the states through his policy of Blood and Iron. • He successfully waged war against Denmark, Austria, and France, and with each success feelings of German nationalism surged. • It was largely due to his efforts that a Prussian king was named the new ruler of the unified German state.

53: Gupta Dynasty •

Chandra Gupta laid foundations for empire by making alliances with powerful families in the Ganges; he conquered many, while others chose to form tributary alliances with the Guptas. • Government, both policy and administration, was left to the locals; Gupta did not impose uniform laws; brought stability and prosperity. Decline caused by invasions by the White Huns (nomadic people from central Asia)—dynasty continued in name only.

108: Decline of Carolingian Empire •

Charlemagne accepted the title of emperor from the pope in 800 but died shortly thereafter, in 814. • Charlemagne was succeeded by his son, Louis to Pious, who kept the empire together. Not as brilliant as his father, Louis subsequently lost control of his bureaucracy. • Louis's three sons fought over their inheritance—each got an equal portion (Treaty of Verdun, 843) of the now dissolved empire. • External pressures were a factor in the decline: Muslims from the south, Magyars from the east, and Vikings from the north.

29: Chavín •

Chavín cult began after 1000 B.C.E., peaked in popularity 900 to 800 B.C.E., spread through Peru, and vanished approximately 300 B.C.E. • Cult probably arose when maize became an important crop in South America; it was needed to support a large population. The cult may have been designed to promote fertility and abundant harvests. • Achievements include large temple complexes, elaborate works of art, fishing nets, experimentation with minerals, techniques of gold, silver, and copper metallurgy used in the creation of jewelry, and small tools.

156: Christopher Columbus •

Christopher Columbus, an explorer from Genoa, proposed heading west to reach Asia through an all-water trade route (lack of knowledge about the Americas made this seem feasible). • Sponsored by Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, Columbus was given three ships to traverse the Atlantic. • He finally landed in the Bahamas in 1492. • Columbus returned without gold, silk, and spices from Asia, but he insisted that he had reached islands off the Asian mainland. • In three subsequent voyages, Columbus never admitted he had not reached Asia; his "discoveries" led to other expeditions in the Caribbean and the Americas, and the lands were claimed for Spain.

293: Results of World War I •

Cities throughout Europe were destroyed and millions were dead, injured, or homeless. • Although some European nations, notably France and Great Britain, emerged the victors and retained imperial control over their vast empires, in reality the process of decolonization was under way. After the war, there was a significant increase in nationalist feelings throughout the colonial world. • The Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian empires were broken up. • The Allies met in Paris in 1919. Their peace plan included the Treaty of Versailles, negotiated between the Allies and Germany. • The League of Nations was created in the hopes of avoiding future wars, although weaknesses in its design would render it essentially powerless. • President Woodrow Wilson promoted the concept of self-determination, believing that if nations had the right to choose their own governments, peace would ensue. The result of this concept was the development of the mandate system. • Perhaps most significant, World War I ended with many nations dissatisfied, and this sense of unhappiness would ultimately play a role in the rise of World War II.

34: Teotihuácan •

City built in central Mexico because of the abundant supplies of fish; developed agriculture by 500 B.C.E., rapid expansion after 200 B.C.E. • At height (approximately 400-600 C.E.) 200,000 people. • Two most important monuments: colossal pyramids of the sun and the moon. • Artwork suggests a theocratic government—priests were crucial to the survival of society—kept calendar and scheduled planting and harvesting.

48: Early Han Dynasty •

Claiming the "mandate of heaven," Liu Bang centralized rule using persistence and methodical planning; started the longest lasting Chinese dynasty—the Han (206 B.C.E.-220 C.E.). • Emperors ruled from Chang'an, with its imperial palace, busy markets, and parks. • Han Wudi, the "martial emperor," ruled the Han from 141 to 87 B.C.E. with two goals: to centralize governmental power and to expand their empire. He used Legalist principles as the guidelines for his government. • Wudi appointed imperial officers in provinces to enforce laws and levy taxes on agriculture, trade, and craft industries. • Demand for Chinese silk in India, Persia, Mesopotamia, and the Roman Empire led to development of trade routes (the Silk Roads). • Wudi exercised tremendous government control over the building of roads and canals to increase trade and communication. Government also controlled production of essential goods: iron, salt, and liquor.

110: Feudalism in Europe and Japan •

Code of Conduct—Europe: chivalry; Japan: Bushido. • Warriors—Europe: knights; Japan: samurai. • Local Leaders—Europe: lords; Japan: daimyo • In both societies, aristocratic women managed their respective households. • Ruler—Europe: king; Japan: emperor (really a figurehead; control rested with shogun).

343: Geneva Conference •

Cold War peace conference held in 1954. • Vietnam would be temporarily divided at the seventeenth parallel, North Vietnam to be controlled by communist leader Ho Chi Minh and South Vietnam to remain in the control of noncommunists. Led to U.S. support of the French war effort and South Vietnam. • President Eisenhower feared the domino theory would befall Southeast Asia (if one Southeast Asian country fell to communism, they all would). • Geneva Agreement required elections, which would have resulted in the election of Ho Chi Minh. The United States advocated canceling elections and instituting a democratic government in South Vietnam—a violation of the Geneva Agreement.

95: Trade within Eastern Hemisphere •

Commercial centers in Nishapur, Bukhara, and Samarkand facilitated the revival of trade over the Silk Road (perpetuated by Muslims). • Classical roads, originally commissioned by India and Persia and revived by Muslims, provided quick and efficient travel through the Dar al-Islam. • Overland trade was conducted by camel caravan (camels are better suited to deserts than horses or donkeys). • Caravansaries provided lodging, food, and water for traveling merchants and their animals. • Technological advances, such as the compass, the lateen sail, and the astrolabe, led to increasing travel in the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, Arabian Sea, and Indian Ocean. • Abbasids encouraged larger-scale trade by reinstituting letters of credit—sakk (checks, an idea later used in Europe).

365: Mikhail Gorbachev •

Controlled the Soviet Union from 1985 to 1991. • Introduced reforms glasnost (openness) and perestroika (economic restructuring); led people to speak out against the Soviet state. • Backed free-market reforms, which were in direct violation of the communist economic philosophy. • Mid-1991: Communist hardliners attempted an unsuccessful coup d'état, which was followed by Gorbachev's resignation. • Agreed not to enforce the Brezhnev Doctrine, a pledge to maintain Communism in satellite nations, instead allowing Eastern bloc nations to determine their own political futures.

297: League of Nations •

Created after World War I, the League of Nations was the first permanent international organization dedicated to maintaining peace. • The league was first suggested by U.S. president Woodrow Wilson in an address to Congress, in which he outlined a fourteen-point peace plan at the end of World War I. • The formation of the league was one of the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles, and member nations included France, Great Britain, Italy, and Japan, but not the United States. • The league sought to pressure member nations to settle disputes with diplomacy. Failure would result in economic sanctions. If sanctions did not work, theoretically, the league would respond with force—however, the league did not have a military force under its command. • The viability of the league was put to the test following the end of World War I. • The league experienced a few successes, such as negotiating an agreement between Finland and Sweden in a dispute over the Aaland Islands, but overall it was unable to prevent war again. • The league was dissolved in 1946 and replaced by the United Nations.

334: United Nations •

Created at the end of World War II as a coalition dedicated to maintaining world peace and security. Had more power than the League of Nations, which had been ineffective in preventing World War II. • Representatives from the United States, China, Great Britain, the Soviet Union, and France finalized the majority of the charter's provisions in 1944, before the war was even over. • Final version was solidified in San Francisco in 1945. • Today, the focus is to provide humanitarian assistance around the world to areas in need through a variety of organizations.

15: Origins of Writing •

Cuneiform, the earliest known writing, originated in Mesopotamia. • Record keeping for trade purposes became necessary as society became increasingly more complex. • Sumerians developed a writing system based on pictures (pictographs) in which symbols were made on wet clay and then baked. • Egyptians developed hieroglyphs—symbols that represent sounds and ideas. • One example of job specialization was the scribe, who prepared legal and other documents (developed as an occupation).

44: Daoism •

Daoism came up with an alternative solution to end the Warring States period—contrary to Confucian beliefs, Daoists reflected on natural principles that govern the world to achieve harmony with nature. • Central concept: dao ("the way" or "the way of nature" or "the way of the cosmos")—like water, it is soft yet can also erode the strongest rocks. • Humans should stop trying to achieve personal goals and live very simply in order to achieve harmony with nature. • Wuwei: Important moral trait whereby people remove themselves from worldly affairs—translates in political affairs as "less is more." • Ideal societal structure would consist of tiny, self-sufficient communities.

289: Fall of the Qing •

Despite the Qing's enacting of a series of reforms in the second half of the 19th century, the signing of a number of unequal treaties and numerous internal rebellions had left the ruling family weak, and in 1911 revolution broke out in China. • Nationalism had been on the rise, and following the death of the Empress Dowager Cixi, the nation was poised for revolution. • In 1912, the last Qing ruler abdicated, and Chinese nationalists called for a new government. • Sun Yat-sen, a revolutionary leader who envisioned a China free of foreigners and based on republican rule, was poised to take control.

234: Factory System: Economic Impact •

Developed as a way to house large and expensive machines in a single location, near a source of power, in order to mass-produce goods. • Mass production saw a significant increase in the development of interchangeable parts (parts that were uniformly produced and thus could be easily replaced and fixed) and the creation of the assembly line. • Competition among factories encouraged the development of quicker and more efficient methods of production.

103: Neo-Confucianism •

Developed in response to the growing popularity of Buddhism. • Scholars of the Song dynasty combined their studies of Confucian beliefs with the writings of Buddhism; continuation of civil service examination staffed government positions. • Buddhism was appealing because it incorporated logical thought with such issues as nature, the soul, and the relationship between the individual and the cosmos. • Neo-Confucian philosopher Zhu Xi (1130-1200) wrote Family Ritual, a detailed set of instructions for weddings, funerals, and other family ceremonies, stressing appropriate personal behavior for social harmony. • Neo-Confucianism is important because it shows Buddhism's lasting influence on Chinese society and throughout East Asia.

23: Caste System •

Developed over time as the Aryans established settlements in India. • Four main varnas (social classes), originally formed around skin color. • Priests (Brahmins); warriors and aristocrats (Kshatriyas); cultivators, artisans, merchants (vaishyas); landless peasants and serfs (shudras); and later, untouchables, who performed unpleasant tasks (butchering animals, handling dead bodies). • Occupation determined a person's jati, or subcaste. • Castes and subcastes had a major impact on development of Hindu society, with rules for interaction and intermarriage; severely limited social mobility. • Although the Indian Constitution has outlawed caste-based discrimination, and barriers have been broken down in urban areas, the caste system continues to influence social practices of Hindus throughout rural India.

379: Commercial Cellular/Mobile Phones •

Developed with radio technology from World War II, cell phones (as they are popularly called) are divided into four generations to mark changes/technological developments. • The first generation used multiple cell sites and transferred calls from one cell site to the next as the user traveled between cells during a conversation. • There have been three subsequent generations, each improving on the technological achievements from the previous generation in an effort to support increased demand by users to access data services.

51: Fall of Han Dynasty •

Divisions within the ruling elite limited the effectiveness of the government, leading to its collapse. • Issues: land distribution, private armies, unrest, economic decline. • Rise in epidemics in late 2nd and early 3rd centuries led to the Yellow Turban Rebellion (rebels' yellow turbans represented their peasant status and their ties to the earth). • Dynasty formally ended in 220 C.E.

19: Indo-European Languages •

During the 18th and 19th centuries, similarities between the languages of Europe, Persia, and India were noticed. • Ancient languages demonstrating these similarities are Sanskrit (sacred language of Aryan India), Old Persian, Greek, and Latin. • Explanation for similarities: Speakers of Indo-European languages were all descendants of ancestors who spoke a common tongue and migrated from their original homeland. • Development of individual communities—and lack of communication between them—explains the evolution of different languages and dialects.

71: Expansion of Roman Empire •

During the republic, the empire included Italy, Greece, Syria, Gaul, most of the Iberian Peninsula, and outposts in North Africa and Anatolia; Augustus added most of southeastern Europe and most of North Africa and increased control in Anatolia and southwestern Asia; at its height, the empire included Britain and all of the land surrounding the northern and southern coast of the Mediterranean from Iberia to Mesopotamia. • As Roman soldiers, diplomats, governors, and merchants settled throughout the empire, Roman culture spread, encouraging the development of local politics and economies; cities such as Paris, Lyons, Cologne, Mainz, London, Toledo, and Segovia sprang up. • Augustus's rule brought a period known as the Pax Romana (Roman peace), which lasted for two and a half centuries and allowed the empire to experience a golden age.

5: Neolithic Era—Origins •

Earliest evidence of sedentary agriculture dates to between 10,000 and 8000 B.C.E. • Called New Stone Age (8000-5000 B.C.E.), the origins of agricultural society. • Domestication of animals and cultivation of crops. • The earliest method of cultivation was slash-and-burn agriculture. • Earliest agricultural societies appeared in southwestern Asia and spread to India, Europe, and Asia; Mesoamerica and East Asia most likely developed agricultural techniques independently. • People settled down and developed complex societies.

25: Shang Dynasty •

Earliest recorded dynasty (1750-1027 B.C.E.); rise and success based on technology, especially bronze. • Shang controlled production of bronze by monopolizing mines and employing craftsmen. • Using a well-armed military, the Shang extended control to northeastern China. • Kings controlled surplus agriculture, as well as an extensive network of as many as 1,000 local towns. • Built extensive and lavish tombs for emperors. • Practiced ancestor worship, used oracle bones to divine the future.

281: Cotton Gin •

Earliest versions date back to 5th century C.E. using a single roller (made of iron or wood) and a flat stone. • Eli Whitney invented the modern version in 1793. He mechanized the cleaning of cotton by using wire hooks to pull cotton through a wire screen to separate the seeds from the cotton (previously done by hand); a brushlike component was used to remove lint and prevent jams. • Enabled massive increase in cotton produced in southern U.S. By 1830: 750,000 bales of cotton; 1850: 285 million bales of cotton. • Dramatic increase in the demand for slaves. Pre-1793: 700,000 slaves; 1850: 3.2 million slaves. • By 1860, the U.S. provided 80 percent of the cotton for Great Britain and two-thirds of the world's supply of cotton.

202: Ming Economic Growth •

Economic policies regulated interaction with outsiders and led to an increase in commercial activity, as well as an increase in population. • New food crops, particularly foods from the Americas such as maize and peanuts, were suitable to the Chinese landscape and over time led to a population increase. • Overseas trade became more extensive, particularly as demand for Chinese good such as silk and porcelain increased. • European merchants, as well Muslim and Asian traders, traded in China's two main port cities. • The Chinese merchant class grew in wealth and power. • The prosperity of the Ming period was reflected in the arts of literature; calligraphy and landscape art are still highly valued.

323: Soviet Five-Year Plans •

Economic policy initiated by Joseph Stalin that set high quotas in an attempt to improve Soviet agricultural and industrial output. • This method of centralized planning was adopted by other communist nations, notably the People's Republic of China. • The first of the five-year plans focused on heavy industry and rapid industrialization in areas such as coal and iron production. • Although production quotas were not met, Stalin claimed the first of the five-year plans a success. The Soviet Union's neglect of consumer goods led to a scarcity of these products. • Results were mixed, but over the course of Stalin's leadership, the Soviet Union was transformed into a leading industrialized nation.

278: Muhammad Ali •

Emerged as the rule of Egypt following an unsuccessful invasion by Napoléon in 1798. • Although Egypt was theoretically part of the Ottoman Empire, the sultans were not strong enough to prevent Ali from establishing an autonomous state. • His success served as evidence of the weakened state of the Ottoman Empire. • Modernized the nation by focusing on the military and industrialization.

80: Early Byzantine Empire •

Emperor Constantine accepted Christianity in 313 C.E. He then relocated the capital of the Roman Empire to Constantinople in the east because the eastern Mediterranean was wealthier and the move allowed him to spy on enemies in the east. • With the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the eastern half became known as the Byzantine Empire and included lands in Greece, the Balkans, Anatolia, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and northeastern Africa. • The young empire boasted roads and communication systems. • Emperors were above the law, claiming divine rights. • Emperors used political power to sway public opinion regarding religious issues.

143: Ming Dynasty •

Emperor Hongwu established the Ming ("brilliant") dynasty, following the Yuan dynasty, in 1368; his immediate goal was to remove all signs of Mongol rule. • Hongwu centralized power and established direct rule by the emperor. He reestablished a civil service system based on Confucian values to ensure promotion of scholar bureaucrats on the basis of ability, not favors. • Society was based on strict adherence to rules established by the Ming government. • Power of the central government was increased through the use of eunuchs (sterile men who could not produce a family to challenge the dynasty) and mandarins (emissaries sent out to enforce government policies). • Economic recovery: rebuilt irrigation systems led to agricultural surplus, promoted production of manufactured goods: porcelain, silk, and cotton; demanded tribute from surrounding states.

79: Germanic Invasions •

Ended imperial Roman power in Western Europe by 476 C.E.; power later shifts to Byzantium in the east. • Nomadic Germanic tribes—Visigoths, Huns (led by Attila), Ostrogoths, Vandals, and Franks—encountered little effective resistance. • Controlled the western half of the Roman Empire: Italy, Gaul, Spain, Britain, and North Africa. • Led to decentralized rule and to the establishment of the feudal system.

193: English Civil War: Results •

England established a constitutional monarchy in which the monarch had limited authority, influenced by the writings of John Locke. • Charles I was executed, and after the brief reign of Oliver Cromwell, Parliament invited Charles I's son, Charles II, back to England to serve as a limited monarch. • Charles II agreed to the writ of habeas corpus, which protects people from arbitrary arrest. • James II took control, and as he was a Catholic and a believer in the divine right theory, Parliament quickly acted to remove him from power; his son-in-law, William, was invited to rule so long as he agreed to the English Bill of Rights. • The English Bill of Rights established that all of England's future monarchs would be Anglican and that the monarch's powers would be limited.

199: Impact of the Enlightenment •

Enlightenment ideas were unpopular with many governments and with the church, both of whom sought to censor new ideas about reason and nature. • There was limited acceptance of Enlightenment ideas among monarchs; known as Enlightened despots, rulers such as Maria Theresa of Austria and Catherine the Great of Russia used their positions of authority (for example, building schools and hospitals). • In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, Enlightenment ideas played a key role in the American and French Revolutions, as well as in the Latin American wars for independence.

66: Hellenistic Philosophies (I) •

Epicureans suggested that individual needs could be met through reflection. • Epicureans said pleasure is greatest good; they defined pleasure as an inner peace that could protect them from the world's pressures.

339: Truman Doctrine •

Established March 12, 1947 by President Harry S. Truman, it was an economic and military program intended to help nations resist Soviet aggression and prevent the spread of communism. • Based on the theory of containment (limiting communism to areas already under Soviet control). • Developed in direct response to crises in Greece and Turkey. • Provided over $400,000,000 in aid to nations committed to the development of democratic governments.

124: Ottoman Empire •

Established by Osman when he declared independence from Seljuk sultan and began to build a state out of the declining Byzantine Empire in 1299—followers became known as Osmanlis, or Ottomans. • Turks first arrived on horseback in the Middle East in the 11th century. • Created multinational, centralized bureaucracy. • Established foundations for empire in the Balkan Peninsula; delayed by Tamerlane when he destroyed Ottoman forces in 1402, but after Tamerlane's death Ottomans reestablished power. • 1453: Sultan Mehmed II (Mehmed the Conqueror) captured Constantinople and renamed it Istanbul. • By 1480 Ottomans controlled the remainder of the Byzantine Empire, Greece, and the Balkan region.

358: Apartheid •

Established by the Afrikaner National Party in 1948 in an effort to maintain control over the black African majority. • Meaning "separateness," it was the policy of legal segregation imposed by the white minority government in South Africa. • 13 percent of the least-arable land (homelands) was reserved for the black and colored South Africans. • Nonwhites were segregated based on ethnic identities into a variety of subgroups in another effort to prevent organized black resistance. • The African National Congress (ANC) was the most vocal in its protest of this policy, and many of its leaders, including Nelson Mandela, were jailed for their efforts to end apartheid. • International pressure was eventually applied through the use of economic sanctions in the hope of ending the policy. • 1990: F. W. DeKlerk (National Party) became the president of South Africa. He released Nelson Mandela from hail and worked with the ANC to end apartheid.

11: Hammurabi's Code •

Established high standards of behavior and stern punishments for violators (c. 1792-1750 B.C.E.) in the city-state of Babylon. • Death penalty for murder, theft, fraud, false accusations, sheltering of runaway slaves, failure to obey royal orders, adultery, and incest. • Civil laws regulated prices, wages, commercial dealings, marital relationships, and the conditions of slavery. • Relied on the lex talionis ("law of retaliation") and social standing; upper classes were favored. • Concept of a consistent written set of rules to govern society, rather than arbitrary rulers, impacted later civilizations.

341: NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) •

Established in 1949 as a military alliance of democratic nations against Soviet aggression. • Original members: Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Great Britain, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, and the United States. • Goal: to form a military alliance to maintain peace through collective defense in postwar Europe. • Admission of Germany in 1955 led to the Soviet formation of the Warsaw Pact. • Although the Cold War is over, NATO still exists today.

27: Mandate of Heaven •

Events on Earth and in Heaven are directly connected. • Power to rule comes from heavenly powers; this "Mandate of Heaven" is granted to an individual who is deserving, known as the "son of Heaven." • Ruler, a link between Heaven and Earth, has duty to maintain order and dispense justice; as long as things go smoothly, he will remain in power; if he fails, the Mandate of Heaven will be bestowed upon a more deserving candidate; this idea was often used to justify rebellions and revolts. • Relates to European concept of divine right. • First used by Zhou to justify their takeover of the Shang.

13: Iron Metallurgy •

Experimentation began as early as the fourth millennium B.C.E. • Mesopotamians manufactured effective iron and bronze tools and weapons by 1000 B.C.E. • Craftsmen added carbon to iron to increase strength and produce harder and sharper edges. • Iron metallurgy spread from Mesopotamia to Anatolia, Egypt, North Africa, and other regions (example of cultural diffusion). • Assyrians used iron tools to conquer Mesopotamia.

367: Fall of Soviet Union •

Failed invasion of Afghanistan contributed to the decline as resources were strained to support an unpopular and ultimately unsuccessful attempt to expand Soviet influence. • Gorbachev's reforms: Glasnost (openness) and perestroika (economic restructuring) led people to speak out against the Soviet state. • 1989: The fall of the Berlin Wall was a sign that East Germany no longer was backed by the Soviet Union. • Solidarity movement in Poland, led by Lech Walesa, was outlawed by Soviets but ultimately successful. • 1991: Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania regained independence, and other Soviet republics followed.

309: Rise of Fascism •

Fascism emerged in both Italy and Germany in the interwar period; both nations were faced with economic depression and in desperate need of strong leaders. Powerful dictators emerged, greatly influenced by fascist ideology. • Fascism was characterized by extreme nationalism and state control over all aspects of life. • In Italy, Benito Mussolini emphasized the state over the individual and transformed the nation into a totalitarian state. • In Germany, fascism was promoted by the National Socialist German Workers' Party, with added elements of militarism and anti-Semitism. • By the early 1930s, the Nazi Party had control of the German parliament, and by 1934 Adolf Hitler emerged as Germany's new leader. • The Nazis severely limited people's civil liberties, outlawed all other political parties, and took control of the police force.

248: Nationalism •

Feeling of pride in one's nation. • The sense of pride in one's national identity played a significant role in political movements throughout the late 18th and 19th centuries, including during the French Revolution and the unification movements in Germany and Italy. • Nationalism was also a force outside of Europe, as evidenced by the Zionist movement, aimed at building a Jewish state, the creation of the Indian National Congress in India, aimed at gaining self-rule for the nation, and the Tanzimat Reforms in the Ottoman Empire, aimed at modernization and westernization.

346: Cuban Missile Crisis •

Fidel Castro, leader of communist Cuba, formed an alliance with Nikita Khrushchev, leader of the Soviet Union, after the Bay of Pigs incident and an attempted assassination by rebels funded by the United States. • Castro permitted Khrushchev to build nuclear missile bases in Cuba (90 miles south of the southernmost tip of the United States). • President Kennedy demanded removal of nuclear weapons from Cuba and set up a naval blockade, which effectively cut Cuba off from the Soviet Union, until an agreement was reached. • Soviets agreed on two conditions—the United States would remove missiles (pointing at Soviets) from Turkey within six months and would not invade Cuba.

336: Iron Curtain: Creation •

First articulated in a 1946 speech by English Prime Minister Winston Churchill, the term refers to the symbolic division of Europe after the end of World War II. • Eastern bloc nations were under the influence of the Soviet Union and communism. These nations, including Poland and East Germany, originated new alliance systems (for both economic and military purposes), notably the Warsaw Pact. • The nations to the west of the curtain developed and maintained market economies. The majority of these nations were allied with the United States. • The Iron Curtain symbolized the emerging Cold War and the "peaceful competition," as articulated by Nikita Khrushchev in 1961, between capitalism and communism. • In 1961, the construction of the Berlin Wall, built to reinforce the border between East and West Berlin, became a visible symbol of the curtain and thus the Cold War.

101: Song Dynasty •

Followed the Tang dynasty; first emperor, Song Taizu, started policy of distrust of military leaders—focused on civil service exams (based on Confucian philosophy), industry, education, and the arts. • Financial problems faced by the Song: bureaucracy too big. • Military problems: scholar-bureaucrats' limited military experience led Song to military failures.

328: Rape of Nanking •

Following Japan's invasion of mainland China in 1937, China experienced mass death and suffering; Japan began aerial bombing of major Chinese cities (especially Shanghai, where people died by the thousands). • Japanese troops fueled by racial superiority, extreme nationalism, and the fervor of war, unleashed an attack on Nanking. Over two months, Japanese soldiers murdered thousands of unarmed soldiers and civilians, raped an estimated 7,000 women, and burned a third of the homes. • An estimated 400,000 people were killed either by Japanese bayonets or from being machine-gunned into open pits.

256: Emancipation of Serfs in Russia (1861) •

Following a humiliating defeat by Western powers in the Crimean War, Russian czars sought to reform society through state-sponsored industrialization. • Following years of social unrest and demands to end serfdom on moral grounds, Czar Alexander II abolished serfdom in 1861. • Some emancipated serfs remained on the land, but their lives barely improved; many others moved to cities and became a new urban workforce in Russia's push to industrialize. • Although it was hoped that in setting the serfs free, agricultural productivity would be improved, there was little change; additionally, new social problems arose as a result of industrialization. • By the turn of the 20th century, the nation was on the brink of revolution.

221: The Romanovs •

Following a period of civil unrest in Russia, Mikhail Romanov's election as czar established the Romanovs as the new royal family. • They ruled Russia from the 1600s until 1917. • They continued the tradition of autocratic rule established by previous czars. • They encouraged Russification and allegiance to the Eastern Orthodox Church.

274: Opening of Japan •

Following over 200 years of self-imposed isolation, Japan was forced to open its doors to the world following the arrival of U.S. commodore Matthew Perry. • In 1853, Perry arrived in Tokyo Bay and under the orders of the U.S. president requested that Japan open up to foreign trade. • The United States wanted to find new markets following industrialization, and Japan offered new economic opportunities. • The Treaty of Kanagawa, signed by the two nations, opened Japan to trade. • Japanese isolation ended; the country focused on a new domestic policy of rapid modernization.

214: Safavid Empire •

Following the Battle of Chaldiran, fought against the Ottoman Turks in 1514, the Safavid family consolidated their control over modern-day Iran and ruled until 1736. • They established the Shiite sect of Islam as the official religion of the empire. • Under Shah Abbas the Great (r. 1588-1629) the capital was moved to Isfahan, the army was modernized, and long-distance trade flourished. • Constant conflict with the Ottomans, coupled with the threat of an increasingly stronger Russian Empire to the north and the Mughal Empire to the south, led to decline.

322: Joseph Stalin •

Following the death of V. I. Lenin, the "man of steel," became the totalitarian dictator of the Soviet Union. • Replaced the NEP with a five-year plan, a program initiated in 1929 and aimed at transforming the Soviet Union from an agrarian economy to a modern, industrialized nation. • Through the policy of collectivization, the government took control of land (angering many peasants, notably the kulaks) and created collective farms with the goal of improving agricultural production; a man-made famine and the deaths of millions of peasants resulted. • Faced with the limited success of his new economic policies and growing unrest, Stalin initiated what came to be known as the Great Purge, a period in which his opponents were jailed and/or executed. • Although terror, fear, and censorship were hallmarks of his rule (he was responsible for the death of millions), he led the Soviet Union in World War II, and his efforts played a significant role in the defeat of Germany. • Victorious after World War II, he continued to lead the Soviet Union in the early stages of the Cold War.

268: Self-Strengthening Movement •

Following the signing of a series of unequal treaties and a number of internal rebellions in the 19th century, the Qing enacted a series of reforms. • The reforms focused on the introduction of Western technology in the hopes of modernizing the nation. • The reforms had limited success; China remained an agrarian-based society centered on traditional Confucian thought.

354: European Community •

Formed in 1957, six founding member nations: France, Belgium, West Germany, Luxembourg, Italy, the Netherlands; characterized by a common market and free trade. • Signed the Treaty of Rome, which established the European Economic Community (renamed the European Community); goal was to dissolve tariffs and increase free trade. • Treaties among member nations also created the Council of Ministers and European Parliament to achieve the long-term goal of political integration. • Maastricht Treaty of 1993 established the European Union—fifteen member nations who ceded some political power and adopted a common currency (the euro).

348: Arab Nationalism •

Former Arab colonies easily gained independence from their mother countries post-World War II. • A key ideological goal was the creation/political unification of the Arab world (a geographic region with language, culture, and history in common). These new Arab nations included Syria, Iraq, Lebanon, and Jordan. • Superpowers quickly attempted to fill the void created by the vacuum of power—attractive because the region is rich in oil and had strategic military bases for Cold War operations. • British mandate in Palestine was intended to protect basic rights of resident population while promoting the development of a Jewish homeland, as mandated by the Balfour Declaration of 1917 and the League of Nations. Competing Jewish and Arab nationalist claims led to the Arab-Israeli conflict. • In 1967 extreme nationalists formed the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) in an effort to combat the Jewish state.

37: Persian Wars •

Fought between Greeks and Achaemenids (500-479 B.C.E.)—led to demise of the empire; began when Ionian Greek cities revolted against their governors. • Greeks believed the Persians were uncivilized. • Herodotus (born c. 484 B.C.E.), the great source of knowledge of the history of the wars. • Persian use of unlimited manpower and resources earned them the reputation as one of the greatest militaries in history. • Delian League (led by Athens) formed to discourage future Persian aggression. • Darius put down rebellions and reasserted Achaemenid power but ultimately lost to the Athenian army of 10,000 men at Battle of Marathon (490 B.C.E.).

126: Mali and Mansa Musa •

Found trans-Saharan trade more beneficial than Ghana; controlled and taxed almost all trade through West Africa; connected to North Africa through huge caravans. • Important cities: Niani (capital), Timbuktu, Gao, and Jenné. • Mali rulers honored Islam. King Mansa Musa made a pilgrimage to Mecca (1324-1325) and brought with a huge caravan of soldiers, attendants, subjects, slaves, and camels carrying gold. Built capital at Timbuktu. • Mansa Musa built mosques to honor Islam and sent subjects to study under Muslim scholars. • Established religious schools with Arabian and North African teachers.

106: Frankish Empire •

Franks built a society based on agriculture in Europe's northern region (France, Germany, and the Low Countries) and oversaw the development of decentralized political institutions in those areas. • Clovis (strong political and military leader) led successful campaigns; one campaign finally ended Roman authority in Gaul and established the Frankish Empire as the most powerful and dynamic of new states in Western Europe. • Clovis (and thus the Franks) converted to Christianity and thereby gained the support of Christians from the former Roman Empire, the pope, and the hierarchy of the western Catholic Church. • Frankish unification of western Europeans made Muslim defeat possible at Tours in 732.

118: Influence of Christianity in Europe •

Franks solidified Christianity as a foundation of the empire when Clovis converted; Charlemagne continued the commitment to Rome. • Italy worked to spread Christianity north, as did Charlemagne; by 1000, Christianity was the accepted religion in most of Western Europe. • The pope was established as the single most important figure, providing the church with a sense of direction. • Pope Gregory I protected the city of Rome and the church by mobilizing forces for the purpose of defense; he reasserted papal supremacy and increased the role and importance of the church in people's lives.

195: Scientific Revolution: Scientists •

Galileo Galilei was a mathematician and astronomer who learned to build telescopes in order to observe the skies and found evidence in support of the heliocentric theory; he was put on trial by the Catholic Church. • Isaac Newton, a mathematician, used observation and math to prove his theories, including his theory of universal gravitation. • René Descartes was a scientist, mathematician, and philosopher who focused on the importance of reason and its essential role in the quest for truth. • The new approach to science was based on reason, observation, and experimentation and culminated in the Scientific Method: stating a problem, gathering data, forming a hypothesis, experimenting, and drawing a conclusion.

76: Early Christianity •

Generally defined as the time between the Crucifixion of Jesus (c. 30 C.E.) and the First Council of Nicaea (325 C.E.) • Christians would not worship Roman gods. • Worshipped a single God. • Appealed to the lower classes (urban dwellers and women). • Encouraged men and women to lead faithful lives that would, in turn, lead to their salvation.

329: Blitzkrieg "Lightning War" •

Germans invaded Poland unannounced on September 1, 1939. Their strategy included a preemptive air attack, to weaken resistance, followed by land forces—Panzer ("armored") columns, which were fast and mobile. • German forces subdued enemies in the west within one month (at that time Soviets suppressed any problems in the east in accordance with the Nazi-Soviet Pact). • The sudden success of Germany's blitzkrieg approach was a shock to the rest of the world (especially France and Great Britain).

164: Columbian Exchange •

Global exchange between the New and Old Worlds. • Plants, food, animals, people, resources, and diseases were exchanged. • Diseases brought over from Europe, including smallpox, influenza, and measles, caused far-reaching epidemics in the New World. • The peoples of Mexico (Aztecs) were greatly affected; over 90 percent of the population died within a century of the Spanish arrival. • The exchange of new food products led to a population increase across the globe; maize and potatoes arrived in Europe, Africa, and Asia; goats, chickens, pigs, and wheat arrived in the Americas. • Populations were forced to migrate, as was the case with many enslaved Africans brought to the Americas, or chose to migrate, as was the case with many Europeans who came to the New World seeking economic opportunities.

12: Assyrian Empire •

Government consisted of a combination of administrative techniques (first used by Hammurabi) and a powerful and intimidating military machine. • Officers in charge of standardized military units were appointed on the basis of merit, skill, and bravery rather than noble birth and family connections. • Used horse-drawn chariots to conquer standing armies. • At its height (8th and 7th centuries B.C.E.), the Assyrian Empire covered much of what is now Mesopotamia, Syria, Palestine, as well as much of Anatolia and most of Egypt.

36: Achaemenid Administration •

Government relied on a balance between central administration and locally appointed governors. • Darius divided the empire into twenty-three satrapies—administrative and taxation districts governed by satraps—in which he regularized tax levies and standardized laws (he did not push direct rule on the subjects). • To ensure local provinces did not become too powerful, each satrapy was assigned a group of military officers and tax collectors who checked the satrap's power and independence; imperial spies, trained as watchdogs for the king, conducted surprise audits. • Darius built extensive roads: Persian Royal Road (1,600 miles)—from Ephesus on the Aegean to Sardis in Anatolia to Susa in Iran—facilitated trade. • Organized a courier service and built postal stations approximately every 25 to 30 miles along the Royal Road.

232: Political and Economic Effects of Industrialization •

Governments passed legislation protecting workers (for example, the establishment of a minimum wage). • Unions were formed to protect workers' rights. • Industrialization caused many to reconsider the ownership of production and of products. Adam Smith articulated his laissez-faire philosophy in The Wealth of Nations, while Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels condemned capitalism and promoted socialism. • Industrialization led to a rise in the global demand for products such as cotton and indigo used as raw materials in factories.

74: Trade in the Mediterranean •

Grain from latifundia in North Africa, Egypt, and Sicily supported large cities in the empire and was also used for trade with Greece (for olives and vines) and with Syria and Palestine (for fruits, nuts, and wool fabrics); trade facilitated crop specialization throughout the climatically diverse empire. • The sea supported trade from the ports in Syria and Palestine to Spain and North Africa. • The Roman army and navy kept the seas safe for transportation of goods—Romans called the Mediterranean mare nostrum (our sea). • Merchants were also responsible for promoting cultural diffusion and a sense of community throughout the empire.

83: Legacy of Classical Greece •

Greek replaced Latin as the official language of the Byzantine Empire. • Modeled after Greece's, the empire's government-organized school system offered basic reading, writing, and grammar, followed by classical Greek literature, philosophy, and science, providing an educated workforce for the bureaucracy. • Byzantine scholars, like the Greeks, focused on literature, history, and philosophy; their legacy was the preservation of Greek culture. • Byzantine preservation of Greek culture was transmitted back to Western Europe during the Crusades.

49: Emperor Wudi •

Han emperor who had a problem recruiting qualified people for government posts because there was no uniform system of public education. • Established an imperial university to educate government officials in 124 B.C.E. • Although the government was based on Legalist principles, the university focused its instruction on Confucianism out of necessity—it was the only Chinese belief system developed enough to establish a curriculum. • Enrollment began at 3,000 students and rose to more than 30,000 students during the later Han dynasty. • Policy of imperial expansion led to invasions of northern Vietnam and Korea (which then had to pay tribute to Han China) and battles with the Xiongnu, nomads from Asia. • The Han conquered everyone they challenged.

317: Mohandas Gandhi: Indian Nationalist •

He quickly became a popular leader among the ordinary citizens of India, and the support of an extensive segment of the population made the Non-Cooperation and the Civil Disobedience movements largely successful. • Indians were urged to boycott British-made goods and protest British policies but were encouraged to avoid violent action. • Although the British responded to the actions of the Indians with violence (Amritsar Massacre, the Salt March), most Indians remained nonviolent in their efforts. • In 1935 the British enacted the Government of India Act, which provided for Indian self-rule. • Gandhi continued to push for complete independence, which occurred in 1947, a year before his death. • His nonviolent methods, especially civil disobedience and passive resistance, were borrowed by future leaders, including Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.

107: Carolingian Empire •

High point for the Franks came under Charlemagne ("Charles the Great," ruled 768-814). He quelled disputes between local leaders when he reclaimed centralized imperial rule. • Charlemagne—very intelligent, multilingual, and gifted in diplomacy—extended the empire into northeastern Spain, Bavaria, and Italy, as far south as Rome. • Without the funding for a bureaucracy, Charlemagne wielded power on his own and traveled throughout his empire during most of his reign. With help from aristocratic deputies or counts, who had political, military, and legal authority over local issues, the legitimacy of his empire was pronounced by the Roman Catholic Church. • Charlemagne established a new group of imperial officials in an effort to increase control of central government; missi dominici ("envoys of the lord ruler") traveled to all local jurisdictions annually to oversee local authorities.

2: Homo sapiens •

Homo sapiens, modern humans, emerged 100,000 to 200,000 years ago. • Earliest variant, the Neanderthal, appeared 100,000 to 250,000 years ago. • More advanced was Cro-Magnon, appeared 60,000 to 100,000 years ago during the Paleolithic Age. • Both used advanced tools, wore clothing, created semi-permanent or permanent dwellings, and organized into social groups. • Spread from Europe to Africa and Asia.

375: Asian Tigers •

Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea, and Taiwan enjoyed rapid growth rates and were major economic powers by the 1980s. • Competed economically with Japan, even though they suffered from limitations (lack of natural resources, overpopulation, and shortage of capital), and they successfully produced quality consumer goods for export. • Later joined by Indonesia, Thailand, and Malaysia.

24: Yellow River Civilization—Xia Dynasty •

Huang He means Yellow River and refers to the light-colored loess soil that it picks up and deposits on the riverbank. • Unpredictable flooding led to its nickname, China's Sorrow. • Regular rains and fertile soil eliminated the need for an extensive irrigation system and, instead, water-control systems were developed. • Xia dynasty first attempted to organize public life on a large scale—it established the precedent for hereditary monarchial rule in China. • Legendary founder, Yu, initiated flood-control projects, organized large-scale public works, and set up formal government.

299: Russo-Japanese War •

Imperial rivalries led to armed conflict between Russia and Japan for control of parts of Korea and Manchuria. • Japan, whose imperial ambitions had begun following rapid industrialization, by the 1870s was competing with other nations for economic control and territory throughout East Asia. • Japan's victory over China surprised many and worried the Russians, who had imperial hopes of controlling Korea and Manchuria. • In 1904, Japan attacked Port Arthur, a Russian port in southern Manchuria, and then Korea. • Russia and Japan battled on both land and sea; the Japanese were victorious. • Under the Treaty of Portsmouth, Russia gave their largest island in the Pacific and their lease to Port Arthur to Japan and gave up claim to Manchuria. Korea was named a Japanese sphere of influence. • Russia's defeat in East Asia marked the first time an Eastern power had won a decisive victory over a Western one and paved the way for Japan to be the premier empire builder in Asia.

210: Ottoman Empire: Rise and Expansion •

In 1453 the Ottoman Turks, nomads from Central Asia, captured the Byzantine capital of Constantinople and renamed it Istanbul; Ottoman control continued until the 20th century. • Ottoman military success came from their command of gunpowder technology (diffused from China). • The Islamic empire quickly expanded as the Ottomans took control of much of the Middle East and then extended their control to the Balkans and the Crimean Peninsula, creating a multinational empire. • By the mid-1500s, the Ottoman Empire was the largest and most powerful empire in Europe and the Middle East.

280: Interchangeable Parts •

In 1778, French gunsmith Honoré Blanc produced some of the first firearms with interchangeable parts. He demonstrated that his muskets could be assembled from a pile of parts selected at random. • In the U.S., Eli Whitney saw the potential benefit of developing "interchangeable parts" for U.S. military firearms. He built several guns and disassembled them before the U.S. Congress. The problem remained, however, that these guns were hand-made by extremely skilled workmen and were, therefore, very expensive. • Mass production was first achieved in 1803 by Marc Isambard Brunel with Henry Maudslay and Simon Goodrich, with contributions by Brigadier-General Sir Samuel Bentham, Inspector General of Naval Works at Portsmouth Block Mills for the British Royal Navy during the Napoleonic War. By 1808 annual production had reached 130,000 sailing blocks (pulleys).

237: French Revolution: Causes •

In 1789, King Louis XVI summoned representatives to a meeting of the Estates General to convince them of the necessity of raising taxes. • France was deeply in debt as the result of excessive domestic and foreign spending. • Representatives from the Third Estate, which equaled over 95 percent of the population, met with the king to convince him to approve extensive social, economic, and political reforms that would accord them more rights and protections. With each of the three estates receiving one vote, a favorable outcome was unlikely. • In June 1789, the Third Estate broke away from Estates General and declared themselves the National Assembly. The following month, with the storming of the Bastille, revolution spread from the streets of Paris to the peasants in the country. • Under the banner "life, liberty, and fraternity," the National Assembly wrote the Declaration of the Rights of Man, which identified the natural rights of citizens, stated the equality of all men, and expressed the belief that sovereignty belonged to the people.

300: Bloody Sunday •

In 1905 a peaceful demonstration at the Russian czar's winter palace in St. Petersburg turned violent when the czar's guards opened fire on the unarmed crowd. • The protesters, led by a priest, wanted to present a petition to Czar Nicholas II asking for a representative assembly; instead many of the protestors were killed. • Unrest broke out across the country, and soon soviets (local councils) were organized, seeking to organize strikes and gain political rights. • The czar responded by creating the Duma, Russia's first parliament. • The czar was able to restore some level of stability to the nation, but many lost faith in the Romanovs, and the stage was set for the end of imperial rule.

291: Twenty-one Demands •

In 1915, Japan, at war with Germany, invaded German-held territory in one of China's provinces. • Despite China's request that Japan withdraw, Japan issued a secret ultimatum, the Twenty-one Demands, to the Chinese government in the hopes of securing control over China. • If accepted, the Twenty-one Demands would give Japan economic and military control over China. • Although China did not give in to all of the demands, in large part thanks to British intervention, China ultimately agreed to many of them, including giving control of the Manchurian railroads to Japan. • Although Chinese control was restored in 1921, it was clear that Japan's desire to establish hegemony in Asia was a goal they would continue to pursue.

285: Mexican Revolution: Results •

In 1917 Mexico adopted a new constitution that established land reform through the government policy of land redistribution and granted rights to workers and women. • Education and healthcare were improved. • Universal suffrage was granted. • Mexican nationalism encouraged the government to take control of industry and discouraged foreign-owned businesses.

307: Great Depression •

In 1929 economic depression spread across the world as the U.S. stock market crashed and European countries struggled to rebuild their damaged postwar economies. • Both during and after World War I, the United States lent millions of dollars to other nations and thus became the banking capital of the world. • After World War I, nations struggled to repay their debts; domestic policies, especially in the United States, created tariffs that limited the economic growth of debtor nations. • Surpluses in agriculture and industry led to overproduction and falling prices. • In October 1929, speculation that stocks were being overvalued led to a crash of the market; a global depression ensued as banks in the United States and Europe closed and millions of individuals were forced into bankruptcy. • The drastic slowdown in economic activity led to tremendous instability, and in nations that were already struggling with establishing new political identities, extreme forms of government emerged.

345: Cuban Revolution •

In 1959, Marxist leader Fidel Castro ousted Cuban dictator Fulgencio Batista and took control of Cuba. • Castro gained much of his support from the urban poor and from landless peasants. • Castro nationalized industries throughout the country (many businesses had been American owned) and initiated a series of aggressive land reforms. In response, the United States imposed an economic embargo on Cuba. • Castro quickly formed an alliance with the Soviet Union. • Cuba, significantly affected by the Soviet Union's collapse in the early 1990s, remains a communist nation.

301: Russian Revolution (March 1917) •

In February 1917, Czar Nicholas II abdicated the Russian throne and ended nearly 300 years of Romanov rule. • His abdication was the result of decades of political, social, and economic unrest exacerbated by Russia's involvement in World War I. • The provisional government struggled to maintain power as the Petrograd soviet (revolutionary council) gained increasing influence across the nation. • The reforms enacted extended civil liberties, such as freedom of speech, to Russian citizens and promoted religious and ethnic tolerance but failed to address the overwhelming concerns of Russians: bread, peace, and land.

238: National Assembly •

In June 1789, the Third Estate broke away from the Estates General and declared themselves the National Assembly. • Greatly influenced by Enlightenment thinkers and the success of the American Revolution. • Under the banner "liberty, liberty, and fraternity," they wrote the Declaration of the Rights of Man, which identified the natural rights of citizens, including the protection of private property, and stated the equality of all men and the belief that sovereignty belonged to the people. • A new constitution adopted in 1791 established a constitutional monarchy, allowing the king to retain some power. • Unhappiness with this new form of government led to the creation of a new constitution and the end of the National Assembly.

366: Iron Curtain: Demise •

In November 1989, the Berlin Wall was opened, allowing people to travel freely from east to west. Soon the entire wall was torn down, symbolizing the end of the Cold War. • With the end of the Cold War, democracy spread across Eastern Europe, and the Iron Curtain that had for so long represented the symbolic division of Europe no longer existed.

167: Colonial North America •

In addition to the Spanish, the French, the Dutch, and English explored and claimed land in North America. • Colonies were founded by the French (in modern-day Canada), by the English (Jamestown and Massachusetts Bay), and by the Dutch (in modern-day New York City). • Unlike the colonial empires founded by the Spanish and the Portuguese, North American colonies were founded by private investors. • In Latin America, there were large agrarian-based empires, but in North America explorers encountered numerous smaller societies, such as the Algonquians and the Iroquois, who still relied on hunting and gathering (although they cultivated some crops); as a result, many Europeans seeking the fertile land of the native population displaced the natives and claimed the land. • Conflict often resulted as natives and Europeans fought for land control, but just as often there were conflicts among settlers. • Socially, Europeans and natives tended not to mix; in Latin America, however, classes reflected the mixed ancestry of the people.

330: Japanese Attack on Pearl Harbor •

In an attempt to destroy American naval forces in the Pacific, Japan attacked the U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, on December 7, 1941. • President Franklin D. Roosevelt called it "a date which will live in infamy." • Japanese pilots took off from six aircraft carriers and attacked in two waves; they disabled eighteen ships and destroyed two hundred others, the only exception being aircraft carriers not at the base at the time. • On December 11, 1941, Hitler and Mussolini declared war on the United States; the United States responded by joining the Allies.

308: New Deal •

In response to the Great Depression, President Franklin Roosevelt proposed legislation aimed at economic recovery. • Laws essentially fell under one of three categories: relief, recovery, or reform. • Laws were enacted to protect the banking industry, provide jobs, guarantee a minimum wage, and establish a social security system. • These reforms represented a significant shift in U.S. domestic policy, highlighting the federal government's responsibility to provide for the social and economic well-being of its citizens. • Many new agencies were created to oversee the implementation of reform, including the Works Progress Administration (WPA) and the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC).

272: Spanish-American War (1898-1899) •

In response to the destruction of a U.S. ship in Havana's harbor and under the guise of protecting American business interests in Cuba, as well as the interest of those Cubans suffering under Spanish rule, the United States declared war on Spain. • The United States quickly defeated the Spanish and gained control of Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines. • The United States emerged as an imperial power.

369: Green Revolution •

In the 1960s, new methods of farming were introduced in many developing countries, most notably India, to increase the production of staple crops such as rice and wheat. The success of such programs is known as the Green Revolution. • More broadly, it is a modern revolution in agriculture that developed new plant varieties and improved farming techniques, initially funded by the Rockefeller Foundation. • Technology is used to create staple crops that can better resist disease and to bring improved irrigation systems and machinery to farmers. • Fertilizers and pesticides improve soil quality and combat insects. • Although the food supply has increased globally, in many areas of the developing world, population continues to grow faster than food production.

212: Millet System •

In the Ottoman Empire, millets were legally protected religious communities of non-Muslims. • Millets were permitted to maintain their own traditional religious beliefs. • Major millets were composed of Jews, Greeks, and Armenians, who promised not to undermine the sultan's authority.

38: Society in Classical Persia •

In the cities, free classes included priests, priestesses, artisans, craftsmen, merchants, and low-ranking civil servants. • Women worked in textile production and received rations of wine, beer, and sometimes meet for their labor. • Slaves were acquired through one of two sources: prisoners of war or civilians who tried to rebel against the imperial government. Either way, slave status deprived individuals of personal freedom.

311: Adolf Hitler at War •

In the late 1930s, Europe felt compelled to respond to the aggressive actions of Hitler, who had rearmed Germany and taken control of the Rhineland and Austria. • At the 1938 Munich Conference, Hitler promised not to invade Czechoslovakia in return for the Sudetenland, an area on the German border where many German-speaking people lived (an example of appeasement). • Europe's policy of appeasing Hitler did not work; in March 1939, Hitler took over Czechoslovakia; in September he invaded Poland, and with Britain and France coming to the aid of Poland, World War II was under way. • During World War II, Hitler sought to make his goal of "living space" for Germans a reality by cleansing the land he controlled of any inferior peoples. • This policy was aimed at Jews, but millions of others were also killed; the Holocaust saw the loss of over 11 million people, over half of them Jews. • In April 1945, as the Allies marched into Germany, Hitler took his own life.

277: Decline of Ottoman Empire •

In the late 19th century, the Ottoman Empire, now small, weak, and in debt, became known as the Sick Man of Europe. • Threats from Russia and Austria resulted in territorial losses. • Owing to the increasing instability, independence movements arose throughout the multinational empire. • A shift from land to sea routes hurt the Ottomans economically, as Europeans now conducted trade directly with Asia and thus cut out the Muslim middlemen. • British and French interference slowed the decline: Fearful that the collapse of the Ottoman Empire would lead to a strengthened Russian Empire, Britain and France lent economic support to the sultans (i.e., to maintain the balance of power). • By 1900, smaller, considerably weaker, and in debt, the Ottomans launched a series of unsuccessful reforms to save the empire.

255: Crimean War (1853-1856) •

In the mid-19th century, war between Russian and an alliance of British, French, and Ottoman troops broke out after Russia had threatened the stability of the Ottoman Empire by seeking to take Ottoman-controlled territory in the Balkans. • Britain and France allied themselves with the Ottomans because they feared a powerful Russian empire (i.e., a disruption of the balance of power). • Russia was easily defeated; the defeat was humiliating and evidence of the West's superior military and industrial strength. • In response to the defeat, Russian czars sought to reform the Russian military and economy. • Reform was selective and ultimately led to new problems for the Russian Empire.

350: Decolonization •

In the post-World War II world, mother countries could no longer maintain control of their colonies as they attempted to repair their own war-torn lands. • There was mounting pressure from nationalist movements within the colonies for home rule. • Imperial powers ended colonial possessions, thus ending imperial rule across the globe. • Newly independent sates struggled to maintain autonomy and develop self-determination in the shadow of the Cold War. • More than ninety nations gained independence from the end of the war to 1980.

137: Incan Empire •

Incas established an empire based on military conquest in modern-day Peru—settled around Lake Titicaca (mid-1200s); Pachacuti expanded the empire by engaging in military campaigns—empire stretched from Quito to Santiago (2,500 miles). • Government led by military elite; armies were made up of conquered peoples; forced people into submission by taking hostages. • Bureaucrats used a quipu (a variety of cords in different colors and lengths) to keep track of population, taxes, state property, and labor owed to government. • Capital: Cuzco was a center of administrative, religious, and ceremonial duties. • Two roads ran north-south and connected the empire. One went through the mountains, the other ran along the coast. Combined distance of approximately 9,500 miles—used for trade and to disseminate information quickly.

105: Medieval Japan •

Includes the Kamakura and Muromachi periods. • Characterized by decentralized political power in which regional warlords (daimyo) controlled land and economy (Chinese-style bureaucracy was abandoned). • Valued military talent and discipline. Samurai (mounted warriors) played an important role in Japanese society; they observed bushido (the way of the warrior), which emphasized the importance of loyalty to the warrior's lord. • Medieval period ended by Tokugawa dynasty, which centralized power and unified Japan in the 16th century. • Similarly, European feudalism also valued warriors (knights) and their conduct (chivalry—although in Europe this took on more of a societal code).

35: Achaemenid Empire •

Includes the Medes and the Persians, both people of sizable military power and equestrian skills. • Cyrus, an Achaemenid (reigned 558-530 B.C.E.), founded Persian imperial empire—at height, it spread from India to the borders of Egypt. • Darius (reigned 521-486 B.C.E.), younger kinsmen of Cyrus, extended the empire from the Indus River in the east to the Aegean Sea in the west, from Armenia in the north to the first waterfall of the Nile River in the South. • Darius was more important as an administrator than a conqueror because of the size of the empire he managed. He also established a new capital, Persepolis, which became the center of the Persian Empire.

133: Results of the Crusades •

Increased cultural diffusion—Europe was reintroduced to Greco-Roman culture, which had been preserved by the Byzantine Empire, and, in addition, discovered eastern goods such as silk, rice, glass, and coffee. • Led to the development of the High Middle Ages as demand rose for "new" goods and ideas and led to increased trade; people moved off of manors to towns and cities; power of kings increased. • Byzantine Empire, feudal nobles, and papal power and the church were weakened. • European technology improved.

251: Unification of Germany •

Independent German-speaking states in Germany united to form a single nation. • Otto von Bismarck, the chancellor of Prussia, the most powerful German state, led the drive for unification. • Under Bismarck's leadership, Prussia won a series of wars against Denmark, Austria, and France; Bismarck used these victories to bolster German nationalism. • By 1871, the independent states were united and the Prussian king, Wilhelm, was named the first leader of the newly united German states.

253: Italian Unification •

Independent states in Italy united to form a single nation. • A nationalist movement dedicated to unification was led by Giuseppe Mazzini, Count Camillo di Cavour, and Giuseppe Garibaldi. • Through a combination of war and diplomacy, Italy was unified by 1861.

54: Jainism •

Indian belief system popularized by Vardhamana Mahavira ("the great hero"). Disciples referred to Mahavira as Jina ("the conqueror") and called themselves Jains. • Practiced ahimsa—nonviolence to living things or their souls (belief later impacted Hinduism and Buddhism). Extremists swept ground as they walked to avoid harming insects (souls). • Not practical, but attractive—because if all living things possessed a soul, there should not be rigid social classes (belief especially popular among lower classes).

314: Nationalist Movements (II) •

Influenced by Western ideas, struggling for self-determination and/or responding to European imperialism led to a rise in nationalism across the globe after World War I. • Across the globe, Jewish people looked to create a Jewish state in Palestine. • In India, the Indian National Congress led by Mohandas Gandhi brought about demands to the British for self-rule. • In China, the newly formed Chinese republic (1912) was unstable and rival groups competed to increase their influence in the hopes of taking control of the country.

313: Nationalist Movements (I) •

Influenced by Western ideas, struggling for self-determination and/or responding to European imperialism led to a rise in nationalism across the globe after World War I. • In Turkey, Mustafa Kemal led a Turkish nationalist movement that resulted in the overthrow of the Ottoman sultan, the expulsion of foreigners, and the declaration of Turkey as a republic, allowing him to focus on the westernization and the modernization of Turkey. • In Iran, Reza Khan overthrew the shah and set up his own dynasty aimed at modernization and westernization.

363: Globalization •

Interdependence and interconnection of world economies. • Goal: A global economy to facilitate the movement of goods and trade, associated with the term free trade (trade unrestricted by state limits as it crosses borders). • IMF (International Monetary Fund): Established in 1944 to promote free trade and increase growth rates of nations. • GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade): Concluded in 1947 to lessen barriers and promote free trade (there were 123 member nations by 1994); all agreed to form the WTO (World Trade Organization). • NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement): Concluded in 1993—the United States, Canada, and Mexico created the world's second largest free-trade zone.

304: New Economic Policy (NEP) •

Introduced to the USSR by V. I. Lenin, the policy provided for some private business. • Replaced war communism, a policy of nationalization that had had limited success. • Lenin allowed a few capitalistic ventures largely in response to global depression; his goal was a quickened economic recovery. • Major industries such as banking and communications were under state control, but small-scale industry was allowed, and peasants were permitted to sell their surplus products. • The NEP had limited success; for example, peasants had incentive to work harder but were still constrained by outdated farming technologies. • Ultimately Joseph Stalin introduced new economic reforms that allowed the government more control of economic decisions and discouraged competition.

146: Trans-Saharan Trade •

Introduction of the camel sped up communication and transportation across the Sahara. Caravans of camels crossed the Sahara in 70 to 90 days. • Kingdoms such as Ghana, Mali, and Songhai in western Africa were important in connecting the Mediterranean basin to sub-Saharan Africa. • Arab conquerors established Islam in North Africa during the 7th and 8th centuries, conquered Ghana in West Africa, and converted leaders of Mali and Songhai. • Islamic merchants were an important part of the trans-Saharan trade and later introduced Islam to Mansa Musa in Mali spreading the Dar al-Islam. • Gold, slaves, and ivory from the south were exchanged for cloth, horses, salt, and manufactured wares from the north.

279: Steam Engine •

Invented in 1765 by James Watt; played a key role in industrialization. • Burns coal to boil water and create steam, which will force a piston to turn a wheel that will drive a mechanical device to perform work. • Replaced pumps powered by coal mines, which were not cost-effective. • By 1800, more than 1,800 steam engines were used in the British Isles. • Steam engines were also prevalent in the textile industry. The use of steam engines led to an increase in productivity and a decrease in price for the consumer.

151: Gunpowder •

Its origin is hard to date, but it is certainly a Chinese invention that was in use during the time of the Tang dynasty (618-906). • Initially it was used as an explosive (made from charcoal and saltpeter) in the building of canals and irrigation systems. • Beginning in the 1000s, China was experimenting with its use as a weapon, most notably as an early flamethrower and later in catapults to create an expansion. • The Song (960-1279) experimented with metal barrels to fire projectiles, the precursors to the earliest cannons and guns. • Cannons were in use in Europe by the early 1300s (commonly known as bombards). • The Mongols played a key role in diffusing gunpowder technologies to Persia and southwest Asia. • By 1258, gunpowder had reached Europe. • Played a key role in European exploration and conquest of the New World.

327: Japanese Invasion of China (1937) •

Japan launched a full-scale invasion of China in the hopes of gaining control of China's extensive natural resources. • Japan quickly gained control of northern and eastern China. • The international community condemned the attack but was ill-prepared to stop it. • Japan faced little opposition in China until well after the start of World War II; with the U.S. entry into the war after the bombing of Pearl Harbor, Japan was forced to redirect its efforts to protect its empire throughout the Pacific.

75: Jesus •

Jewish prophet and teacher whose major teachings were proper worship of God and love for fellow man. • His message "The kingdom of God is at hand" challenged Roman civic life because it did not allow for worship of Roman gods. • After the Crucifixion, devotion to Jesus grew rapidly; he was called the Christ (Greek for Messiah, or "the anointed one"), and his followers were called Christians.

198: Enlightenment Thinkers •

John Locke was an Englishman who believed in natural rights possessed by all human beings, including the rights of life, liberty, and property; Locke argued that governments had the responsibility to protect these rights and that if they failed to do so, the people had the right to revolt (consent of the governed). • Baron de Montesquieu believed in the separation of powers and argued that there should be three branches: legislative, executive, and judicial, so that no one person or group would have too much power (checks and balances). • Voltaire believed in the concepts of free speech and religious toleration. • Jean-Jacques Rousseau, a French philosopher, argued in The Social Contract that in forming governments, people must give up their own interests for the good of all (the common good).

81: Justinian's Code •

Justinian (reigned 527-565 C.E.) was a very important emperor during the early Byzantine Empire; his wife, Theodora, advised him on political, religious, and diplomatic issues. • Great public works built, including the Hagia Sophia, a cathedral that became a mosque following the Ottoman Turks' conquest of Constantinople; exemplified architecture past and present. • After a systematic review of all laws of the republic, Justinian codified Roman law, keeping legal principles of ancient Rome. • Published Corpus iurus civilis (Body of the Civil Law). • Justinian's Code has remained an inspiration for civil law codes.

263: King Leopold •

King of Belgium who established a colony known as the Congo Free State in Africa. • Not under the political control of Belgium, the colony provided great wealth for Leopold personally. • Leopold used forced labor to ensure the profitability of extensive rubber plantations. • Working conditions in the Congo Free State were harsh, and following public protests, the colony was put under direct control of the Belgium government in 1908. • Leopold's economic success propelled other European nations to seek colonies of their own and led in part to the Berlin Conference.

190: King Henry VIII of England •

King who established the Church of England, thus voiding the pope's authority in the country. • The Act of Supremacy named the monarch head of the Anglican Church. • In severing ties with the Roman Catholic Church, the king gained control of the church's wealth. • Newfound wealth increased the power of the monarchy and encouraged future monarchs to rule with absolute authority.

191: King Louis XIV of France •

Known as the Sun King, he asserted his divine right to rule. • His chief minister, Cardinal Richelieu, helped to build a centralized bureaucracy that ensured complete loyalty to the king. • Built a lavish palace at Versailles, just outside Paris; its grandeur came to symbolize his wealth and power. • Reflective of his absolute authority, the French nobility was invited to take up residence at Versailles while Louis and his ministers oversaw France's economic development, the making of laws, and the waging of wars. • At his death, France was one of the world's wealthiest nations, yet many in France were unhappy. • Louis never called the Estates General, France's lawmaking body; he revoked the Edict of Nantes, which had extended religious protection to France's Protestants; and his participation in many wars left France in debt.

320: Cultural Revolution •

Known as the real Proletarian Cultural Revolution, it was launched in China in 1966 by Mao Zedong in order to seek out and silence opposition to Mao's leadership and his vision of communism. • A common target of persecution was China's elite—the intellectuals, educators, and professionals—because of their perceived bourgeoisie leanings and foreign sympathies. • Millions of people were publicly humiliated, jailed, or killed. • Contributed to increased instability in the nation and discouraged China from advancing socially or economically. • After Mao's death in 1976, the revolution was ended, and China's next leader, Deng Xiaoping, adopted more moderate policies in an attempt to bring stability back to the country.

122: Mongol Empire •

Kublai Khan (grandson of Chinggis/Genghis) consolidated Mongol rule in China. • Failed to conquer Vietnam, Cambodia, Burma, Java, and Japan. • Golden Horde (a group of Mongols) overran Russia (1237-1241) and also explored Poland, Hungary, and eastern Germany. • Kublai's brother Hülegü conquered the Abbasid Empire in Persia and attempted to expand to Syria, but failed. • Mongol rule in Persia deferred to local Persian authorities, who administered the il-khanate as long as they delivered taxes to the Mongols and maintained order. • Established the Yuan dynasty in China in 1279, ushering in a period known as the Pax Mongolica.

57: Mycenaeans •

Language combined Greek and Minoan. • Built impressive stone fortresses and palaces. Palaces dominated Mycenaean cities, as was the case in Minoan Crete (Palace of Knossos); however, their design tended to be more centripetal and individualistic than those of the Minoans which were more centrifugal. By 1200 B.C.E., the great citadels possessed impressive fortifications. Most likely a king ruled over a small area from each palace. • Their conflict with Troy was presented by Homer in the Iliad.

170: Haciendas •

Large agricultural estates in colonial Latin America. • Both commercial crops and livestock (pigs) were cultivated; the majority of crops were European in origin, such as wheat. • They tend to be self-sufficient; not focused on making profits. • Peasants working on haciendas were known as peons.

121: Mongol-Christian Diplomacy •

Large imperial states were connected by extensive trading networks. For transactions between states to go smoothly, it was imperative that political and diplomatic ties be strong. • Mongols and Western Europe had a common enemy: the Muslims. European crusaders tried to recapture Jerusalem from the Muslims, and Mongols attacked the Abbasid Empire from the east. • Pope Innocent IV sent missionaries to convert the Mongol Khans to Christianity to no avail; although welcomed by the Khans, ultimately unsuccessfully. • This diplomacy resulted in renewed use of the Silk Road, which reestablished trade between East Asia and Europe (creating what became known as the Pax Mongolica, or "Mongol Peace").

147: Trade in the Indian Ocean •

Larger ships and improved commercial organization led to an increase in the quantity and quality of trade in the Indian Ocean basin. • Advances in planning: rhythms of monsoons taken into account; larger ships able to go farther away from the coastline; warehouses built to store goods. As a result, commerce flourished. • Trade conducted in stages because monsoons forced mariners to stay in ports for months waiting for favorable winds. • Important Indian ports: Cambay, Calicut, Quilon—way stations for traders from China and Africa. • East African city-states traded gold, iron, and ivory. • From China, silk and porcelain; from India, pepper. • Portugal controlled trade in the Indian Ocean beginning in the 16th century.

154: Technology of European Exploration •

Lateen sails, from Chinese merchant ships, allowed ships to sail in any direction. • The astrolabe was used by sailors to determine latitude. • Inventions borrowed from the Chinese included the sternpost rudder, which improved navigation, and the magnetic compass. • As more voyages were made, mariners learned more about the ocean winds and currents; as a result, new, more accurate maps were drawn up. • Caravels were faster than older ships.

17: Phoenicians •

Lived between eastern Mediterranean Sea and Lebanon; earned a reputation as seafaring traders in the first millennium B.C.E. • Establishment of city-states throughout the Mediterranean allowed them to dominate trade in the Mediterranean basin. • Developed a writing system of twenty-two symbols representing sounds that aided in their long-distance commercial activities. • Their alphabet spread throughout the region as they traded products such as glass, textiles, and timber. • The Latin and Greek alphabets emerged out of the Phonetic alphabet.

42: Confucius •

Lived in China during the Warring States period and sought to restore order to China. • A strong-willed man, he often disagreed with the Chinese government. • Left province of Lu in search of a chance at promotion, traveled for ten years; returned fruitless and died five years later. • An educator and a political adviser. • Students recorded his teachings in the Analects, which has had a large impact on Chinese government and culture. • Believed in five constant relationships—between ruler and subject, father and son, husband and wife, older brother and younger brother, and friend and friend. Each person in the relationship had a responsibility to the other; one was superior and the other inferior.

9: Mesopotamia •

Located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in modern Iraq. • Knowledge of irrigation led to an increase in food supply and in population, and by c. 5000 B.C.E. Sumer was established. • The world's first cities emerged in this region, including Ur and Babylon. • Sumerian achievements included the development of the first form of writing—cuneiform. • Sumerians were polytheistic and built ziggurats, pyramid-like temples, to please their gods. • Sumer was organized into a series of city-states and each worked to maintain peace and stability. • Large public-works projects, such as canals and bridges, were undertaken to meet the needs of society.

177: Kingdom of Kongo •

Located in central Africa along the Congo River, Kongo began its rise in the 1300s and by the 1400s was a strong centralized state. • The arrival of the Portuguese in 1482, Kongo's first contact with Europeans, had far-reaching consequences. • A commercial relationship emerged between the two, as did diplomatic relations. • Kings of Kongo converted to Christianity and encouraged their subjects to do the same. • The Portuguese sought gold, ivory, and slaves from the Kongolese. They conducted slave raids and negotiated with Africans to secure slaves. • Kings of Kongo appealed to the Portuguese to stop the slave trade. With the need for a steady labor supply to work the labor-intensive sugar mills of Brazil, the Portuguese refused. • Armed conflict arose, and the Kongolese were easily defeated.

205: Forbidden City •

Located in modern-day Beijing, it was the capital of the Ming and Qing empires. • An imperial city containing hundreds of buildings, courtyards, and halls. • Members of the imperial family, the emperor's concubines, and court eunuchs were the only people allowed in the Inner Court. • The lavishness and size of the city reflected the power and authority of the empire.

176: Timbuktu •

Located near the Niger River, it was one of the wealthiest cities in West Africa. • Trans-Saharan trade brought great wealth to the kingdoms of West Africa and led to the development of important commercial and cultural centers. • By the mid-1300s was part of the Mali Empire; with the conversion of the emperor to Islam, it became a leading cultural center in Africa. • Reached its height under the Songhay, attracting merchants, traders, and Islamic scholars. • To encourage learning, mosques, schools, and libraries were built throughout the city. • The collapse of the Songhay Empire and the establishment of European trading posts along the coast of West Africa led to the decline of the city.

224: St. Petersburg •

Located on the Baltic Sea, it was established as the capital of the Russian Empire by Peter the Great. • Served as a visible symbol of Russia's efforts to modernize, as well as of the absolute authority of the czar. • Also known as the "window to the west," the city welcomed western Europeans and their knowledge of science and technology.

82: Byzantine Economy and Society •

Lower Danube region was the breadbasket of the empire. • Byzantine government prevented wealthy classes from seizing peasants' lands. The wealthy could buy exemptions from taxes. • Craftsmen were highly respected for their handiwork in the areas of glassware, gems, jewelry (including gold and silver), and mosaics (used to decorate churches). • Architectural gems—Hagia Sophia (first a church, later a mosque). • Byzantine government recognized the importance of the silk industry (a trade borrowed from the Chinese) and, subsequently, closely supervised silk production and sale. • Trade was very important to the empire as a direct result of its location; merchants were especially respected.

206: Qing Dynasty •

Manchus from the north, non-Han peoples, invaded China and claimed the "Mandate of Heaven" in 1644 and ruled until 1911. • Manchu rulers were taught Confucian beliefs and applied these principles to governing China. • The Qing, following the political example of the Ming, ruled through a highly centralized system of scholar-bureaucrats. • The Qing were great patrons of the arts and also were responsible for expanding the empire. • Under the Qing, trade with foreigners increased, particularly as demand for Chinese goods such as silk and porcelain increased; in this period, the Qing were able to maintain a favorable balance of trade.

184: Protestant Reformation •

Martin Luther found support following the publication of his Ninety-five Theses, and a movement to reform the Roman Catholic Church followed. • The movement was widespread across Germany; many churches reformed their religious services to reflect Protestant doctrine. • The Reformation spread beyond Germany into England and Switzerland. • In England, King Henry VIII established the Anglican Church, naming himself as the highest religious authority in the land. In Switzerland, John Calvin founded a Protestant community. • The Reformation continued to spread across northern Europe, and in response Catholic authorities began their own reform, the Counter-Reformation.

231: Effects of Industrial Revolution on Society •

Mass production of goods drove down the price of consumer items, and the resulting increase in demand encouraged the development of quicker and more efficient methods of production. The standards of living rose. • The working class developed as a larger group of people who worked in factories in mines. • Rapid urbanization occurred as people moved from the countryside to the cities in search of work. • Urbanization led to the building of tenements to accommodate a growing workforce; overcrowded conditions led to the spread of disease. • Women, who in agrarian societies worked on the farm, saw their roles change, as men became the wage earners. Although many women did work in factories, a large number now stayed at home, especially as the size of the middle class increased. • A new middle class emerged.

116: Feudal Society, Europe •

Medieval society was usually divided into three classes: clergy, warrior, and worker—a clear illustration of the political, social, and economic inequality that existed with limited or no social mobility. • Clergy was usually dealt with according to church law and exempt from secular courts. • Nobles emphasized chivalry (an ethical code of behavior for nobles); required knights to pledge their allegiance to order, piety, and the Christian faith. • Aristocratic women embraced chivalry—the meaning extended to include refined behavior and courtship. Troubadours (traveling poets, minstrels, and entertainers) captured this sentiment in their works. • Eleanor of Aquitaine encouraged the cultivation of good manners, refinement, and romantic love.

8: Bronze Age •

Metallurgy originated with the use of copper. • In the Neolithic era, copper was combined with tin to create bronze. • Bronze tools and weapons were first used in Mesopotamia c. 4000-3000 B.C.E. • By c. 1500-1000 B.C.E. craftsmen in Mesopotamia developed iron tools and weapons; this technology diffused throughout southwestern Asia over time.

134: Toltecs •

Migrated to central Mexico, settled Tula during the 8th century. • Irrigated crops of maize, beans, peppers, tomatoes, chilies, and cotton from the Tula River to support 60,000 people at peak. • Army maintained a tightly knit empire. • Important center of pottery and weaving; imported turquoise, jade, animal skins, and other luxury goods from Mesoamerica. • By 1175 problems between different ethnic groups and emerging nomadic tribes from northwestern Mexico destroyed the state.

166: Christianity in the Americas •

Missionaries quickly followed European explorers to the New World. • Missionary activities, supported by the crown, were carried out by Franciscans, Dominicans, and Jesuits. • Natives, who already had well-established religious traditions, were often resistant to conversion; missionaries sought to learn the language of the indigenous peoples. • It was not uncommon for natives to blend elements of their traditional beliefs with the new ideas introduced by the missionaries (syncretic beliefs emerged). • In modern times, the majority of South Americans are Roman Catholics.

123: Decline of Mongols •

Mongol rule in Persia and China (Yuan dynasty) declined shortly after the death of Kublai Khan as a result of financial difficulties (excessive spending and reduced revenues); also, Mongols lacked sufficient experience in governing a settled society. • Il-khan tried to save itself from economic ruin by introducing paper money; this attempt to bring precious metals back to the government was a failure—merchants refused to accept paper money and closed up shop. • Economic troubles were coupled with factional struggles in Persia, and when the last of the Mongol rulers did without an heir in 1335, the il-khanate collapsed. • In China, added to a growing list of problems, inflation and epidemic disease (the bubonic plague) resulted in depopulation and labor shortages. • Mongols under the Golden Horde continued to maintain power in the Caucasus and the Crimean peninsula exacting tribute until the late 15th century.

63: Olympics •

Most famous of Pan-Hellenic festivals. • Trade between Greek poleis (plural of polis) fostered a stronger sense of community and shared traditions (gods, language, and games). • Different areas, including Crete, claimed they were responsible for the inception of the games, but the first written records of the games were from 776 B.C.E. All parts of Greece sent their best athletes to compete in contests of speed, strength, skill. • Events included foot races, long jump, boxing, wrestling, javelin tossing, and discus throwing; they took place every four years for more than 100 years and then disappeared. • Winners received olive wreaths at the games and hero status at home.

7: Bantu Migrations •

Movement of Africans across the continent of Africa (3000 B.C.E.-500 C.E.). • Niger-Congo related languages, and compilations, spoken by Kru, Wolof, Ibo, Mande, and Yorba, all part of the Bantu family of languages. • Possession of iron metallurgy; tools were used to clear land for agriculture (basis for society) and herding throughout Africa. • Bantus reached their limits by 1000 B.C.E.; established decentralized governments—"segmentary societies"—that governed through family and kinship groups. • Each village (usually 100 people) was ruled by a council, made up of male heads of families, and a village chief; a group of villages formed a district (usually the highest form of government). • Increased conflict among Bantus led to the formation of organized militaries and formal government institutions.

98: Islam in Northern India •

Muslim forces reached India by the mid-7th century. • Muslims merchants reached the northern and southern coasts of India; Islam was spread easily using connections established through relationships with Arabs and Persians prior to Muhammad. • Migrations and invasions of Turkish-speaking people from Central Asia. • Mahmud Ghazni, the Turkish leader in Afghanistan, destroyed hundreds of Hindu and Buddhist sites; Buddhism's decline ironically did not tarnish Islam's reputation with Indians. • Sultans ruled Punjab to the Ganges valley from 1206 to 1526.

141: Agricultural Diffusion •

Muslim travelers introduced new foods (citrus fruits, rice) and commercial crops (cotton, sugarcane) to sub-Saharan Africa. • European crusaders were first introduced to sugarcane and brought the sweetener back to Europe. • Sugarcane plantations sprang up in Sicily, Crete, Cyprus, and Rhodes—infused local economy and introduced slave trade to the region because sugar is a labor-intensive crop.

357: Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan •

Muslim-controlled Afghanistan maintained a position of nonalignment in the Cold War until 1978, when a pro-Soviet coup dragged the country into a civil war. • People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) gained control and radically reformed laws regarding family, land, and education; the new laws were in direct opposition to Muslim beliefs and led to military resistance. • Soviet Union sided with the PDPA and installed Babrak Karmal as president. He used the Soviet military to gain control of the country, an unpopular move. • A nine-year battle ensued in which the United States, Iran, China, Saudi Arabia, and Pakistan backed the African mujahideen (Islamic warriors). • The United Nations organized a cease-fire, and the Soviets withdrew in 1989, though fighting continued until 1992. • In large measure because of political instability in the region, the Taliban gained control in 1994.

70: Julius Caesar •

Named himself dictator of the Roman Empire (for life, not six months as was the past precedent). • Sought to build a sense of community in Rome after civil war; spent large sums of money on gladiators, huge armies, and large-scale building projects employing Roman citizens; extended Roman citizenship to outreaches of empire (Gaul); and consolidated government. • Aristocratic conspirators, upset by lows of power and wealth, plotted to execute Caesar in 44 B.C.E. in an attempt to restore the republic. Thirteen years of civil conflict followed. • Octavian (later called Augustus) defeated Mark Antony and became sole ruler. He ruled as an emperor while retaining republican forms.

305: War Communism •

Nationalization on a massive scale. • All major businesses were put under the control of the government, the government made all planning and production decisions, food was rationed, and private ownership of businesses was prohibited. • Implemented by Lenin in Russia.

333: Jewish Holocaust •

Nazi regime killed over 6 million Jews and an additional 5 million Slavs, Gypsies, homosexuals, communists, and other "undesirables"—a human disaster on a previously unknown scale. • Genocide was assisted by an historic acceptance of anti-Semitism in Europe. • German invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941 opened the door for release of SS Einsatzgruppen ("action squads"), which killed entire populations of Jews in newly acquired territories; in six months the squads had killed 1.4 million Jews. • The Final Solution, a plan to kill all Jews in Europe, was discussed by leading Nazi officials at the Wannsee Conference on January 20, 1942. All remaining Jews were to be evacuated to death camps in eastern Poland. • Camps at Auschwitz, Belzec, and Treblinka used methods such as gassing, electrocution, flamethrowers, phenol injections, machine guns, and hand grenades. • Nuremberg Trials were held after World War II to try Nazi war criminals for crimes against humanity.

114: Establishment of Nation-States in Western Europe •

New strong nations with centralized authority emerged after the feudal period in Italy, Spain, France, and England. • Two essential components to state building: capital (taxes) and a large standing army. • Process began in Italy as a result of papal influence and large flow of post-crusades capital from trade. • After the Hundred Years' War, France and England raised armies and levied taxes. • Spain's state building peaked when Ferdinand of Aragon married Isabella of Castile to unite two previously independent Iberian regions.

129: Traditional African Religious Beliefs •

No unified religious beliefs. Many were monotheistic, with a single divine male force who was both omnipotent and omniscient (seen as being responsible for setting the world in motion and providing it with order). • Lesser gods and spirits were associated with the sun, wind, rain, trees, rivers, and other forces of nature (animism). • Belief that the souls of dead ancestors had the power to intervene in a person's life, positively or negatively, depending on how the ancestors had been revered. • Rituals included prayers, animal sacrifices, and ceremonies marking birth, marriage, and death. • Religious specialists were believed to have the ability to mediate between humans and the spirit world; in times of despair, they were consulted and in turn consulted oracles and prescribed remedies (medicines, sacrifices).

16: Hebrews •

Nomads who originally settled between Mesopotamia and Egypt. • Developed the world's first monotheistic religion—the worship of Yahweh. • Hebrew Bible contains experiences and practices of Israelites during this period. • About 1300 B.C.E., led by Moses, went to Palestine, where they established a kingdom, under David and Solomon. It extended from Syria to the Sinai Peninsula. • Used Mesopotamian law and politics as a guide—however, devotion to Yahweh, religious texts, and righteousness distinguished Hebrews from others. • Ten Commandments: Religious teachings that also serve as an ethical code of behavior.

326: Mukden Incident (Manchurian Incident) •

Occurred in Manchuria in September 1931, when Japanese troops blew up part of the South Manchurian Railway. • Japan accused China of sabotage and used the incident as a pretext to annex Manchuria. • By 1932, Japanese troops gained control of Manchuria and established a puppet state in the region. • The League of Nations condemned Japan's actions; Japan responded by withdrawing from the League. • Following its withdrawal from the League, Japan began to aggressively pursue a militaristic and expansionist policy and in 1937 launched a full-scale invasion of China.

222: Westernization •

Occurs as societies are influenced by Western culture and assimilate and/or adopt Western ideas. • In this time period, the West (Western Europe) impacted numerous societies around the world. • Some regions responded by isolating themselves, as was the case in Japan and to a lesser degree in Russia (although during its Meiji Restoration, Japan borrowed many Western ideas).

152: Junks •

Oceangoing ships built in China during the Song dynasty (960-1279). • The ships used a magnetic compass and a stern-mounted rudder; they were equipped with gunpowder-propelled rockets. • Zheng He commanded an imperial expedition, a mighty armada of "treasure ships," that sailed from 1405-1433, reaching India, Hormuz on the Persian Gulf, and Somalia on the coast of Africa. • The fleet consisted of giant nine-masted junks—over 400 ft. long and 150 ft. wide—escorted by dozens of supply ships, water tankers, transports for cavalry horses, and patrol boats. • Crew 27,000+ • By comparison, the Santa Maria, Columbus's largest ship, was 90 ft. by 30 ft., with a crew of 90.

227: Caravels •

Oceangoing ships invented by the Portuguese in the 15th century. • Europeans needed ships that could maneuver more efficiently in the Atlantic Ocean. • The ships were smaller than traditional European ships and provided sailors access to shallow coastal waters and to explore upriver. • The lateen sail was used, which gave the ships increased maneuverability. • The traditional square sail was also used; in combination with the lateen sail, it gave the caravel great speed. • This technology played a key role in European exploration.

31: Olmecs •

Olmecs (means "rubber people") are named after trees from the region in which they flourished. • Centers of Olmec society: San Lorenzo, La Vena, and Tres Zapotes in Central America. • Adequate rainfall allowed for the construction of drainage; irrigation systems led to abundant harvests. • Authoritarian rule led to the creation of extensive public works projects, including altars, temples, pyramids, and tombs. • Famous sculptures: gigantic human heads.

131: Medieval Colonization •

Once regional states emerged to protect Europe, Vikings looked to colonize elsewhere. • Scandinavians, led by Eric the Red, established a colony in Greenland during the late 9th and early 10th centuries. • About 1000, Leif Ericsson established a colony in Newfoundland, Canada, for Scandinavia and called it Vinland—it had plentiful supplies of timber and fish. • Vinland was most likely occupied for several decades—ultimately settlers left or died there owing to a lack of resources. • The Vikings of Scandinavia, specifically Denmark, southern Norway, and southern Sweden, established colonies in Iceland and then Greenland.

45: Legalism •

One of the major philosophies that emerged from the Hundred Schools of Thought during the Warring States period. • Based on the goal of expanding and strengthening the state at all costs—it is described as ruthless and efficient. • Strict laws with harsh punishments lessen the number and severity of crimes. • Notable people: Shang Yang (contributor to The Book of Lord Shang) and Han Feizi. • Government strength lies in its agriculture and military—therefore, these two areas demand the highest number of recruits; government should discourage other career paths (merchants, educators, poets, philosophers). • Community has a collective responsibility for the law—people should watch each other closely. • Used by the Qin dynasty, led by Shi Huangdi, to end Warring States period.

43: Confucianism •

One of the major philosophies that emerged from the Hundred Schools of Thought, it attempts to create social order through loyalty and respect. • Does not address philosophical or religious questions or the structure of the state. Just wanted to end the Warring States period by finding a balance. • The best way to promote good government is to hire people who are well-educated and conscientious—focused on the formation of Junzi ("superior individuals"); Junzi looks at public affairs from many different angles with unclouded judgment and, thereby, would be able to bring order and stability to society. • According to Confucius, Junzi possessed personal qualities such as ren, li, and xiao. • Ren—courteousness, respectfulness, diligence, loyalty; li—a sense of propriety, traditionally appropriate behavior; and xiao—filial piety, respect by children for parents and other elders. • Learning was important, but Confucius also stressed the importance of moral integrity and fair judgment.

130: Religious Reform Movements during the European Middle Ages •

Orders of mendicants ("beggars"): St. Dominic founded the Dominicans and St. Francis founded the Franciscan friars; both pledged to give up all personal possessions and beg for their food and other necessities from the people to whom they preached, and both worked to combat heterodox movements and bring heretics back to the church. • The Waldensians (active in southern France and northern Italy) supported a modest and simple lifestyle, in direct opposition to the Roman Catholic clergy, whom they claimed were corrupt and immoral. Believed in right of the laity to preach and administer sacraments. • The Cathars (Albigensians) took up the heretical teachings of groups such as the Bogomils, who advocated a pure, spiritual existence and who preached that the world was the scene of a larger battle between good and evil and that material possessions were evil. Gave up wealth and marriage and became vegetarians; saw the church as corrupt. • Pope Innocent III called for an "Albigensian crusade" to destroy the Cathars.

20: Aryans •

Originally pastoral nomads who spoke Indo-European languages. • Migrated south through the Hindu Kush mountain range c. 1500 B.C.E. and established small communities in the northern India; replaced Harappan civilization. • Limited agriculture, depended on pastoral economy—prized herds of cattle. • Domesticated horses as means of transportation and devastating war machine when attached to chariots. • Literary and religious texts were memorized and passed down as oral histories. • Over time developed a complex caste system, in large part influenced by contacts with indigenous peoples and invaders.

18: Indus River Civilization •

Originated in the Indus River valley c. 2500 B.C.E. • Two main cities, Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, provide archaeological evidence of this society's history. • The cities were well planned, fortified, and uniformly constructed. Brick size was uniform throughout the Indus Valley—indicates use of standardized weights and measures. • Extensive evidence of long-distance trade—Indus Valley pottery has been found in Egypt; products from Sumer, such as olive oil, were traded in the region. • Speculation as to why this civilization declined continues because the written language remains untranslated.

171: Repartimiento System (Mita System in Peru) •

Originating in colonial Latin America, the system forced native Indians to work several months a year, generally on Spanish-owned plantations, in mines, or on public works projects. • Natives worked intermittently and were compensated poorly, if at all, for their work. • The system was harsh, particularly in the mines, and over time it was replaced with more profitable labor systems in which workers were given an incentive to work (a fair wage and improved working conditions).

139: Development of Pacific Islands •

Owing to the expanse of the Pacific Ocean, trade networks did not develop easily, allowing for only limited contact with other societies. There was some cultural diffusion, such as the spread of sweet potatoes. • Settlements arose in Easter Island, New Zealand, Tahiti, the Marquesas Islands, and the Hawaiian Islands. • Islanders in the Pacific grew yams, sweet potatoes, breadfruit, bananas, coconuts, and taro and domesticated pigs and dogs. • Fishponds added to the food supply in the Hawaiian Islands.

352: Pan-Africanism •

Pan-African movements first emerged in the United States and the Caribbean and then spread to French West Africa as a movement known as Negritude ("Blackness"). • Negritude strove to revive African culture and traditions—African pride was expressed by poets and artists. • Negritude was coupled with a movement to remove foreign European influence. • A new class of African elite arose to lead the movement for independence.

373: Intifada •

Part of the Arab-Israeli conflict over the struggle for control of Israel that began as a result of UN Resolution 181, in which the United Nations created Israel from lands claimed by Palestinians. • The first intifada (uprising), launched in late 1987 by young Palestinians, included attacking Israeli soldiers civilians with homemade bombs and rocks. It lasted about six years. • Crackdowns on violence by the Israeli government only fueled further conflict, including the use of suicide bombing. • A second intifada stated in late September 2000 and lasted about five years, a time that saw little movement toward peace in the Arab-Israeli conflict.

315: Indian National Congress (INC): In Action •

Partnered with the Muslim League to lead a mass movement to gain self-rule from Great Britain for the Indian subcontinent. • In 1919 a large group of Indians assembled in violation of a new law prohibiting such meetings. British troops opened fire on the crowd and killed hundreds. After this incident, Indians began demanding their independence. • A massive nationalist movement spread across the country headed by Mohandas Gandhi, an influential leader in the INC. • After India gained independence in 1947, some wanted the INC dissolved, but instead it became a leading political party and maintained control of India through the late 1970s. • Following independence, the two parties split when the Muslim League supported the creation of a new Muslim nation, Pakistan.

142: Bubonic Plague •

Plague spread form southwestern China (1300) to Europe (1348). Fleas on rats and squirrels transmitted the disease. Probably spread in conjunction with Mongol military campaigns and trade. • Killed a third of European population (about 25 million); disrupted trade. • Physical effects of the plague: inflamed lymph nodes (neck, armpit, groin), internal hemorrhaging caused discolored inflammations (buboes); 60 to 70 percent of those who contracted the disease died, most within days of noticing symptoms. • Did not spread to Scandinavia in any appreciable number—cold winters did not foster the spread of pathogens; did not have a negative impact on India. • Population recovered through regeneration within 100 years.

65: Greek Philosophy—Aristotle •

Plato believed that everything was based on ideal forms or ideas. In reality, definitions were not absolute because virtue, honesty, courage, truth, and beauty all meant different things in different situations. • Had an impact on the development of the Republic of Rome. • Aristotle, a disciple of Plato (teacher of Aristotle), rejected the theory of forms and ideas; he believed people could depend on their senses and reason to answer the mysteries of the world. • Taught Alexander the Great, a Macedon.

258: "The White Man's Burden" •

Poem by Rudyard Kipling that explained why white Europeans (and Americans) had a moral responsibility to take control of weaker nations. • Christian missionaries in particular were supportive of this moral duty, as they often sought only to bring Christianity to newly acquired lands but to "civilize" the native peoples.

355: Détente •

Policy adopted by the Soviet Union and the United States during the Cold War in an effort to reduce tensions between the two superpowers over the arms race and control of developing countries. • Encouraged cooperation in the following areas: environmental research, space explorations, health research, and cultural diffusion. • Assisted in the signing of SALT I and SALT II (Strategic Arms Limitations Talks) in 1972 and 1979, respectively. • Deteriorated as U.S. relations with China improved and after the Soviets invaded Afghanistan.

376: Global Problems •

Poverty: Unequal distribution of basic resources (such as food, water, shelter) and income (scarcity). Occurs most often in underdeveloped areas of Africa, Latin America, Eastern Europe, and Asia. It is important to note that these areas are also often former colonies. • Trafficking: Women, children, and others may be used to transport drugs or forced into servitude (sexual or domestic). Especially problematic in Russia, Ukraine, and south Asia. • HIV/AIDS: An infection that can spread through sexual intercourse, through blood transfusions or contact with infected blood, or from mother to child during birth or breast feeding. Especially problematic in African countries because medicines are expensive and education on the topic is limited. • Terrorism: The deliberate use of unpredictable violence, especially against civilians, to gain revenge or achieve political goals.

125: Ghana •

Primary state of West Africa: located between the Senegal and Niger rivers c. 750-1250. • Ghana became increasingly important as a result of increased trans-Saharan trade (especially gold, which Ghana itself did not produce but acquired from the south). • Strengthened empire through taxation and control of gold trade; also traded ivory and slaves. • In exchange for gold, Ghana received horses, cloth, manufactured goods, and salt. • Islam spread to Ghana across trade routes.

78: Fall of Roman Empire •

Problems: internal opposition, power struggle (26 people claimed the throne in just 50 years), generals struggled for power and died violently; empire was simply too large, epidemics. • Diocletian divided the empire into two districts: eastern (Anatolia, Syria, Egypt, and Greece) and western (Italy, Gaul, Spain, Britain, and North Africa). • Germans, migrating from the north, attacked the western half; especially powerful were the Visigoths. • Hun invasions, led by Attila, pressured other Germanic tribes to invade; Ostrogoths, Vandals, and Franks. • In 476 C.E., a German general defeated the last Roman emperor.

93: Expansion of Islam •

Rapid expansion in the century after Muhammad's death was the work of early caliphs who spread the word through pilgrimages. • Between 633 and 637, Muslims took control of Byzantine Syria and Palestine and seized most of Mesopotamia from the Sassanids. • During the 640s, Muslims conquered Byzantine Egypt and North Africa. • By 651, Muslims controlled the Sassanid dynasty and Persia. • By 718, Muslims controlled Hindu India, northwestern Africa, and the Iberian Peninsula. • Muslims allowed conquered people (especially Christians and Jews) to maintain their own religious practices but required those who did not convert to Islam to pay a tax (jizya). • Positions of power and authority were reserved for Muslims.

321: Red Guards •

Red Guards were mostly young students trained in Marxist thought who sought out opposition to Mao and his policies. • Red Guards were given the authority to rid China of opposition during the Cultural Revolution. • A common target of persecution was China's elite—the intellectuals, educators, and professionals—because of their perceived bourgeoisie leanings and foreign sympathies.

145: Renaissance •

Renaissance: "Rebirth" of Greco-Roman culture (arts and intellectual pursuits) that lasted from 1300s to 1500s. • Humanism: Focus on things of this world, a departure from medieval thought and designed to work in conjunction with an urban-based society. • Reflected the spirit of individualism and encouraged a split from religious-based thinking and a focus on things of this world (secularism). • Artists such as Donatello and Michelangelo studied muscle structure, and their work accurately reflects the natural form. • Architecture mimicked the simple and elegant structures designed by Greco-Roman builders with the addition of the dome. • Humanist scholars concentrated on morals, literature, and history based on a deep commitment to Christianity.

347: Nonalignment •

Represented a "third path," an alternative to allying with either the United States or the Soviet Union. • Nations did not take a side during the Cold War. • Nations that remained neutral included India, Yugoslavia, and many African nations. • Goal was to avoid involvement in the Cold War and maintain and increase economic progress (by accepting economic aid from both sides).

68: Roman Republic •

Republic—a form of government whose head of state is usually a president. • In 509 B.C.E., an aristocratic republic replaced the Roman monarchy; built Roman forum, a political and civic center housing temples and public buildings for government business. • A republican constitution gave executive (civil and military) duties and power to two consuls elected for one-year terms by an assembly dominated by the aristocracy (patricians); a senate dominated the decision-making process. • Tension developed as interests of the lower class (plebeians) were not represented. This led to the development of tribunes (consisting of officials elected by plebeians), which had the right to intervene in all political affairs and veto unjust laws. • During times of civil or military crisis, a dictator was appointed with absolute power for a six-month term to restore peace and stability—elongating the viability of the republic.

312: Benito Mussolini •

Responsible for the establishment of the world's first fascist state. • Emerged as a dictator in postwar Italy, a nation struggling to recover from economic depression. • His promise of economic recovery and the addition of land to the Italian empire gained him popular support. • As the leader of Italy, he suspended people's civil liberties and used fear and terror to enforce his will. • In 1936 he signed the Rome-Berlin Axis with Germany and in 1940 joined World War II on the side of Germany. • Italy experienced many losses, and Mussolini was stripped of his power; Germany remained supportive of Mussolini, who was in exile in northern Italy. • In April 1945, he was captured by the Italian resistance and executed.

100: Tang Dynasty •

Restored peace and stability after the fall of the Sui dynasty. • Second emperor, Tang Taizong (627-649), saw himself as a Confucian ruler. His successes led to the belief that this period was unusually prosperous and peaceful. He built impressive capital at Chang'an. • Maintained the empire through a system of roads with horses, human runners, inns, postal stations, and stables. • Equitable distribution of agricultural land kept property out of the hands of wealthy elite. • Government jobs in extensive bureaucracy were merit based, determined through a series of civil service examinations. • Military conquests included Manchuria, Tibet, Korea, and the northern part of Vietnam.

72: Roman Roads •

Roman engineers developed an intricate process for building roads—they prepared a deep bed, edged roads with curbs, provided for drainage, and topped roads with large flat paving stones. • Main roads were 20 to 26 feet wide—allowing for two-way traffic; narrow roads through mountains were on average 6 to 10 feet wide to enable trade, travel, and military passage. • Milestones were placed along the road to facilitate the imperial postal system. • Linked all parts of the empire: one highway stretched over 1,554 miles and connected the Black Sea to the North Sea; another stretched over 2,983 miles and ran parallel to the coast of North Africa, with many run-offs to transport supplies, goods, and soldiers farther into Africa. • Linked with the Silk Road to create an intricate trade network, Roman roads connected Western Europe with the Far East.

73: Roman Law •

Roman law was first recorded c. 450 B.C.E. The Twelve Tables were meant to provide a standardized system of law throughout the early empire. • Jurists worked together to standardize interpretations of the laws and develop a definition of justice. • Established basic rights of defendants: They were innocent until proven guilty and could challenge their accusers in court. • Power ultimately rested in the hands of the judge, who had the authority to set aside laws deemed to be unfair.

310: Adolf Hitler: Rise to Power •

Rose to power in Germany in the 1920s and 1930s. • Leader of the Nazis, the National Socialist German Workers' Party, Hitler attempted to gain control of Germany in 1923 but failed and was arrested. • His book, Mein Kampf, which outlined his political views, including anti-Semitic beliefs, became popular among Germany's Nazis. Nazism had broad appeal, especially with its message of restoring the nation to the greatness it had before World War I. • More and more Nazis won seats in parliament, and in 1933, Hitler was appointed chancellor of the nation. • He built a totalitarian state, allowing only one part, using fear and terror to silence opposition, and nationalizing businesses. • Germany experienced military and economic growth under his leadership; he created jobs and increased the standard of living. • Under his leadership, the terms of the Treaty of Versailles were systematically ignored; he built up a military and aggressively took control of foreign lands. • The Nuremberg Laws instituted anti-Semitic policies.

26: Zhou Dynasty •

Ruled by proclamation; military forces and allies disseminated laws and justice. • Allied with Shang, adopted customs and culture, and then overthrew Shang king. • All power and loyalty transferred to Zhou dynasty. • Zhou theory of politics: Events of Heaven and Earth are closely related (see Mandate of Heaven) • Zhou cultural achievements: poetry, history, rituals, political essays, morals, religion, and philosophy. • Most writings lost, but Book of Songs preserved early Zhou literature.

85: Byzantium and Russia •

Russia created several trading centers, including Kiev along the Dnieper River. • In 989 C.E., Prince Vladimir of Kiev converted to Orthodox Christianity as a result of his exposure to Byzantium; his subjects followed. • Other Byzantine influences included the Cyrillic alphabet, writing, codified laws, and art and architecture (for example, onion domes). • After Constantinople fell, Russia named Moscow the world's third Rome—insinuating that they had inherited the imperial power, as the Byzantines had inherited it from the Romans. • Center of Orthodox Christianity shifts northward from Constantinople to Moscow.

220: Ivan the Terrible •

Russian czar (r. 1533-1584) who continued to expand the empire and to consolidate the czar's absolute authority. • Sought to eliminate opposition to his authority by killing boyars (Russian nobles) he suspected of disloyalty and confiscating their lands. • His actions, while harsh and cruel, ensured that there would be few challenges to the Russian autocracy.

223: Peter the Great •

Russian czar (r. 1682-1725) best known for centralizing his authority and bringing Western ideas to the Russian Empire. • In an attempt to modernize the empire, he traveled to the West and brought back new ideas about science and technology. • Russians were sent abroad to learn modern military and industrial techniques. • He introduced many reforms that changed Russia economically and socially, yet he remained committed to autocracy and divine right. • He modernized the army and navy. • Socially, women were extended more freedoms and society in general was encouraged to "look" more western—laws required men to shave their beards and wear Western clothing.

374: Persian Gulf War (1991) •

Saddam Hussein's Iraqi troops invaded Kuwait and took control of its oil fields. • The U.S. response was initially a trade embargo because they saw this action as a threat to the flow of oil and to Saudi Arabia. However, with Middle Eastern nations pitted against each other, a coalition of United Nations' peacekeeping troops led by the U.S. were soon sent in to Saudi Arabia.

90: Dhows •

Sailing vessels with lateen sails. • Lateen sails were used on the ships and were most often made of palm leaves or cotton. • Origin is hard to date, but records of their construction exist in the Roman Empire. • These boats were used extensively by Arab sailors in the Arabian Sea and late, during the post-classical period, in the Indian Ocean by Indian, Arab, and Persian sailors; helped spread Islam. • They functioned as both cargo and passenger ships and were constructed of sewn planks.

47: Shi Huangdi •

Self-proclaimed "first emperor" of China—reigned fourteen years; established centralized rule through large-scale political organization. • Central bureaucracy—run from capital at Xianyang—was divided into administrative provinces and districts, each headed by an officer appointed by the emperor. • To centralize power, disarmed local military forces; built roads to enhance and expedite communication and movement of armies; standardized laws, currencies, weights and measures, and Chinese script; and built defensive walls, including linking sections of the Great Wall. • Executed anyone who criticized his regime—burned 4460 Confucian scholars alive for their critical comments.

50: Later Han Dynasty •

Separated from the former Han, as a result of a temporary loss of power from 9 to 23 C.E., the later Han lasted from 25 to 220 C.E. • Moved capital from Chang'an east to Luoyang. • Ignoring the problem of inequitable land distribution led to increased banditry and rebellions led by disgruntled peasants. • In the Yellow Turban uprising (rebels wore yellow headgear), government used the military to suppress rebellions but the collective efforts of peasants weakened the Han dynasty—factions developed in courts that affected the central government. • This internal weakness led to the downfall of the empire, which was divided into several large kingdoms.

28: Silk Production •

Silk was first produced during the Shang dynasty (1750-1027 B.C.E.). • Silk was produced by raising silkworms on mulberry trees. • By the time of the Han dynasty (206 B.C.E.-220 C.E.), silk was a luxury product in high demand, and thus its production was a highly guarded imperial secret. • In the late 500s, Byzantine monks visiting China smuggled silkworms back to their empire and soon Byzantine craftsmen were producing silk textiles.

173: Silver in Colonial Latin America •

Silver mining in Mexico and in Peru required a tremendous labor supply. • The Spanish coerced natives to work in mines. • Profits from silver made Spain wealthy and powerful and played a significant role in global trade: silver crossed the Atlantic into Europe; European merchants traded silver for silk and porcelain in Asian markets. • The founding of Manila by the Spanish in 1571 facilitated the global exchange of silver. • Some historians argue that silver was the world's first commodity. • There was increased demand for the commodity from China with the establishment of the Ming dynasty.

67: Hellenistic Philosophies (II) •

Skeptics doubted the existence of absolute certain knowledge and so did not espouse strong political, social, or moral beliefs. They taught that people should abandon their search for certain answers and find an inner peace. • Stoics believed human beings were part of a universal family; people must help each other through difficulties and deal with stress and anxiety by finding inner peace.

178: Slavery in Africa •

Slavery was practiced across the continent of Africa and was a well-established commercial venture centuries before the arrival of the Europeans. • Slaves were most often prisoners of war. • Owning slaves was viewed as a symbol of wealth and power. • Muslim merchants traded African slaves across Europe, the Middle East, and India.

87: Spread of Epidemic Diseases •

Smallpox and measles were the most pervasive; bubonic plague also broke out. • Problem: epidemics devastated communities because they had no immunities and no medicines to fight against them. • Smallpox devastated the Roman Empire—reduced population by approximately one-quarter during the 2nd century B.C.E. • The bubonic plague, or Black Death, started in China and spread to Europe along trade routes in the early 1330s. It killed an estimated 25 million people, or one-third of Europe's population. • Epidemics led to social change; trade declined, and people learned to be self-sufficient.

4: Paleolithic Era—Society •

Social groups: Extended families grew into clans; clans mixed with neighboring groups to form tribes with sophisticated organization, including chiefs, leaders, and religious figures. • Organized warfare with weapons: rocks, clubs, knives, spears, axes, and bows and arrows. • Worship of deities; religious rituals included sacrifices to gods, goddesses, and spirits. • Expression through art and music; examples include cave paintings and flutes. • Division of labor assigned by gender: men hunted, women gathered.

32: Mayan Civilization •

Society located in present-day southern Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, and El Salvador; classical Maya ruled from c. 300-900 C.E. • Terrace farming was developed to capture rainwater and silt to increase soil fertility and hence agricultural production: cotton, maize, cacao. • Achievements: elaborate system of writing, accurate calendar (365.242 days), and concept of zero. • Solar year (365 days) set agricultural patterns, and ritual year (260 days) set daily activities and divided the year into 13 months with 20 days each.

64: Greek Philosophy—Socrates •

Socrates developed a method of questioning aimed at exposing ethics and morality through a series of increasingly difficult questions; his student Plato recorded his thoughts in a series of writings called dialogues. • Socrates suggested that honor was more important than wealth and fame and stressed the importance of personal integrity: "The unexamined life is not worth living." • Charged with encouraging immorality, Socrates was tried by Athenian citizens in 399 B.C.E. He was sentenced to death and chose to drink hemlock, a poison.

213: Janissaries •

Soldiers in the Ottoman Empire that trained to protect and serve the sultan. • Many of the soldiers were young Christian boys taken from the Balkan regions and forced into the sultan's service. • They were forced to convert to Islam and pledge absolute loyalty to the sultan; in return, they gained great privileges and honor. • Over time, they sought to gain influence and control of the government.

39: Government in Classical Persia •

Sophisticated government led to the development of a new class of educated bureaucrats who played an important role in the daily affairs of the empire. • State-owned slaves provided labor for large-scale construction projects: roads, irrigation systems, city walls, and palaces.

148: Long-distance Trade in Eastern Hemisphere •

Southeast Asia, Africa, and India were all connected by trade. • Goods traveled through two primary routes: Silk Roads, established in Han dynasty, were best for transporting light luxury items (silk and precious stones); the sea was used for bulkier items (coral, stone, and building materials). • Major trading cities included Hangzhou, Alexandria, Khanbaliq, Kilwa, Constantinople, Quanzhou, Cairo, Melaka, Venice, Cambay, Timbuktu, and Caffa. • Trade cities enjoyed tremendous wealth as a result of their status as major trading ports; inhabitants usually did not have to pay taxes. • With the exception of Mongol military campaigns and the Black Death, there were no significant interruptions to trade.

338: Satellite Nations •

Soviet-occupied nations at the end of World War II: Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, and Romania. Soviets set up a communist government in Poland. • Other nations: Stalin prevented free elections and suppressed noncommunist political parties, in essence creating a one-party government. • Basic rationale for occupation of Eastern Europe came from Allied belief that any territory that was liberated could be subsequently occupied and controlled by the liberator (as Japan was by the U.S.). • The United States accepted the creation of a communist bloc, with the rationale that communism would not be eliminated, only stopped from spreading. • Satellite nations were to join the Warsaw Pact and serve as a buffer zone between the Soviet Union and the democratic West.

162: Spanish Conquest of Americas •

Spanish conquistadores explored the New World, many in search of gold and other riches, others to convert the indigenous population to Christianity. • Hernán Cortés arrived in Mexico in 1519 and within two years conquered the Aztec Empire. • In 1522, Francisco Pizarro conquered the Incan Empire along the west coast of South America. • Cortés and Pizarro owed victory to technological advantages, including steel armor and guns, as well as their effective use of horses and the formation of alliances with hostile tribes. • Diseases to which the native people had no immunity, such as smallpox, decreased and weakened the population. • It is estimated that in 100 years the population of the former Aztec Empire decreased from 26 million to just over 1 million. • After conquest of the Incas and the Aztecs, Spain established colonies in the New World. • Dutch, English, and French explorers followed, hoping to establish their own colonies.

163: Spanish Conquest of Manila •

Spanish faced little resistance from the unorganized Philippine government. • Spain saw both commercial and religious opportunities. • Local Spanish rulers and missionaries sought to convert Filipinos to Christianity through education. • Control of the port of Manila, established in 1571, ensured direct access to Chinese products, especially silk, and a link to Spanish America. • Spanish control of silver mines in the New World and the increasing demand for silver by the Chinese led many historians to conclude that the founding of the city of Manila in 1571 marked the birth of world trade. • With the opening of silver mines in Peru and Mexico, European powers were able to successfully penetrate the Asian trading system. • Manila galleons (Spanish ships) crossed the Pacific, picked up silver in Mexico, and brought it to Manila.

86: Long-distance Trade •

Specialized labor and efficient means of transportation encouraged trade between groups such as the Mesopotamians and the Egyptians as early as 3500 B.C.E. • Sumerians, who needed natural resources, traded regularly with the Harappan society by 2300 B.C.E. • Sumerians shipped woolen textiles, leather goods, sesame oil, and jewelry to India in exchange for copper, ivory, pearls, and semiprecious stones. • Egyptian pharaohs imported cedar, a sign of wealth, for tombs.

140: Sufis •

Sufis focused on a personal relationship with Allah rather than a strict interpretation of Islam. They allowed worship of traditional gods, whom they believed were manifestations of Allah. • Sufis succeeded in converting people in India, sub-Saharan Africa, and southeastern Asia to their mystic ways from 1000 to 1500. • Sufis hoped that a flexible, tolerant approach to Islam would make it more palatable and intensify its spread.

172: Sugar in Colonial Latin America •

Sugar, a labor-intensive crop, was the most important crop in the Portuguese colony of Brazil, and the sugar mill (engenho) became the center of Brazilian colonial life. • Field workers cultivated the sugarcane and mill workers oversaw the processing of molasses and refined sugar. • Although the Spanish had experienced success in drafting the native population to meet their labor needs, the Portuguese were less successful in Brazil. • The majority of workers in the sugar mills were slaves imported from Africa. • Demand for the commodity from the European community increased following the Columbian Exchange.

61: Macedonian Empire •

Supplied Greeks with grain, timber, and natural resources in exchange for olives, wine, and finished products. • Alexander led an army of approximately 37,000 to invade the Persian Empire. • By 331 B.C.E., Alexander controlled Ionia, Anatolia, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and Mesopotamia. • When Alexander died, the empire was divided among his top three generals.

229: Origins of Industrial Revolution •

Technological innovations in the 1700s led to industrialization, the mass production of goods using machine power (rather than hand power). • Began in England thanks to the availability of workers, numerous natural resources (most notably coal and iron ore), an expansive canal network and easily navigable rivers, a large number of wealthy individuals willing to invest capital in new businesses, and a government that encouraged capitalistic efforts. • The textile industry was the first to industrialize. • At first machines were powered by wind and water, but by the late 1700s, the steam engine was powering machines, as well as making changes in the transportation industry. • Within a century, industrialization had spread throughout Western Europe to Russia, the United States, and Japan. For the first time in history, nations shifted from agricultural-based societies to ones based on manufacturing.

119: Genghis Khan •

Temujin, a prominent Mongol warrior, accrued power by allying several clans. Showing personal courage in battle, he brought all Mongol tribes under a single confederation in 1206 and was proclaimed Genghis Khan ("universal ruler"). • Broke up Mongol tribes, forced men of fighting age to join new military units with no tribal affiliation, and gave high military and political officials positions on the basis of talent and loyalty. • Built a luxurious capital at Karakorum; valued the army above all else. • Used equestrian skills honed by hunting and competitive horseback games; cavalry was the backbone of the army. • United central Asia and attacked Tibet, northern China, Persia, and the central Asian steppes.

295: Paris Peace Conference •

The Allied nations met in Paris in 1919 to settle peace terms with the Central Powers. Five treaties in all were negotiated; the most significant was the Treaty of Versailles, between the Allies and Germany. • Wilson proposed his Fourteen Points, including an end to secret alliances, the promotion of free trade, decolonization, self-determination, and the establishment of a League of Nations. • Other Allied leaders, most notably David Lloyd George of Britain and Georges Clemenceau of France, sought to punish the losers, in particular Germany. • The negotiations resulted in agreement on several significant terms: The League of Nations was created; the Austro-Hungarian Empire was broken up; new nations were created from the breakup of the Austrian-Hungarian Empire, including Yugoslavia and Poland; and the Ottoman Empire was broken up, its lands put under the mandate of the French and the British. • The peace established was unstable. Within a generation, a world war was once again on the horizon, and many pointed to the weakness of the Paris Peace accords.

242: Latin American Independence Movements •

The American and French Revolutions and the ideals of the Enlightenment inspired independence movements in Latin America. • Beginning with a successful slave revolt, Haiti was the first nation in Latin America to declare its independence (1804). • Creole leaders, resentful of the power and privilege of the peninsulares, spread revolutionary ideas throughout Spanish and Portuguese colonies. • The majority of Spanish and Portuguese colonies gained their independence in the early 1800s, taking advantage of Napoléon's invasion of Europe. • Notable independence leaders included Miguel Hidalgo, who gathered together the indigenous and mestizo populations of Mexico, and Simón Bolívar, a Creole who fought against Spanish rule in South America. • Although most of Latin America had independence by 1825, power continued to be concentrated in the hands of the elite, a combination of Creoles, caudillos, and military leaders, a trend that continued through to the 20th century.

335: Cold War: Origins •

The Cold War was an ideological war between two ideologically opposed superpowers. • Establishment of U.S. foreign policies: Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan aimed at the containment of communism. U.S. pledge to resist the spread of communism increased tensions between the two superpowers. • Division of postwar Germany into four occupation zones set the stage for democracy vs. communism. Tensions rose when the U.S. continued to supply a cutoff West Berlin inside the Soviet sector. • NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) and Warsaw Pact military alliances created during peacetime increased tensions. • Satellite nations created a bloc of communist nations in Eastern Europe. • Both superpowers' commitment to nuclear arsenals led to an arms race. • The two powers competed to be the first in space.

244: Haitian Revolution •

The French colony of Saint Domingue was the first colony in Latin America to gain its independence. • Begun as a slave revolt in which enslaved Africans rebelled against French settlers. • Leaders such as Toussaint Louverture, a slave himself, organized the rebellious Africans into an army. • Although slaves were granted their freedom in 1798, the rebellion continued as they demanded rights. • Fearful that the slaves might succeed in overthrowing the white settlers, Napoléon sent French troops to the island to put down the revolt. • When Toussaint was captured and imprisoned, the rebellion continued under the leadership of Jacques Dessalines. • In 1804, Saint Domingue declared its independence; renamed Haiti, it became the first republic in Latin America. • The United States refused to recognize the new republic.

207: Tokugawa Period: Isolation •

The Portuguese arrived in Japan in 1543 and established a commercial relationship between the two nations. • New products, including tobacco and firearms, were introduced to Japan; their swords were no match for firearms. • Christian missionaries arrived in the mid-1500s hoping to convert the Japanese. • Fearful that conversion to Christianity would undermine the authority of the shogunate and aware that firearms would lead to instability, the shoguns banned both guns and swords and began to restrict contact with foreigners. • A series of seclusion acts were passed to ban missionary activities and ultimately the religion. • By the 1640s, foreign trade was forbidden except for very limited Dutch and Chinese trade; Japanese were forbidden to travel abroad, and very few foreigners were allowed into the country. • This period of self-imposed isolation was relatively peaceful and thus has come to be known as the Pax Tokugawa.

96: The Qur'an and Women •

The Qur'an helped and hurt women. • Improved the security of women in Arabian society: outlawed female infanticide and ruled that dowries go to brides (not husbands). • Described women as honorable individuals equal to men, not property. • Both the Qur'an and sharia emphasized male dominance: descent through the male line, male inheritance, strict control of women by male guardians. • Social customs were influenced by Islamic beliefs: men were permitted to take up to four wives (polygamy), women were veiled in public.

380: Internet •

The Soviet launch of Sputnik led to the U.S. funding technological research in many important areas, such as the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), the grandfather of a series of agencies that led to the creation of the Internet. • A "network of networks" linked by a broad range of electronic and optical networking technologies, the Internet carries a vast array of information resources and services, most notably the inter-linked hypertext documents of the World Wide Web (WWW) and the infrastructure to support electronic mail. • Opened to commercial interests in 1988. • The Web was invented by British scientist Tim Berners-Lee in 1989. • Mosaic was the first popular browser. • The estimated population of Internet users was 1.8 billion as of December 31, 2009.

165: Spanish Colonial Empire in Americas •

The Spanish crown established centralized control over much of the Americas through the use of many bureaucratic offices staffed by appointed administrators. • Two large areas, one in Mexico and one in Peru, were each overseen by a viceroy, who reported directly to the Spanish king; viceroys were responsible for enforcing colonial policy. • A new colonial social hierarchy emerged based on birth: peninsulares, those born in Spain, were at the top; next came the creoles, those born in the colonies to Spanish parents, followed by the mestizos, people with both European and native ancestors, and the mulattoes, who were of mixed European and African descent; at the bottom were the natives and people of African descent. • This led to the creation of a new economic system based on forced labor.

356: Vietnam War •

The United States intervened and the conflict on the side of noncommunist South Vietnam after the French were defeated. • Military involvement increased under presidents Eisenhower, Kennedy, and Johnson; in 1968 more than 500,000 troops were engaged in Vietnam. • U.S. public opinion pressured President Nixon to vow to end U.S. military involvement in Vietnam, and he subsequently adopted a policy of Vietnamization (strategy of turning the war over to the South Vietnamese). • 1973: U.S. phase of the Vietnam War ended with the Paris Peace Accords; two years later the agreements were thrown out, and North Vietnam and the NLF (National Liberation Front) waged war against South Vietnam until they achieved their goal of unification in 1976.

349: Creation of Israel •

The Zionist movement, which originated in Eastern Europe during the late 19th century and was formally organized in 1897, called for the restoration of the Jewish national homeland in Palestine. • Created by the United Nations in 1947 as a result of UN Resolution 181. • Divided Palestine (a British mandate) into an Arab state and a Jewish state. • Jews accepted the plan: the United States and the Soviet Union recognized Israel as a nation, but Arabs refused to recognize it. • In 1948, Britain withdrew; fighting began and continues today. • Major wars include the Arab-Israeli War (1948-1949), the Six-Day War (1967) and the Yom Kippur War (1973).

230: Industrial Revolution: New Machines •

The advent of mechanization revolutionized the production of goods. • Key inventions included the flying shuttle and the spinning jenny—designed to make cotton spinning quicker and more efficient. • At first machines were powered by wind and water (thus most early factories were located along rivers), but by the late 1700s, the steam engine was powering machines, as well as making changes in the transportation industry. • The first steamship was built just after the turn of the 19th century, soon followed by the first steam-powered trains. • Advances in steam power and steel production (for example, the Bessemer process) revolutionized the transportation industry. Steamships and railroads were used to transport cargo. Rail lines connected industrial centers to mines and ports.

158: Commercial Revolution •

The changing nature of trade and business in this period was known as the Commercial Revolution. • Beginning in Europe in the early 1500s, nations competed to expand their empires overseas. • The establishment of large colonial empires generated great wealth for many European nations and led to the establishment of new business practices, including joint-stock companies.

287: Immediate Cause of World War I •

The crisis sometimes referred to as the "spark" that started the war came on June 28, 1914. While on a visit to Sarajevo (in Bosnia) Archduke Francis Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, was assassinated by a Serbian nationalist. Almost immediately, Germany pledged its support to Austria-Hungary, who declared war on Serbia a month later. Russia mobilized forces against Austria-Hungary in support of Serbia. A few days later, Germany declared war on Russia and then on France. Following the German invasion of Belgium, Britain declared war on Germany, and world war was well under way. • The "isms" of nationalism, militarism, and imperialism combined with the new reality of entangling alliances ensured that this war would involve the entire European continent.

104: Early Japan •

The earliest inhabitants of Japan, nomadic peoples from northeastern Asia, came with their own language, culture, and religion. • An agricultural society inspired by Tang China; instituted a series of reforms to centralize power. Nara was built as a replica of Chang'an. • Japan fused their traditional Shinto beliefs with Chinese Buddhism and Confucianism. • Heian period—centralized power in the Fujiwara family. Based on Chinese values, only boys received a formal education though women contributed to Japanese literature (Lady Murasaki's Tale of Genji, for example). • Decline resulted from a failure of the equal-field system; land became concentrated into the hands of a small group of the wealthy elite.

182: Abolition of Slavery •

The end of slavery took many years, beginning with the end of the slave trade. • Abolitionist societies in America and Europe appealed to governments and individuals to stop the practice; religious groups, such as the Quakers, were very active. • Freed slaves often spoke or wrote about the horrors of being a slave. • Societies shifted from agrarian-based activities to manufacturing, and factory workers were needed; capitalists discovered that paying factory workers was cheaper and more profitable than purchasing slaves. • At the turn of the 19th century, many countries began to ban the sale of slave, and by the middle of the century the end of slavery was well under way. The United States emancipated slaves as a result of the Civil War.

370: Genocide •

The killing of a specific group of people based on specific ethnic, religious, or racial characteristics. • Holocaust, led by Hitler in Germany, included a plan called the Final Solution to eliminate the Jews and produce a "pure" Aryan race. • Ethnic cleansing, led by Slobodan Milošević in the Balkans, was an attempt to eliminate Bosnians. • Ethnic conflict in Rwanda led to a mass killing of Hutus and Tutsis as they wrestled for control. • Genocide was committed in Cambodia (Kampuchea) and Armenia. • 1948: The United Nations adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which states the rights that all human beings are born with. The UN has put on trial those who have violated the declaration.

294: Armenian Genocide •

The massive and deliberate killing of Armenian civilians by the Ottoman Turks. • As the Ottomans attempted to reform society in the hope of preventing the empire's collapse, nationalism increased. • With an increase in nationalism, the government, which historically had been tolerant of the many religious and ethnic groups living in the empire, began to distrust its citizens. • In the 1890s, the Turks targeted Christian Armenians, believing that they were supportive of Russia and no longer loyal to the empire. • Genocide ensued, and millions of Armenians were killed over a 25-year period.

209: Tokugawa Period: Social and Economic Changes •

The peace and stability in this period brought about great changes. • Socially, the samurai and daimyo classes, who had previously been involved in fighting civil wars, now found they could concentrate their time and wealth on new endeavors, including the arts. • New crops led to a population increase. • As Japanese cities grew and trade increased, the merchant class benefited greatly. • Cities were centers of new cultural traditions, including the development of Kabuki theatre.

296: Treaty of Versailles •

The peace settlement negotiated by the Allies with Germany at the end of World War I focused on ensuring that Germany would never again be a threat to the security of Europe. • Terms included a war-guilt clause, in which Germany accepted complete responsibility for the war; a significant loss of German territory, including Alsace-Lorraine, which was given to France; the establishment of the Rhineland, the border between France and Germany, as a demilitarized zone; the loss of overseas colonies; reparations; and disarmament. Germany was forbidden to have any battleships, heavy artillery, or submarines. • This peace plan was viewed by many as too harsh. In the years immediately following the war's end, Germany faced economic depression. • Instability in nations also led to the rise of totalitarian governments.

306: Age of Anxiety •

The period after World War I when doubt was cast upon previously existing ways of life. • Feelings of uncertainty were reflected in science, art, architecture, and psychology. • Novelists, such as Ernest Hemingway, wrote about the destruction of war. • Pablo Picasso and other artists, experimenting with new art forms, moved away from realism and toward freer forms of expression. • In the field of psychology, Sigmund Freud and others questioned traditional thinking on morality and values, and developed new approaches to explaining human behavior.

62: Hellenistic Empire •

The period during the reign of Alexander the Great and the subsequent division into three large states is known as the Hellenistic age (after Greece, or Hellas). • Greek culture spread to areas from Greece to India and affected them politically, socially, and economically. • Egypt (under Ptolemy), the wealthiest of the colonies), maintained organized agriculture (irrigation), industry, and tax collection. • Capital of empire, Alexandria, with a pivotal location on the Mediterranean, could harbor 1,200 ships; home of world's largest library. • The Hellenistic Empire was built on the former Persian Empire (led by Seleucus), impressive because of its size—reaching to the Indus River—its common law and trade practices, and its culture.

189: Absolutism •

The political theory that monarchs have complete control over their subjects by divine right. • Divine right asserts that the right to rule was given to monarchs from God. • The monarch had absolute authority to make all laws (although he himself stood above the law) and establish domestic and foreign policy. • This political theory dominated Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries. • Best exemplified by the actions of King Louis XIV of France, including his revocation of the Edict of Nantes and the building of his palace at Versailles. • In the 17th century, England became the first nation in Europe to challenge the absolute authority of the monarch.

201: Ming Dynasty: Social and Cultural Changes •

The revival of the civil service exams encouraged the creation of an extensive scholar-bureaucrat class, which was responsible for much of the governance of the empire. • The restoration of Confucian traditions encouraged the subordination of women, and in many ways women's lives were even more tightly controlled than previously. • Widows were strongly discouraged from remarrying, and foot binding became increasingly more popular and filtered down to the lower classes. • The Yongle Encyclopedia collection of Chinese philosophy, literature, and history was recorded. • The Chinese novel's gain in popularity led to an increase in literacy.

302: October Revolution (Bolshevik Revolution) •

The second part of the Russian Revolution led by Vladimir Lenin and his Bolshevik Part. • Lenin, a student of Marxism, put forth the idea that the proletariat (working class) would rise up against the bourgeoisie (owners). • In October 1917 the Bolsheviks gained control of the Petrograd soviet and overthrew the provisional government in a bloodless coup. • With the Bolsheviks in control, efforts were made to transform the political and economic landscape of the nation; Russia pulled out of World War I, and legislation was passed that redistributed land to the peasants. • Russia, renamed the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was the world's first communist nation.

372: Islamic Fundamentalism •

The term is often used by Western sources to describe an extreme movement to replace secular states with Islamic ones. • Increased in popularity as an extremist movement in response to opposition to westernization reforms in Muslim countries in the Middle East. • Libya: Muammar al-Qaddafi gained power as the result of a coup d'état in 1969. The government he instituted was based on Islamic principles. He supported subsequent revolutionary groups and their activities in an effort to spread Islamic beliefs. • Iran: In an effort to overturn Shah Pahlavi's Western reforms, in 1979 Ayatollah Khomeini led Islamic fundamentalists in a coup d'état, wrestled control of the government from the ailing shah, and instituted an Islamic republic. • Turkey: In an effort to overturn Western reforms first introduced by Kemal Ataturk, Islamic fundamentalists increased their power by systematically increasing support and influence in political parties during the 1990s.

235: American Revolution: Causes •

The thirteen British colonies in North America resented legislation passed by the British Parliament levying taxes to pay off their debts accumulated during the Seven Years/French and Indian War and infringing on their rights. • Under the banner "No taxation without representation" they sought the right to govern themselves. • In 1774, the Continental Congress was formed to oversee the colonists' anti-British actions, and on July 4, 1776, the Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence. • The declaration, greatly influenced by Enlightenment thinking, provided the colonists with a justification for seeking independence from the crown, arguing that government is based on the consent of the governed and that the purpose of government is to protect and secure the rights of its citizens.

208: Tokugawa Period: Political Change •

The unification of Japan in the late 1500s led to the establishment of a military government led by a shogun, which brought nearly 300 years of peace and stability to the nation (the Pax Tokugawa). • Their policies promoted isolation and regulated contact with foreigners. • Shoguns (supreme military rulers) sought to centralize their authority and maintain stability. • In prior periods, a decentralized feudal structure had allowed for the daimyo (landowning families) to gain power and rule independent of the emperor; shoguns centralized authority and thus took power away from the daimyo. • Daimyo estates were broken up, and attendance at the imperial court in Edo (modern-day Tokyo) was required; daimyo needed the permission of the shogun to marry and even to repair their castles.

331: Dropping of Atomic Bomb •

The war in Europe ended in May 1945 but waged on in the Pacific. • U.S. General Douglas MacArthur gained ground with his island-hopping campaign; the fall of Saipan, Iwo Jima, and Okinawa gave U.S. bombers access to Japanese main islands. • President Truman issued a vague warning and then dropped the world's first atomic bomb on Hiroshima on August 6, 1945. When Japan did not surrender, he dropped a second on Nagasaki on August 9, 1945. • Meanwhile, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan on August 8, 1945. The result of these combined efforts was the surrender of Japan, announced by Emperor Hirohito on August 15, 1945, and the subsequent U.S. occupation of Japan until 1952.

132: Crusades •

There were crusades against the Cathars and other heretics in the Balkans, but the term usually refers to the series of five holy wars declared by Pope Urban II in 1095 against the Muslims in an effort to recapture Palestine and Jerusalem. • Fervent Christians formed religious/military orders: Templars, Hospitallers, and Teutonic Knights. • When the pope declared a crusade (holy war), warriors would "take up the cross" and fight on behalf of their faith (wearing crosses sewn onto their backs as a symbol of their faith). • Peter the Hermit traveled throughout Germany, France, and the Low Countries in an effort to increase support for the Crusades; he was successful in organizing an untrained, ill-prepared group of poor knights and eager peasants who failed to recapture the Holy Land but who generated popular support for the cause.

30: Warring States •

Time of disunity for China (403-221 B.C.E.); many independent states adopted Legalist philosophies as the basis for their rule. • Legalism helped the state of Qin to gain control and unify China. • Turmoil forced Chinese to become introspective in an attempt to bring peace and unity to China. • Development of three significant schools of thought—Confucianism, Legalism, Daoism. This period is also referred to as the Hundred Schools of Thought.

153: Motives for European Exploration •

To find new, more efficient water trade routes to Asian markets, avoiding the established land routes through Muslim-controlled areas (and thus the taxes imposed by Muslim middlemen). • To find new lands to extend the civilization of cash crops such as sugar, coffee, and pepper. • To spread the Christian religion. • To gain political status.

77: Silk Road •

Trade route that connected the Han and Roman empires in classical times. • Facilitated the exchange of goods, ideas, and disease. • Southeastern Asia, China, and India traded silk and spices west to consumers in central Asia, Iran, Arabia, and the Roman Empire. • Spices were important because they had numerous purposes (food preservation, flavoring, and pharmaceutical). • Central Asia traded horses, jade, and magic potions west. • Following the fall of the Han and Roman empires, the route was revived in post-classical times, first by the Tang and Song and later by the Mongols.

160: Trading Post Empires •

Trading posts, built to establish commercial relations, resulted from the control of trade routes. • The Portuguese built the first trading posts; Vasco da Gama built one in Calicut. • With increased exploration, more trading posts were established. • The Portuguese had trading posts along both coasts of Africa and throughout Asia. • The English and the Dutch, following the lead of the Portuguese, also built trading posts. • The English established posts throughout India; the Dutch from South Africa to Southeast Asia.

120: Marco Polo •

Traveled from Italy to China during Mongol times. • Inherited passion for travel from dad and uncle, who were among the first European merchants to visit China. • They introduced Polo to Kublai Khan, who liked Polo and appreciated his conversational and storytelling abilities; Kublai entrusted Polo on several diplomatic trips. • Polo traveled to remote parts of China from Venice by land, and on the return voyage, he went to Sumatra, Ceylon, India, and Arabia, by sea. • The stories of Polo's travels were immortalized when he was taken as a prisoner of war when Venice and Genoa were feuding. A fellow prison, a romance writer, translated Polo's tales of travel along the Silk Roads into a text that rapidly circulated throughout Europe. • Inspired Columbus and others to attempt to find a passage to the East.

84: Fall of Byzantine Empire •

Turks invaded from the east and conquered Constantinople (later renamed Istanbul) in 1453. • Loss at the Battle of Manzikert (1054) reduces the Byzantines from a major to a minor empire. • In 1071, the Byzantines lost most of Anatolia (their breadbasket), which led to their ultimate demise (they had no food source).

273: U.S. Open Door Policy •

U.S. foreign policy that sought equal trading rights for all nations trading in China and commercial advantages for U.S. businesses. • Proposed by Secretary of State John Hay in 1899 because the United States was one of the few imperial powers that did not have a sphere of influence in China. • Although it was never formally agreed upon, the policy was unchallenged.

46: Qin Dynasty •

Used Legalist philosophy to restore order and stability to China and end the Warring States period. • Gave peasants land rights to farm remote territories, a practice that weakened traditional social hierarchy. • Qin Empire expands, attacking one province at a time and unifying China. • Great achievements: standardized weights and measures, scriptwriting. • Short-lived because of strict laws and harsh punishments.

249: Socialism •

Utopian socialists believed that people should work toward the creation of a perfect society in which everyone was equal. • Over time, utopian socialism was abandoned for what was seen as a more practical application of socialist ideals, encouraging workers to take control and create a classless society; this theory of socialism was best articulated by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. • Marx and Engels sought to put the means of production in the hands of the people. • According to Marx's Communist Manifesto, following a struggle between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat, the proletariat would gain power and create a classless society. • Marx's socialist theory was adopted by the Bolsheviks in Russia, and the Soviet Union would become the world's first communist nation.

22: Vedas •

Vedas, the primary text of Hinduism, is a collection of hymns, songs, prayers, and rituals honoring various Aryan gods. • There are four Vedas—most important is the first, Rig Veda; with 1,028 hymns, it was compiled between 1400 and 900 B.C.E. • Passed down orally until 600 B.C.E., when all four were recorded in Sanskrit. • Veda means "wisdom" or "knowledge" and refers to the knowledge priests need to carry out their tasks. • Vedas reveal a great deal about early Aryan society.

236: American Revolution: Impact •

War began, and with the aid of France, the colonists forced the British to surrender to 1781. • Following the end of the war, the newly formed United States of America emerged as a federal republic with a government based on popular sovereignty. • This revolution had an enormous influence of subsequent revolutions around the world, most notably the French and Haitian revolutions.

288: Total War •

When all of a nation's resources are dedicated to the war effort and both the civilian and military populations mobilize to defeat an enemy. • A significant consequence is the purposeful targeting of civilian populations and the cities they live in. • The ability for civilians to help soldiers defeat the enemy was emphasized, and efforts were mobilized on the home front. • Rationing, propaganda, and the increased number of women in the labor force visibly indicated the many ways in which ordinary citizens sought to contribute to victory. • Although nations had large standing armies, conscription became essential, and by the end of World War I, more than 70 million men had been drafted.

185: Counter-Reformation •

With much of Europe impacted in some way by the spread of Protestant ideas, the Roman Catholic Church launched the Catholic Reformation aimed at reforming the church, stopping the spread of Protestant ideas, and possibly winning back converts. • Assembled members of the clergy met at the Council of Trent in the mid-1500s seeking to reform the Catholic Church and to clearly define church doctrine. • New religious orders were founded and dedicated to the doctrines of the Catholic Church and the newly established reforms. • Groups such as the Society of Jesus (better known as the Jesuits) played a significant role as missionaries, helping to stop the spread of Protestant ideas and promote Catholicism across the globe. • The Roman Inquisition was given the authority to arrest, imprison, and/or excommunicate Catholics in an attempt to end heresy.

113: Feudal Monarchies •

With strong central power uniting Western Europe after the fall of Rome, regional monarchies developed in France and England. • France: Hugh Capet succeeded the Carolingians; his descendants, known as the Capetian kings, used their power and resources to systematically consolidate and expand their influence. • England: Norman dukes built a tightly knit state in which all power disseminated from them. • The papacy and Italian city-states: Bologna, Genoa, Milan, Florence, and Venice. • Maintained order, provided relatively stable and effective government, later provided impetus for ocean-going explorations.

368: Nuclear Arms Race since the Fall of Soviet Union •

With the collapse of the Soviet Union, both the United States and Russia dramatically reduced their nuclear weapons spending. • India and Pakistan, two nations with a violent history of territorial disputes, raced to develop nuclear weapons. • Today only five other nations have successfully tested nuclear weapons.

181: African Diaspora •

With the forced migration of millions of Africans to the New World, African culture spread throughout the Americas. • African traditions blended with those in the Americas, such as in the areas of storytelling and music. • Various languages spoken by the Africans were combined with European languages to create new languages or dialects.

371: Feminism •

Women make up 40 to 50 percent of workforce in industrialized societies, 20 percent in developing countries. Jobs characterized as "women's work": teaching, clerical work. • Discrimination in the workplace was the catalyst for the women's movement. Women also fought for equality in all aspects of life, including control over their own bodies (birth control, abortions). • U.S. Civil Rights Act of 1964 forbids discrimination based on sex or race. • China: Women have never gained full equality; although communist governments did grant them more rights, traditional Confucian values limit their ability to advance. • India: In the 1980s, literacy rate low among women (25 percent), with women counting for only 12 percent of the workforce.

150: Woodblock Printing and Moveable Type •

Woodblock printing was invented in China, most likely during the Tang period (618-906). • A reverse image was carved on a block of wood in order to create an entire printed page. • During the Song period (960-1279), moveable type used cast bronze tiles that each had a single character (ideographs) that allowed for the type to be moved. • Moveable type made printing cheaper and books—and thus knowledge—more accessible. • In Song China, moveable type allowed the government to print books to prepare students for the imperial civil service exams.

292: Technology of World War I •

World War I was the world's first truly modern war: new weapons revolutionized warfare. • With the use of machine guns and heavy artillery, combatants no longer charged onto the battlefield; instead, new fighting techniques were developed. Trench warfare emerged. The resulting stalemate (neither side making any significant advances) led to the development of more new weapons and strategies. • Poison gas grenades, first used by the Germans, were a great fear of soldiers in the trenches and necessitated the invention of the gas mask. • Although armored cars were used early in the war, by 1916 the British used tanks to advance against German trenches. • Aerial combat was first introduced during the war, but for the most part, planes were used for reconnaissance. • Submarine warfare was the domain of the Germans, who used U-boats to destroy British naval ships. • On the civilian front, Paris and other cities were bombed. • The new technology was deadly: Estimates of military deaths (not civilian) go as high as 10 million.

56: Hinduism •

World's oldest organized religion, originated in India. • Spoke to needs and interests of average people. • Bhagavad Gita ("Song of the Lord"), a brief poem composed by many unidentified authors, outlines what Hinduism expects of individuals and the path to salvation. • Salvation is achieved by individuals who meet responsibilities by obeying laws of their caste, not material success. • Hindu ethics: dharma—righteousness (obey religious and moral laws), artha—wealth (to uphold dharma and provide for family and society), kama—desire (take pleasure in social, physical, and sexual activities), moksha¬—salvation of the soul. • A person is reincarnated on the basis of behavior into one of the four castes (and later a fifth, untouchables). • Limited spread beyond India.

155: European Explorers

• Bartolomeu Dias, a Portuguese explorer, rounded the Cape of Good Hope on the southern tip of Africa in 1488, stopping at the Indian Ocean. • Vasco da Gama, from Portugal, rounded the Cape of Good Hope in 1497 and continued his voyage up the eastern coast of Africa, eventually making his way to India; this sea route gave Europeans access to the Asian spice market without having to cross the traditional land routes controlled by Muslims. • Christopher Columbus, searching for a western water route to the Asian markets, landed in the Caribbean and thus "discovered" the New World. • In 1521 Ferdinand Magellan became the first European to cross the Pacific Ocean.

284: Mexican Revolution: Causes

• Discontent after decades of limited social reform led Mexicans to demand change. • After Mexico gained independence from Spain in the early 1800s, it quickly fell under the control of a series of dictators. • General Porfirio Díaz ruled Mexico in the early 1900s; although he improved the economy, socially Mexico was suffering. • Mexican nationalists, including Emiliano Zapata and Pancho Villa, gained support from the peasants and together with the middle class overthrew Díaz in 1911.

94: Abbasid Dynasty

• In 750 the Umayyad dynasty ended after a rebellion in Persia led by Abu al-Abbas, who founded the Abbasid dynasty, the main source of power in the Dar al-Islam ("house of Islam"). • Abbasids, headquartered in Baghdad, allowed Muslims as well as Persians, Egyptians, and Mesopotamians to rise to positions of power and wealth. • The empire continued to grow mostly as a result of independent military forces, not military conquest, led by the caliphs. • Victory against Tang dynasty at Battle of Talas (751 C.E.) prevented China from expanding its influence westward; also led to the transfer of papermaking technology to central Asia, and later to Europe. • The Abbasid dynasty focused energy on ruling their empire, which included a variety of linguistic, cultural, religious, and ethnic groups. Trade arrangements held the empire together; trade was conducted with China, India, and sub-Saharan Africa. • Officials included ulama, religious experts, and qadis, judges; both resolved local disputes and set moral standards.