Final - Essay Questions
10. Some bioethicists argue that the sale of human organs from living donors is a "win-win" transaction with benefits to both buyers and sellers, and prohibiting the poor from selling organs is a form of paternalism. Drawing on Scheper-Hughes's article and class lecture/video, identify THREE political or economic dynamics that affect kidney sales and that should be considered in discussions about the ethics of this practice. Do you think the legalization of kidney sales would improve the lives of sellers?
**Middle men: These are the the people who buy kidneys from people and sell them to others They usually end up making the profit since only a percentage of the total sale of the kidney goes to the seller and a majority of the money goes to the middle man. Not really win-win Political dynamics Giving your kidney in exchange for "protection" from being deported Giving your kidney in exchange for a "safe passage to freedom" **Economic dynamics People selling the kidney feel like they have no other choice because they desperately need the money People who sell the kidneys are no better off than they were before Actually, they're worse off because it affects their ability to work *Long term effect makes it not worth the short term benefit Economically; the fact that the individuals who are needing the recipients are buying these kidneys are paying up to 200k for these body parts and the donors are only receiving a small portion; all this money is going to "middle man" *Once the donors receive money for donating the transplant, they are not mobile; they are not getting out of poverty; selling of kidneys is not improving their money *Money disappears quickly; and then someone else in their family is going to sell a kidney because the cycle continues *Major surgery and popertation; a lot of after care (they have to pay for it afterwards) *Something not talked about in decision making **Article also talked about cases in which political promises were made (offering visa/green cards to refugees) *Often times, men are lowering their salary, they are no longer able to lift heavy objects or participate in hard labor; diminish money overtime
8. Conklin argues that mortuary cannibalism among the Wari' was an act of compassion that expressed honor and respect for the dead. Explain how she reaches this conclusion: how is the body in this case linked to social relationships and identity? How did cannibalism perform a service for the family and please the dead?
*Act of compassion for both the dead and the family of the dead ~removes the body from sight in accordance to beliefs *Sharing in a meal together seen as culturally positive *Must be affinal kin (in-laws) otherwise eating your own bloodline is too close to eating your own body ~Seen as a way of honoring dead; reinforce family ties by doing that ~Strengthening kinship relationship within family ~Seen as a way to strengthen relationship between living and dead *Wari had negative feelings about the ground and the earth; thought of burying love one in ground (where it is cold and dirty) was more upsetting that eating someone (where they are close to you)
6. According to Brandes, Axel's father rejected the option of having his son cremated because of interrelated religious and cultural concerns. Identify and describe TWO of these concerns and explain how they illustrate the "cost" of mishandling Axel's body.
*Axel Flores ~Guatemalan who was killed in a car crash in the United States, ID'd through criminal record and cremated before sister could come to retrieve his body *Cultural concerns: the idea that cremation keeps you from entering heaven and ultimately being able to return to your body when Jesus returns to the earth The fate of the soul is thus tied to the fate of the body *Community of the dead is disrupted, as there is nothing of your prior self to visit, rupturing community/social connections between the living and the dead *Family's relationship within own status and community; fact that cremation is so stigmatized in their community, it was really hard for their family to fit in and have their son cremated ~family said that they didn't have enough money instead of saying the body was cremated *Cemeteries are urban places where people are going to; to the body itself; several ceremonies that happen in guatemala without grave sites to go to- they wouldn't be able to participate
5b. Like many religions, Christianity is a religion of the body as much as the soul. What is the significance and power of the dead body in each of the following examples? --Saints Relics
*Body pieces of saints displayed in churches across the world (Lecture 8; slide 5) *Idea: body is still retaining power after that; there is still significant religious values and guidance that this body can have ~these bodies aren't just anybody; these people are the holiest people in catholic religion
9. According to Sharp, how does the category of "brain death" reveal Western assumptions about the relationship between the mind/person and brain/body? Book: Strange Harvest by Leslie Sharp
*Brain death: is the complete and irreversible loss of brain function (including involuntary activity necessary to sustain life) *Sharp argues that even though the patient is technically brain dead, the mind/person still resides in the body. *Evidence shows that brain dead patients have cried and sometimes moved. *Scientist argue that if the patient is brain dead then they are clinically dead *But others argue that brain dead patients may still be alive even though they are not responding. ->Death as a cultural determination of a biological event that has social as well as medical meaning Dying as a process? Or as an event? ->Is bodily death the same as social death? Or is brain death the same? *Brain death creates bodies without persons *Revisiting personhood and the Western placement of the self in the mind *Important to note: brain death is never zero brain activity, it's simply a cultural distinction *Ties back to things really early in the course; west thinks of mind as resolving in brain; as locus of thought and being able to participate in society; to think about concept of brain death; it categorizes death; brain doesn't function; we see brain and mind as being a key part of functioning in society *Brain death: body itself is not death; body is sustained by respirator; has heart beat, body is responding; but because we put so much value and locus on the mind, that is the acceptability of what is alive; once brain is dead, we think that the person can't contribute to society anymore *BOOK: Some doctors were mean about it; other people still use name of the person *Medically, that has been accepted at this time, has become a cultural expectation of what death is, complicated nature of why we still use anesthesia *WHY: Relaxes the body; and also for peace of mind of doctors; because they are only brain dead, their bodies are not shut off; their bodies might move and twitch; also meant to relax the body so when doctors are performing, they don't feel as if they are operating on someone alive
5c. Like many religions, Christianity is a religion of the body as much as the soul. What is the significance and power of the dead body in each of the following examples? --Ossuaries
*Churches with bones built directly into the architecture in some way *Used when graveyards are dug up for construction or something along the same lines *Catholicism does not allow for bodies to be buried in ground that is not holy, so the bones are relocated and used as the very foundation of the churches themselves LITERALLY building a faith on the bones of the dead
1. What is commodification?
*Commodification is the idea of creating economic relevance to something that has not been thought of in economic terms. Commodification of the human body is putting value on an individual or their physical body parts. *For example, slavery and human trafficking recognizes people in a supply and demand basis. Humans are bought and sold in an illegal market of trade. People who are trafficked are considered "property" of someone. Another example is adoption. Different prices are associated with child's gender, health, and race. By doing so, it commodifies children in an economic market. Both examples illustrate how the buying and selling of humans raise ethical issues of dehumanization. It strips away their value as a human being and becomes nothing more than an object of price.
11. Sharp argues that organ transplantation has resulted in new ways of thinking about one's own body and one's social relations. Using specific ethnographic examples from Strange Harvest, discuss how those involved in organ transplantation reconceptualize their bodies and relationships. How do organ recipients conceptualize their new organs? What new forms of kinship develop in this practice? Strange Harvest
*Increased contact = fictive kinship ties are created between donor families and organ recipients *Natural intimacy of blood ties negates the strangeness of the hybrid body *Ghost Stories: examples from recipients *Sharp talks about stories in relation to donor families; ~eerie comforting moments of signs from loved ones ~cases of people starting to like foods of the person donating ~Gift narrative of organ donation ~the way that these body parts are given as a gift; donor recipients are generally emotional and they should focus on positive ~even though they have gone through difficult process, they still have to go through pain ~part of misconceptualization of organs, people think it belongs to someone ~speaks to idea that organs belong to other people *Sharp talks about fictive kinship ~new kinship relationships that form ~incorporation of other people that is kin ~who has no relation to you by marriage or blood ~moms of donors that a lot of people want to be in contact with these individuals to form new relationships to have ->Example: bride walking down with her father's heart recipient *Family's grieving as something good *Organs coming out of these transplantations are traumatic *Losses of the families was not anticipated ~families have to make quick decisions about their family member's body *Organs was able to do some good in someone else's life ->Example: mom lost her baby early on and they took bay's heart and took it in body of other child; ->form relationship with that mother; talks about complicated nature of relationship; it's not her child so she can't parent them
7. Hsu (and anthropologist Alexei Yurchak) highlight the ways in which the preservation of Lenin's body focuses on preserving physical form but not necessarily biological matter. What do they mean by this? What is the link between the symbolic body and material body in this example?
*Lenin as the embodiment of an ideal, a form of keeping past power alive *His body became more of an art form than a physical entity *Not focused on maintaining the biology (his body is more plastic than biological material at this point), but more so the presentation of his body to the public *Symbolism of how he lived and when he died *Article talks about ways that LENIN'S body is in display; that the preservation of his body at this point in time is mostly not his biological matter anymore; they used so many chemicals to preserve and different scientific embalming; artificial eyelashes and makeup; all these components to make him look alive and preserved; but not so much about his biological matter; part of it is Lenin's body serves as a symbol for the Russian people; bodily display as leninism as a world view; who he stood for as a soviet power; the advances of russian science; what they are able to accomplish in terms of preserving the body Body = statue
5a. Like many religions, Christianity is a religion of the body as much as the soul. What is the significance and power of the dead body in each of the following examples? --Resurrection and the story of Christ
*Need a physical body for the soul to return to once resurrected on judgement day *Story about Axel: body was accidentally cremated, the shame the family felt for not having a body to return home with was so incredible that they would rather claim they couldn't afford to move the body than to say it had been cremated
4a. Trophy-taking has been a common aspect of combat both historically and cross-culturally. For each of the following examples, discuss the symbolic and social significance of the enemy body. Why were these body parts taken? How did trophy-taking fit in with other understandings of warfare and the relationships between combatants? --Scalping in US "Indian Wars"
*Offered money to collect the scalps of natives, turned killing humans into a sport for profit *Turned natives into little more than a dehumanized target for commodification, they were worth more to the settlers dead than alive *Connection between people in US (white men in particular) in their battles with American indians, scalping was part of process, and taking indian body parts (usually skull and head) there was a value and curiosity put on native american bones and skull ~you would see them a lot in museums (would have them on display)
4c. Trophy-taking has been a common aspect of combat both historically and cross-culturally. For each of the following examples, discuss the symbolic and social significance of the enemy body. Why were these body parts taken? How did trophy-taking fit in with other understandings of warfare and the relationships between combatants? --Collection of Japanese skulls by US soldiers in WWII
*Often taken as souvenirs, sometimes sent to sweethearts back home as gifts. *Connection of symbolic associations of war and hunting *Viewing dead bodies as little more than animals *Perceived demand for Japanese remains, officially unallowed but still happened frequently *Trophy taking as a social practice: very systematic, not isolated act of "primitive" nature *Racialized aspect of war; they used enemy body parts as trophies, by doing that it was connected to associations of war and hunting; using enemies as prizes to be won; in a way that it wasn't seen as when american soldiers were fighting against white soldiers germany) *Dehumanizing; making japanese animals and enemies that were a part of US anti japanese sentiment -US involvement in WW2 was because japanese attacked pearl harbor
13. This course has explored the human body as a product of both biology and culture. Using at least THREE specific examples from course readings, films, or discussions, explain what anthropologists mean by that. How do culture and biology interact in each of these examples? ***EMILY SAID THIS WILL MOST LIKELY BE ON TEST
*Product of biology ~Organ donation ~Environmental changes *Product of Culture ~Learning ways to walk and sit ~The way we see color ~Different body modifications (piercings, tattoos, genital cutting) ~The way we view the body (metaphors, replaceable parts, amount and placement of soul(s)) *Bodies as a product of society, nature, etc ~Views on death and life ~Ethics of brain death and organ transplantation ~Differences of interpersonal connections formed through death of loved ones (grieving and celebrating in the form of Wari' cannibalism vs. Guatemalan burial, for instance)
4b. Trophy-taking has been a common aspect of combat both historically and cross-culturally. For each of the following examples, discuss the symbolic and social significance of the enemy body. Why were these body parts taken? How did trophy-taking fit in with other understandings of warfare and the relationships between combatants? --Shuar shrunken heads
*Seen as an act of respect towards the dead *Fear of the spirit of vengeance (called the muisak arutam) which would escape through the mouth, which is why the mouths of shrunken heads are sewn shut. *Shrunken heads had multiple spirits; why they shrunk the heads was a way of avenging; to neutralize avenging spirits *To warn off enemies; ~was not a trophy taking aspect ~it was not to be on display
Choose THREE of the following examples and briefly discuss how each is a form of the commodification of human bodies. --Slavery and human trafficking --Professional athletics --Bride price/bride service --Adoption
*Slavery + Human Trafficking: Purchasing and "ownership" of another human being. Valuing their bodies for labor and nothing else, dehumanizes the individual to nothing more than an object to be bartered for. *Pro athletes: bodies are insured, bought out from other teams, value is placed in their ability to perform well *Bride price: the husband-to-be purchases his bride from the bride's father in a sort of opposite dowry *Adoption: certain kinds of children are more expensive to adopt than others, commodifying their ages, races, and health
3. According to Desmond, how are dead bodies made anonymous in the exhibition of plastinated cadavers? What is the effect or significance of this anonymity?
*The lack of "individuality" results in the idea of universalism ~In doing so, it makes it seem like there is an ideal body *Dead bodies are made anonymous in the exhibition of plastinated cadavers by removal of the skin. The removal of the skin creates anonymity, which makes it more acceptable to display as entertainment. ~By making the body anonymous and unidentifiable, it makes the exhibit justifiable so people become desensitized to its sentimental value. ~People will less likely ask "Who is this" or "Whose family does this body belong to?". *Skin is removed (removal of the identity): can't tell age, nationality *Exhibit does not provide information on where these people came from
12. New biomedical technologies like cadaveric and living organ transplantation, xenotransplantation, and artificial prostheses blur boundaries that are often taken for granted: boundaries between self/other, life/death, human/animal, human/machine, body/person, and natural/unnatural processes. Choose THREE technologies discussed in this course and, using specific examples from course readings, films, or, discuss how each of these technologies has the potential to transform or challenge at least one of these boundaries.
*human/machine: the notion that parts are interchangeable like those of a machine, belief that you can just replace parts of the body *life/death: the idea of when are we truly dead? Is it when we are brain dead? Our heart stops beating? *Xenotransplantation: challenges boundary between human and animal because it was cultures in animal but morphology is human -Idea of using pig heart or using science to blur DNA of human cells -Blurring human/animal boundaries -Some people think it's unnatural ***MOUSE/Ear transplantation does NOT count as xenotransplantation ----Mouse is harboring it, but not mouse's DNA *POINT: People have different feelings about it; there are people (doctors, scientist) want to push for idea of developing xenotransplantation ~more natural transition, whereas public (humans) are uncomfortable with idea ~it is disturbing to think about animal organs being in a human body, much more comfortable with machine ~Artificial prostheses: mechanical prosthesis blur boundaries between human and machines *Advent of immunosuppressive drugs allows more organs to be transplanted: blurs lines of self and others, because biomedically it suppresses immune system *POINT: Focus on new technologies; think about HOW it blurs or challenges these dycotamies ~Organ transplantations: ---How long life goes and when does death occur ---Are we looking at mortality? Or making people more comfortable? ~Cyborgs ---Human machines
2a. Choose TWO of the following examples and discuss how they illustrate the dehumanization or fetishization of black bodies and lives. Biomedical Training
--Biomedical training and experimentation (e.g., Washington reading) First chapter talks about how black bodies were used when they were alive; second chapter talks about how even in death; they were still used *First chapter, slaves in particular were often used for medical experimentation in medical schools as they were training students; common thing that medical students and doctors would advertise to slave owners to get them to come; so doctor can operate; often times in front of an audience; it was no cost to slave owner (win win situation for them); these are individuals, due to slavery had NO say; they could NOT refuse *POINT: Emphasize racial difference; to show that black bodies were different *Common stereotypes: black bodies don't feel pain; racial justification that was used to form different types of surgeries and experimentation *Second chapter talks about grave robbing; there were people and medical professions that would steal black bodies from graveyards to use them as cadavers for medical school; people were killed to sell their bodies → for the same reason
2b. Choose TWO of the following examples and discuss how they illustrate the dehumanization or fetishization of black bodies and lives. Display of black bodies for edutainments
--Display of black bodies for "edutainment" *How we see examples like ota benga and sara bartman (black bodies who were thought to be different) ways that their bodies were put on display as a form of education; ~show history of civilizations; ~show ideas of racial difference; spectacle -- entertainment. ~Display of entertainment; ~in washington article; *when slaves or other black people were used for medical training, there was usually an audience, you had people that were interested in learning surgeries; ~you might also have people in the room that was there just for entertainment *Key word: spectacle
2c. Choose TWO of the following examples and discuss how they illustrate the dehumanization or fetishization of black bodies and lives. Lynching in the US
--Lynching in the US *Lynching is a public form of execution without legal authorization (usually enforced with a large crowd). *Lynching was mainly targeted towards African Americans as an object of warning- enforcing white supremacy around the 1800s. It was a violent ritual mainly consisted of mutilation, torture, and other hostile activities. *Lynching dehumanizes black bodies and lives by treating them like animals. Black bodies who were lynched were hung, shot, disrespected, beaten, etc. Bodies were treated with a range of hostile activity that no human should ever experience. Thus, these bodies were dehumanized and treated like animals or objects- without respect. *Body parts as souvenirs (in turn, as contraband), gave it meaning, sought to commodify the body during a time when social rights and property ownership for African Americans was increasing ~"the spectacle becomes materiality" ~"Lynching objectified the body, lynching souvenirs commodified it" *Fear of progress *As a fetish: power from materiality *Condenses multiple meanings into one object commodification through ~"authentication of the acts ~acts as a sick form of "community making" between people viewing the lynchings
What purpose has this dehumanization played in an antiblack society?
It was a warning to the audience to not challenge the racial order, and an empowerment to the community who took part in these acts.
