Final Exam Study Quiz Questions
Though human behavior conforms to the predictions of PI theory, it also deviates from those predictions in important ways. In particular, women compete over access to men and men are choosy about their partners, outcomes that are not observed in most other species. What is different about humans that might have provided the circumstances for these novel behaviors to evolve? A) Humans are particularly long-lived, and those longer lives open up new possibilities for mating systems. B) Humans engage in long term pair bonding, and those lasting relationships impose an additional layer of selection pressures that favor unique mating strategies. C) Humans are hyper-social creatures, and as such, they have many more partner options than other species, which creates a different type of mating market.
B) Humans engage in long-term pair bonding, and those lasting relationships impose an additional layer of selection pressures that favor unique mating strategies.
In organisms that are solitary, RHP is purely a function of their formidability (their ability to inflict costs on other individuals, usually by fighting). In group-living organism, RHP is more complex. Why? a. Organisms in group-living species never engage in direct physical conflicts, so their RHP is entirely a function of the prestige their peers afford them b. Organisms in group-living species can mobilize their allies to help them in conflicts, so their RHP is a function of the formidability of their social network c. Organisms in group-living species live in more complex ecological niches, and as such formidability is also a function of their ability to exploit the environment
B) Organisms in group-living species can mobilize their allies to help them in conflicts, so their RHP is a function of the formidability of their social network
Parental investment (PI) theory posits that the higher investing sex and lower investing sex should experience different selection pressures around reproduction, which should in turn make a different set of behaviors fitness-enhancing for each one. What types of behaviors does the higher investing sex engage in that are likely to be fitness enhancing? Choice: A) Engaging in ornate behavioral displays designed to attract the attention of organisms of the opposite sex. B) Pursue as many mating opportunities as possible, competing over them if necessary. C) Being choosy about potential mating partners to secure the best genes for potential offspring.
C) Being choosy about potential mating partners to secure the best genes for potential offspring.
Though there are a number of plausible selection pressures that may have favored the evolution of sexual reproduction, Cronin focuses on two in particular: the ability to clear out mutations that have accumulated in the genome and the ability to construct new immune systems for each generation. How does sexual reproduction manifest these benefits? Choice: A) Sexual reproduction triggers DNA repair mechanisms that clean up any damaged codons or suboptimal immune system genes. B) The parent with higher fitness - and therefore fewer mutations and better immune genes - contributes more DNA to offspring, thus creating higher quality offspring. C) Sexual reproduction scrambles genetic material for each generation, which both weeds out mutations and creates novel combinations of immune genes.
C) Sexual reproduction scrambles genetic material for each generation, which both weeds out mutations and creates novel combinations of immune genes.
Human behavior conforms to the predictions of parental investment theories in a variety of ways, from relationship initiation to sexual fantasy. Given this alignment with the PI theory, which of the following sex differences would be most surprising? Choices: A) Women report much less enthusiasm than men about using dating apps designed to facilitate hook-ups (sexual relationships between strangers) B) Women report more interest than men in romance novels that focus on deep emotional connections between characters. C) Women report more interest than men in dating a wide variety of relationship, partners, often simultaneously.
C) Women report more interest than men in dating a wide variety of relationship partners, often simultaneously.
There are likely two major sex differences in the operation of relationship jealousy mechanisms. One is that men and women may respond differently to different type of infidelity (sexual vs. emotional). Which of the following best describes sex differences in patterns of distress? a. Women are more distressed by emotional infidelity and men are more distressed by sexual infidelity b. Women are more distressed by sexual infidelity and men are more distressed by emotional infidelity c. Women and men are equally distressed by sexual infidelity, but women are deferentially more distressed by emotional infidelity
a) Women are more distressed by emotional infidelity and men are more distressed by sexual infidelity
In real-world scenarios, we must rely on cues to extrapolate the coalitional membership of others. This is a complex problem, as coalitions can be both temporary and fluid. Sometimes, we can rely on explicit clues about coalitional membership (e.g., uniforms) to make judgments, but other times we much rely on implicit cues. Which of the following is the likely to be the WEAKEST implicit cue to coalitional membership? Select one: a. A common language (e.g., English) b. A shared set of beliefs about the world, especially around what is 'good' and 'bad' for an individual c. Shared activities and close physical proximity
a. A common language (e.g., English)
One interesting explanation for self-esteem is that it might be designed to track our ability to mobilize support from our social network (the sociometer theory of self-esteem). This explanation for self-esteem is powerful because it provides an ultimate explanation for why self-esteem might be linked to behavior. Which of the following best captures this argument? a. Individuals with robust social support can afford to be more confident - and take more chances - because they can mobilize resources to help them buffer the costs of failure b. Individuals with more social support score higher on tests of intelligence because they are exposed to more diverse perspectives c. Individuals with higher levels of social support are happier than those with lower support because they receive so much validation from their friend groups
a. Individuals with robust social support can afford to be more confident - and take more chances - because they can mobilize resources to help them buffer the costs of failure
Our kin-estimation systems do not have access to our actual degree of relatedness to others but must instead rely on cues that were probabilistically associated with kinship in our EEA. Though there are likely to be many such cues, the most powerful are typically present only in very close kin: coresidence (the amount of time you lived with someone growing up) and maternal perinatal association (seeing your mother care for another child). How do these cues interact in calibrating perceived kinship? a. Maternal perinatal association is more powerful than coresidence, and therefore provides a better index of relatedness b. Coresidence is more powerful than maternal perinatal association, and therefore provides a better index of relatedness c. Maternal perinatal association is only valuable when coresidence is absent, and so only serves as an index of relatedness when there is no shared residence
a. Maternal perinatal association is more powerful than coresidence, and therefore provides a better index of relatedness
Bloom argues that stereotyping is really just a very specific type of categorization, which he argues is critical to effective functioning in the world. Which of the following best summarizes his reasoning for this argument? Select one: a. Stereotyping helps us make predictions about novel things/people in the world by assuming they are similar to things/people we already know about b. Stereotyping will produce more accurate inferences than others methods of inference because it draws conclusions based on the behavior of large groups of people rather than individuals c. Stereotyping is much more cognitively (and therefore energetically) efficient, so it leads to greater fitness relative to less efficient patterns of thought
a. Stereotyping helps us make predictions about novel things/people in the world by assuming they are similar to things/people we already know about
The WTR approach suggests that it is not just how someone treats you in any particular situation that indicates their WTR, but rather how much they benefit from the actions that they take. Which of the following scenarios would describe a behavior from someone who holds a HIGH WTR towards you? Select one: a. The action imposes a modest cost on you, but produces a large benefit to the other person b. The action imposes a modest cost on you, but generates a small benefit to the other person c. The action imposes a large cost on you, but generates a small benefit to the other person
a. The action imposes a modest cost on you, but produces a large benefit to the other person.
One of the most exciting conclusions that follows from an understanding of coalitional psychology is that the concept of race - which most psychological theories argue is automatically and unavoidably processed - is actually just one input into a system designed to identify patterns of real-world cooperation. What evidence supports this claim? Select one: a. When racial information is presented alongside more concrete cues to coalition membership - like clothing - racial encoding is decreased b. When racial information is presented alongside other cues relevant for person perception - like gender - racial encoding is decreased c. When racial information is presented alongside other cues relevant for alliance tracking - like uniforms - racial encoding is increased
a. When racial information is presented alongside more concrete cues to coalition membership - like clothing - racial encoding is decreased
There is a fundamental asymmetry in the level of certainty a parent has that a child is their own; men can never be completely certain that a child shares their genes, while women can always be certain of that relationship. This 'paternity uncertainty' may have led men to activate lower levels of parental investment than women, a reduction that would manifest every time a family relationship flowed through a man rather than a woman. Given this phenomenon, which of the following individuals would you predict would mobilize the greatest level of investment toward you. a. Your maternal great-grandmother (your mother's maternal grandmother) b. Your paternal great-grandfather (your mother's maternal grandfather) c. Your paternal great-grandmother (your father's maternal grandmother)
a. Your maternal great-grandmother (your mother's maternal grandmother)
If you only consider degree of relatedness, identical twins should value the welfare of their twins exactly as much as they value their own welfare. That is, altruistic genes should act to produce benefits for twins just as much as for the self. Empirical data does not bear out this prediction; even identical twins act in ways that prioritize their own welfare over that of their twin. What explanation does Dawkins offer to explain this finding? a. Even identical twins cannot be absolutely certain about how their twin will behave, so they may inadvertently put them in situations that negatively impact their fitness without even realizing it b. Even people who think that they are twins cannot be absolutely certain of it, and so they should treat their twins a little worse than themselves c. It is not possible to consistently make decisions that prioritize the welfare of another person, and so the finding is simply the result of an ecological constraint
b) Even people who think that they are twins cannot be absolutely certain of it, and so they should treat their twins a little worse than themselves
When mate preference mechanisms are evaluating whether a potential romantic partner represents a good 'fit' for you, they index the mate value of that partner and the search costs associated with trying to find someone better than that partner. These values are combined in an algorithm that determines whether you should feel motivated to pursue the partner or try to find someone else (i.e., whether you feel attracted to the potential partner or not). Which of the following best captures the operation of this algorithm? a. If the mate value of your potential partner is high but the search costs of finding someone better are low, then continue to search (do not pursue this partner). b. If the mate value of your potential partner is high and the search costs of finding someone better are also high, then be satisfied with that partner. c. If the mate value of your potential partner is low and the search costs for finding someone better are low, then continue to search (do not pursue this partner).
b) If the mate value of your potential partner is high and the search costs of finding someone better are also high, then be satisfied with that partner.
The positional bias is one of the suite of mechanisms that have likely evolved to help humans navigate social networks; it suggests that - once minimal survival needs are met - humans are particularly sensitive to their status relative to their peers rather than their absolute position. Which of the following best describes this bias? a. People prefer the nicest or newest products (the absolute best available) no matter what other people have b. People prefer to have products that are nicer or newer than their peers, even if they aren't the absolute best available c. People generally prefer to have products that are equivalent to their peers, whether they are nice and new or older and less expensive
b) People prefer to have products that are nicer or newer than their peers, even if they aren't the absolute best available
Besides degree of relatedness, Dawkins points out that "expectation of life" is another input that should be relevant in computational systems designed to mobilize altruistic behavior. For instance - you are exactly as related to your children as you are to your parents, but you are much more likely to mobilize altruistic behavior towards your children because they have much more of their lives ahead of them. He then goes on to correct this terminology in an important way. What best characterizes the correction he suggests? a. "Expectation of life" is really about the number of *adult years* an organism can expect, as adults have a much greater ability to control their environment than either the very old or very young b. "Expectation of life" is really about the organism's ability to provide *any type of benefits* to the gene engaging the altruism, so it is not necessarily about survival at all c. "Expectation of life" is really about the likelihood of surviving childhood, as most mortality in the EEA occurred very early in life
b. "Expectation of life" is really about the organism's ability to provide *any type of benefits* to the gene engaging the altruism, so it is not necessarily about survival at all.
Gratitude should be activated when the WTR be observe from another individual exceeds the WTR we expect from that individual. Given this adaptive logic, which of the following scenarios would be *most* likely to activate gratitude? Select one: a. Your parents work overtime at their jobs so they can help you pay for college b. After buying a new car, your cousin gives you his old car so that you have a way to get to school c. Your brother skips his vacation this year and uses the money to help you pay rent
b. After buying a new car, your cousin gives you his old car so that you have a way to get to school
Which of the following best describes the core function of the anger system? Select one: a. To allow for the release of pent-up aggression so that it does not interfere with cooperative relationships b. Bargaining tool designed to resolve conflicts in favor of the angry individual c. Suppress systems associated with empathy that would otherwise interfere with inflicting costs on others
b. Bargaining tool designed to resolve conflicts in favor of the angry individual
The Banker's Paradox is a phenomenon named after circumstances often confronted by financial institutions: people who are most likely to pay back loans are those who need them the least (and the reverse - those who most need the loans are at the biggest risk of not being able to pay them back). This paradox plagues friendships as well - those who would benefit the most from the benefits of friendship are often in the worst position to pay back those benefits. Which of the following is an example of how humans may reduce the likelihood of abandonment in friendships even when they are in a poor position to 'pay back' such friendship? Select one: a. By establishing friendships only with individuals who already have lots of friends, and so may be more likely to fulfill their social obligations b. By becoming irreplaceable to some of their friends by cultivating unique skills or delivering valued benefits c. By cultivating lots of friends so that - even in many of them *do* abandon their relationships - a few are likely to remain
b. By becoming irreplaceable to some of their friends by cultivating unique skills or delivering valued benefits
When coalitions provide automatic benefits to their members (that is, every member of the coalition can access the benefits freely), they are much more likely to be the targets of free riders. What mechanism might have evolved to discourage free riders from joining such coalitions? Select one: a. Obvious signals that advertise membership in the coalition to others (e.g., uniforms) b. Demanding hazing rituals that create an upfront 'cost' for joining the coalition c. Discouraging signals that advertise membership in the coalition to others (e.g., making membership secretive)
b. Demanding hazing rituals that create an upfront 'cost' for joining the coalition
During normal fetal development (absent pathologies), how might you expect maternal and paternal genes to operate differently? Select one: a. Maternal genes should promote larger offspring; paternal genes smaller offspring b. Maternal genes should promote smaller offspring; paternal growth larger offspring c. Both maternal and paternal genes should be 'in agreement' in promoting larger offspring
b. Maternal genes should promote smaller offspring; paternal growth larger offspring
One indirect way to test whether humans possess cheater-detection mechanisms that 'flag' individuals as potential cheaters (compared to cooperators) is to use techniques designed to evaluate memory, like the 'who said what' paradigm. In these tests, participants see several statements about different individuals that indicate they are either cheaters or cooperators, then have a surprise memory test. What pattern of results is associated with the presence of a cheater-detection system? Select one: a. Participants are more accurate in recalling the faces of people who are cooperators than those who are cheaters b. Participants more often confuse cooperators for other cooperators and cheaters for other cheaters c. Participants are more accurate in recalling the faces of people who are cheaters than those who are cooperators
b. Participants more often confuse cooperators for other cooperators and cheaters for other cheaters
One way that friends can be uniquely valuable is that they possess valuable skills or have access to resources that would be difficult to acquire from other people. What is the other primary route to value in friends? Select one: a. Being strongly embedded in your own social network, such that they are also friends with your other friends b. Possessing detailed knowledge of your preferences and abilities such that they can represent your best interests even when you are absent c. Being very similar to you, such that they share the same strengths and weaknesses, beliefs and desires
b. Possessing detailed knowledge of your preferences and abilities such that they can represent your best interests even when you are absent
While cooperation simulations are very useful in studying the conditions necessary for the evolution of cooperation, they are often very simplified; as such, they do not capture many of the inputs that likely govern cooperative decisions in the real world. One example is the potential value of a cooperation partner - some people might be able to provide more benefits in cooperative relationships, and thus be more desirable partners. What would you expect to happen when cooperation systems encounter one of these 'high-value' cooperation partners? Select one: a. No change; your relationship standards (the degree to which you trust the individual) should be identical for all possible partners b. Relax the standards needed to try and form a relationship (that is, be more trusting of the person) c. Increase the standards needed to try and form a relationship (that is, be less trusting of the person)
b. Relax the standards needed to try and form a relationship (that is, be more trusting of the person)
You might expect to have a high towards family members and close friends. But you might also have a high WTR towards people who you do not know very well. Why? Select one: a. You should have a high WTR towards other people who seem to be in need of greater levels of social support, as they benefit more from altruistic acts b. You should generally have a high WTR towards people you do not know yet, only adjusting it downwards after you learn more about them c. Some people may be in a position to inflict particularly heavy costs on you, so you hold a high WTR towards them to reduce the chance that they do so.
c. Some people may be in a position to inflict particularly heavy costs on you, so you hold a high WTR towards them to reduce the chance that they do so.
The prisoner's dilemma involves two players each making an independent choice about whether to cooperate with each other or to defect. Depending on the combination of choices made by the players, a different set of payoffs are realized; some benefit one player at the expense of the other, some reward both players, and some punish both players. What best describes the reason that this game is called a 'dilemma'? Select one: a. The first player to make a decision gets a larger payout, but the second player has more information available when making their choice b. It is impossible to make optimal decisions because of the uncertainty around the behavior of the other player c. The best option for *both* players is to defect on each other, even though they would be better off if they both cooperated
c. The best option for *both* players is to defect on each other, even though they would be better off if they both cooperated
The robust evidence showing that children in families with at least one stepparent experience neglect and abuse at much higher rates than those found in families where both biological parents are present. This difference remains even when controlling for other factors that have been associated with abuse, like socio-economic status and family size. What does this data suggest about the ultimate explanation for child abuse? a. Child abuse must be the result of a by-product of parental love systems that simply aren't activated strong towards non-related children b. Child abuse must be the product of an adaptation designed to reduce investment in non-related children c. The data is inconclusive; child abuse could be the product of a specific adaptation, or a by-product of an adaptation designed to regulate parental affection
c. The data is inconclusive; child abuse could be the product of a specific adaptation, or a by-product of an adaptation designed to regulate parental affection
It was argued that men's mate preferences have been shaped by natural selection such that judgments about physical attractiveness of women might actually be tracking cues associated with reproductive value; women who are higher in reproductive value are perceived to be more physically attractive. While this mapping should be accurate in ancestral environments, there are a number of factors that might obscure (conceal) it in modern environments. Which of the following is NOT an example of one of these factors? a. Cultural standards of beauty that prize youthfulness in women, especially when considering them as romantic partners b. The widespread use of filters and Photoshopping techniques used to touch up women's photographs c. The use of body-shaping undergarments to hide or accentuate different parts of women's bodies
A) Cultural standards of beauty that prize youthfulness in women, especially when considering them as romantic partners.
Like other adaptations, mechanisms that govern conflict in organisms should be designed to be fitness-enhancing; in the case of conflict, this means they should be designed to weigh the benefits of winning conflicts against the costs associated with engaging in those contests. These tradeoffs generally favor what type of conflict resolution between organisms? a. Resolving conflicts with a minimal amount of actual fighting, mostly relying on behavioral displays to 'decide' the winner b. Escalating conflict to the highest (deadliest) level to maximize the changes of getting the benefits associated with winning c. Avoiding conflicts entirely to fully eliminate any costs that might be incurred in fights
A) Resolving conflicts with a minimal amount of actual fighting, mostly relying on behavioral displays to 'decide' the winner
Both men and women judge faces that are symmetrical to be more attractive than faces that are asymmetrical. What is the adaptive logic behind this preference? a. Symmetry is an indirect marker for health, as it serves as a 'road map' for an individual's history of disease b. Symmetry is attractive because we have an inherent preference for order (and a dislike of disorder), and it activates the same mechanisms c. Symmetry is attractive because most of the images of we are exposed to in the media (and on social media) have been altered to appear more symmetrical, so it seems more familiar
A) Symmetry is an indirect marker for health, as it serves as a 'road map' for an individual's history of disease
Women's preferences for cues associated with testosterone (or masculinity) may be because these features are indicative of 'good genes' - genes that produce phenotypes that are more efficient at producing fitness-enhancing outcomes. What is the ultimate explanation for the link between testosterone and genetic quality? a. Testosterone directs energy to muscle tissue; only men with efficient genes would have enough energy to allow this and not compromise their fitness b. Testosterone acts to enhance DNA repair mechanisms, which in turn reduce the number of deleterious recessive genes and increase the fitness of the individual's phenotype c. Testosterone changes neural circuits in ways that increase aggressiveness, which is in turn associated with higher status; status is the ultimate outcome associated with good genes
A) Testosterone directs energy to muscle tissue; only men with efficient genes would have enough energy to allow this a not compromise their fitness.
Though there are sex-specific selection pressures that have shaped the mate preferences of men and women in different ways, there are also some selection pressures - likely arising from long term pair bonding - that have shaped preferences in similar ways. What preferences are argued to be shared between men and women? a. A preference for cues of high fertility b. A preference for cues associated with being a good cooperation partner c. A preference for cues associated with the ability to provide investment
B) A preference for cues associated with being a good cooperation partner
The behavioral systems that are activated by relationship jealousy are designed to protect the existing relationship. Some of these behaviors may seem paradoxical because they inflict harm on the partner, such as undermining their self-esteem. How might reducing the self-esteem (SE) of a partner serve to protect the pair-bond? a. Decreasing the SE of your partner make is harder for them to hide cues associated with infidelity, thereby allowing your infidelity-detection to minimize the frequency of misses b. Decreasing the SE of your partner reduces their other relationship options, so they should value you (and the relationship) more c. Decreasing the SE of your partner makes you feel better about yourself, which in turn makes you more confident and more desirable as a partner
B) Decreasing the SE of your partner reduces their other relationship options, so they should value you (and the relationship) more
A limited body of research suggests that men and women differ in their thresholds for perceiving sexual interest in potential partners (how interested the other person is in having a sexual relationship). Men tend to *overperceive* the interest of potential partners (i.e., women are less interested in pursuing sexual relationships than men perceive them to be. How does error-management theory explain this pattern? a. The costs of a lost sexual opportunity (miss) are lower than the costs associated with wasting some courtship effort (false alarm), so perceptual systems are calibrated to have lots of false alarms and few misses b. The costs of a lost sexual opportunity (miss) are lower than the costs associated with wasting some courtship effort (false alarm), so perceptual systems are calibrated to have few false alarms and lots of misses c. The costs of a lost sexual opportunity (miss) are higher than the costs associated with wasting some courtship effort (false alarm), so perceptual systems are calibrated to have lots of false alarms and few misses
c) The costs of a lost sexual opportunity (miss) are higher than the costs associated with wasting some courtship effort (false alarm), so perceptual systems are calibrated to have lots of false alarms and few misses
Though friendships seem to provide clear opportunities for reciprocal altruism, research suggests that friends who engage in explicit 'bookkeeping' about the exchange of favors are rated as less close than those who do not keep track. An alternative to reciprocal altruism is that the exchange of positive externalities may drive friendships. What is a positive externality? Select one: a. A benefit that is unexpected and therefore cannot be anticipated or predicted b. A benefit generated for someone else at great cost to the self c. A benefit generated for someone else at very little cost to the self
c. A benefit generated for someone else at very little cost to the self
Though we often use the term 'altruism' to describe an act where one organism generates a benefit for another without getting something in return, the reality is that altruistic acts almost always produce *some* type of benefit for the organism engaging in the altruism. Often, the benefit conferred on the altruistic organism is of a different type than the benefit conferred to the target of the altruism (and results in 'gains from trade'). Which of the following is *NOT* an example of this phenomenon? Select one: a. A person displays generosity by hosting free dinners for members of the community, and as a result gains status and prestige b. A person donates time and money to a charitable organization and is elevated to a position on its board of directors c. A person writes their will such that a significant portion of their estate will go to a soup kitchen, which will use the money to feed the homeless
c. A person writes their will such that a significant portion of their estate will go to a soup kitchen, which will use the money to feed the homeless
The most efficient description of how inclusive fitness operates is Hamilton's Rule, which states that an altruistic behavior should be activated when the benefit to the target - adjusted by the degree of relatedness between the target and the altruistic individual - outweighs the costs of the behavior. Given the logic of Hamilton's Rule, which of the following would be most surprising (that is, most unlikely)? a. An individual making a large sacrifice to benefit their child b. An individual making a large sacrifice to benefit lots of nieces and nephews c. An individual making a large sacrifice to benefit their cousin
c. An individual making a large sacrifice to benefit their cousin
For nice (or cooperative) strategies to emerge in a population, a critical mass of other 'nice' strategies is required so that they can generate mutually beneficial outcomes for each other. In simulations, this is controlled by the experimenter, either by setting the number of each strategy that is present or artificially deciding which strategies get to 'interact' with each other. How might this type of clustering have occurred in the real world? Select one: a. Environmental factors might have recalibrated a large number of nearby strategies to be more cooperative b. Bacterial genes may have spread in a contagious fashion within a geographic region and caused an increase in cooperative behaviors c. Because kin are likely to share 'nice' genes and are likely to live in close proximity
c. Because kin are likely to share 'nice' genes and are likely to live in close proximity
Mechanisms designed to assess friendship (and our level of social support) must be designed to distinguish 'fair-weather friends' who are unlikely to provide support in times of need, from 'true friends' who are likely to provide such support. Why might modern environments make this distinction more difficult than ancestral environments? Select one: a. Modern environments provide us with much more comprehensive ways to interact with our friends (e.g., phone calls, social media), so very few of our friends will be 'fair-weather' b. Modern environments provide us with so many friend options that we can make sure we target only true friends as cooperation partners c. Modern environments are characterized by more institutional support, so we have fewer opportunities to see how our friends react when we are in need
c. Modern environments are characterized by more institutional support, so we have fewer opportunities to see how our friends react when we are in need
One of the most surprising findings of the cooperation literature is that people are generally willing to punish cheaters even when they are not personally victimized (sometimes called 'third-party punishment). What is an *ultimate* explanation for why people might be willing to pay the costs of punishing cheaters even though they are not being directly affected? Select one: a. People who punish cheaters are often viewed as being too involved in the lives of others b. People who punish cheaters get an internal sense of accomplishment by doing so c. People who punish cheaters are rewarded with increased status or improved reputation
c. People who punish cheaters are rewarded with increased status or improved reputation
The Wason Selection Task (WST) has been traditionally used as tool to evaluate logical reasoning (i.e., understanding of if-then contingencies). The WST provides a rule to be evaluated, and then a set of four cards that may be used to test the rule; participants are tasked with identifying which are necessary to test the rule and which are not. Performance on the WST is often very poor, though some 'rules' align with decision-making adaptations and show substantially better accuracy. Which of the following rules would you expect to produce the *highest* accuracy? Select one: a. Rule: if a person is paying for college, that person must also be paying for room and board b. Rule: if a card has a primary color on one side, it must have a prime number on the other side c. Rule: if a person is eating the continental breakfast, that person must be a guest at the hotel
c. Rule: if a person is eating the continental breakfast, that person must be a guest at the hotel
One predictor of parental investment is the likelihood that a child can convert that investment into fitness returns for parental genes. Perhaps the best predictor of this ability is health - children who are healthier are much more likely to survive to adulthood and be successful, and as such should receive differentially more investment. In reality, it is often the case that children with health issues or special needs receive *more* investment. What is the explanation for this reversal? Select one: a. Cultural norms in modern environments emphasize that all children should be valued and treated equally, no matter their health or abilities b. The health care infrastructure present in most western countries ensure that even those who are in poor health are able to be just as successful as those who are in good health c. When resources are scarce, tradeoffs need to be made, but when resources are plentiful, there is enough to 'over-invest' even in children that need more to be successful
c. When resources are scarce, tradeoffs need to be made, but when resources are plentiful, there is enough to 'over-invest' even in children that need more to be successful
Identifying potential cheaters in cooperative exchanges is not enough; we should also expect that adaptations for cooperation engage behavioral systems that make it less likely we are exploited by those who are likely to cheat. Which of the following outcomes would be *inconsistent* with this prediction? Select one: a. Cheaters are rated as being less trustworthy and less likeable that non-cheaters b. Cheaters are much more often deliberately excluded from groups, especially when group members will be expected to help each other c. While cheaters are not liked as much as cooperators, they aren't rated as deserving greater levels of punishment or sanction
c. While cheaters are not liked as much as cooperators, they aren't rated as deserving greater levels of punishment or sanction
