Final Flashcards: Assignment 4, 5, and 6

Edwards Paints the Horrors of Hell

(1741) Context Jonathan Edwards was a English minister that spot in America during the Great Awakening. His intellect and articulation, despite his quiet voice, allowed him to paint vivid depictions of Hell in his sermons. He effectively tried to scare people into devotion and Christianity out of their fear of the wrath of God and Hell. Content Edwards describes God as holding up living humans above a pit of fire and Hell; if they are sinful in their lives, He will drop them down into this fiery eternity. Hell is described as an endless torture that slowly destroys the human soul and all hope of a person. Edwards also states that no one is safe from Hell, but everyone is at risk without devotion. Edwards ended with the ominous statement that no one knows when they may be dead, and when it is time for God to judge their fate in the afterlife. Significance Through the horrific description of such an endless fate of Hell, Edwards used fear as motivation for Christian faith. Although, it was not the message of Jesus for God's followers to fear God and worship out of fear, but Jesus taught people to worship out of love. Despite this effective method of conversion, it is not in line with the morals of Christianity seen in the Bible.

George Whitefield

Born in Britain, moved to America 1714-1770 George Whitefield was a spiritual leader during the Great Awakening who pioneered the art of giving emotional sermons to inspire Christians. He was famous for holding sermons for thousands of people and preaching revivals. Whitefield's version of Christianity was radical as it did not apply to one church, thus threatened institutions of Churches across America.

John Winthrop

Britain and moved to Massachusetts, USA 1587-1649 John Winthrop was a Puritan who believed in early versions of Republicanism. He believed that Puritanism should be the center of the colonies. He also thought that America should be an example nation of freedom, moral liberty (not complete liberty), and asylum for nations around them-- American Exceptionalism.

The Seven Year's War

Causes 200,000 acre land grant to speculators (people who buy land and try to get a profit) in Ohio Valley by English, but the land was already claimed by the French. Past conflicts over land between the British, French, and Native Americans. Components France and their Native American allies began to fight against Great Britain, the American colonists, their Native American allies, and the Albany Plan of Union. This war was going on in both Europe under the name of the Seven Year's War and in America under the name of the French and Indian War. This war was originally an American war which was brought over to the colonies through land struggle. The colonists were blamed for this European political struggle which led to taxes and tension between the colonists and the British. Consequences 1763- The Treaty of Paris Ended war and codified British victory Required France to surrender Canada to Britain Returned Guadeloupe and Martinique to France (from British) France now out of North America east of the Mississippi River Military advantage of British-- no foreign threat in Canada The British did not completely want to destroy France-- stability 1773- Proclamation Line Great Britain forbids colonists from settling west of the Appalachian Mountains in an effort to limit their power British troops sent to America to enforce the Proclamation line led to more taxes on the colonists Proclamation Line greatly ignored The British wanted to slow the colonists westward expansion-- less power to the colonists--resentment of the colonists to Britain Sugar Act Lowers taxes on molasses (used to make rum) while enforcing it unlike previously Empower navy to seize merchant vessels suspected of smuggling Repealed 1766 Colonists angry that they were being taxed after war Stamp Act 1765 Required all legal documents to carry a tax stamp issued by official tax collection "No taxation without representation"-- colonists got angry at Parliament for not giving them British rights Declaratory Act Passed along with repeal of Stamp and Sugar Acts Stated that Parliament had the right to pass binding laws on the colonists behalf Sons of Liberty Groups of colonists who committed violence against tax collectors and those suspected of being involved with it. Terrorist group-- successful-- Revolution Consumer Boycotts Collective non-importation of British products by colonial merchants until Stamp Act repealed Led to Stamp and Sugar Acts being repealed Made British very angry as they lacked resources and money from the colonists Townshend Duties 1767 Import taxes placed on merchants of glass, lead, paint, paper, tea Galvanized another round of merchant led protests Leads to the "Boston Massacre"-- anger and resentment Repealed 1770 Other Consequences British vs Colonists- colonists against Parliament and turning away from King

The Glorious Revolution

Causes After Charles II and James II were failed rulers and abused their power, Parliament gave Mary, the Protestant daughter of James II, and her husband, William power. This put Protestantism the religion of England, Parliament, and the monarchy. Called the the "Glorious Revolution" because no blood was shed. Components In this revolution, the king's power was equal or lesser than the power of Parliament. Parliament was no longer able to be pushed aside by the king, but had to be respected and followed. A Bill of Rights was established, but there was still limited religious freedom. English Declaration of Rights created, ideas of natural rights by Locke and others were being introduced. Consequences With this, the rise of English Constitutionalism and the idea of the power of the people was fully accepted into government. This is the modern form of government that still exists in England and was adopted by many other Western governments. Although, Parliament did not represent only the good of society, as they persecuted non-Anglican religions and were predominantly white, male Protestants. Move away from the power of the Church and towards the power of republicanism and the people.

The English Restoration

Causes After Cromwell's dictatorship was over, Charles II and James II were the next two kings. They did not accept the fact that they were under Parliament's control and were rebellious under the power restraint. Components Charles II was very corrupt and accepted money and bribes from the French to fund his personal agenda. Treason! James II violated the Test Act by outrightly being and converting others to Catholicism. The Test Act was an act passed by Parliament that suppressed the religious and political rights of non-Anglicans or non-Protestants. Consequences Charles II and James II were not submissive enough for Parliament, so soon after their reign ended, the Glorious Revolution occurred, bringing Protestant rulers into the monarchy without any bloodshed (why it was "glorious").

The Road Not Taken (slavery)

Causes After the Revolutionary War, there was a large debate on whether slavery should exist as it was contrary to the natural rights the Americans fought for during the Revolutionary War. Many slaves fought in the Revolutionary War were promised and granted freedom. Components Many slaves and abolitionists petitioned for freedom of granting freedom to slaves and ending slavery. Call to attention the fundamental hypocrisy of calling for liberty and owning slaves. Empathy-- trying to unite black and white people through Christianity. Golden Rule references and other Biblical references Laws against slaves, having laws about slaves proves that they are human Slaves have the potential to be civilized. Slave owners were inspired by the abolitionist movement to fight back with justification for slavery. Slaves were inherently less than other humans-- ignorant and uncivilized Scientific Racism-- people are not equal Religious justification Consequences The American government decided that it was impossible to abolish slavery at this juncture because Slavery was too ingrained in American society The southern states would have seceded and left the Union. Do not need more conflict in a new nation. In reality: The rhetoric of the American Revolution could have been extended to the slavery movement Could have created an American nation founded on equality, not hypocrisy Southern states would not have seceded as they were surrounded by Native Americans and Spanish forces This could have created instability and a possible takeover, but this risk may have been worth it

The Women's March

Causes Bread shortages in the cities-- very long bread lines Lack of acknowledgement of women in the Declaration on the Rights of Man. Components The women of Paris marched armed with weapons to the palace of Versailles to demand more bread and rights. These women were accompanied with some men who argued to get the women a hearing in front of the National Assembly and the King. The mob demanded that the royal family be brought back to Paris to listen to the grievances of the people-- forced kidnapping and house arrest. Consequences Olympe de Gouge wrote her source the Declaration of the Rights of Woman. Bread was given to the people in Paris. Women did not necessarily receive more rights-- perhaps they received less to limit their power as men feared that women would have a full scale rebellion. Hatred for the royal family and aristocrats continued to increase in France.

The Road to American Revolution

Causes Multiple acts inspired by the Seven Year's War sparked resentment of the colonists towards the British. Tea Act 1773- sell tea directly from British to colonists, which lower prices because of British financial issues Intolerable Acts- mass economic band/sanctions on Boston-- people were starving, closed down Boston harbor, quarantine British troops in private houses Components Tea Party- December 1773- colonists are mad at the extent of British power (tyranny) 1st Continental Congress- rejecting the authority of Parliament, group of delegates (every state, except Georgia) to a meeting in Philadelphia Lexington and Concord-- battles between British and colonists Committees of Safety (like the Committee of Public Safety)- who governs on a local level Bunker Hill- colonies defeated British in this battle 2nd Continental Congress- delegates met together to elect George Washington as leader Paine's Common Sense arguments against British rule Disapproves of the monarchy- takes away divine right and power of king Geography-- distance between America (continent) and Britain (island) Trade-- limitations on American trade with other European nations as they must be loyal to Britain All other options of peace with Britain were exhausted except for the fight for Independence America can be a "city upon a hill"- asylum for all people Consequences The American Revolution began-- war against Britain. Three main sides developed-- against Britain (patriots), for Britain (loyalists), compromisers.

The Fall of Bastille

Causes Poverty Lack of food Paranoia about King's intentions with troops in Paris-- peasants feared attack King's firing of Jacques Necker, the Swiss Protestant finance minister, who was a sympathizer of the peasant Components There were lots of local riots which led to mob action at Bastille. The fall of Bastille happened because a mob marched on the fortified prison which was a symbol of tyranny and teared down the prison. The mob also put the governor's head on a pike. Consequences The fall of Bastille led to "patriot" committees (much like the Committees of Safety in the American Revolution) to replace the local governments. The peasants became empowered by their actions and were determined to continue to rebel against the government.

Settlement of Massachusetts

Causes Puritans, people that thought the Anglican Church did not go far enough away from the Catholic Church and wanted to get rid of the King of England as the head of the Church, wanted to escape religious persecution in England. The Puritans came across to America with the hopes that they would find religious freedom overseas. Components Half of the Pilgrims died the first year in Plymouth as they were blown off course on their way to Virginia, and none of them would have survived without the help of the Native Americans. The government was made up of church members, and the governors were elected by people within the colony. There was an emphasis on the authority of men (religious, economic, etc) in family life. The literacy rate was higher in Massachusetts than in Virginia because of their emphasis on the Bible and religious teachings. Consequences Plymouth had a lasting impact on creating a national identity for Americans. They put a strong emphasis on Religious teachings Morality/Moral Liberty (not complete liberty, but liberty to do the right thing)-- godly community "City upon a hill"-- example nation American Exceptionalism-- the idea that America is an inherently better nation than others Received authority and social structure versus individual judgement and decision making

Shays' Rebellion

Causes Rampant debt among Massachusetts farmers Debtors' prison-- prisons for people in debt Foreclosure on land Components Rebels led by Daniel Shays on Hampshire County Closed courts Drafted list of grievances which included the need for More paper money More responsive government Judicial reform Consequences Made call revise Articles of Confederation more urgent which led to the Constitution Increased power of federal government, so states could not have their own individual laws (in some cases) and currencies Washington-- saw Shays' Rebellion as a large threat to the Republic, the Constitution was the last try to see if the Republic could work Jefferson-- some innocent blood must be spilled, but they Republic would succeed in the end, did not want to severely punish the rebels

The September Massacres

Causes Reign of Terror-- government executions done to root out counter revolutionaries Fear of one's neighbor-- anyone could be a counter revolutionary Greater Good- necessary to purge society of people that are sinning to better the society as a whole Components Group of common people in Paris stormed prisons and massacred prisoners inside who were counter revolutionaries. The prisoners who were killed were mostly aristocrats and clergy members as those groups were suspected as being the most likely to be counter revolutionaries. These mobs would take the prisoners and put them on a court trial of their own in which the prisoners were rarely freed, and mostly brutally executed by the mob. Consequences The September Massacres were the people's response to what the government was doing in the form of the Reign of Terror. The people were doing what they believed was right based off of what the ideal republic government was doing-- killing the people that could be threats. The September Massacres were driven by fear, anger, and were reactionary to what was going on in society-- it was the Reign of Terror which introduced the idea of mass executions to keep the society safe. Lastly, the September Massacres were very similar to the Cat Massacres-- they both had mock court trials and mass executions. There were also the same possible explanations for the violence-- anger, frustration, fear (this is more so in the September Massacres), and scapegoating.

Witches and Witch Trials

Causes Social and familial tensions with the community. Political imperatives- leaders trying to show control and power Economic convenience- getting rid of rivals Misogyny- suppressing women that speak out against society. Religious tension between Protestants and Catholics Explanation for natural disasters Torture-- way to get out violent tendencies and rebellious qualities Components There are many different explanations for why witch panics rose up in the European Community. Witch trials consisted of someone accusing another person of practicing witchcraft, then them being taken in by the authority figures in the situation. Witchcraft was commonly associated with having interactions with the Devil. The "witch" would then be tortured until they would beg for death, eventually confessing that they were a witch because they would then be killed. Rarely was anyone accused of witchcraft was ever freed- almost always confessed so that their torture and misery could end. Consequences Because of the tension in European society boiling to the top for people, witch trials and panics were a way for people to get at their enemies or rivals in politics, in the economy, or in religion. Witches were scapegoats for the problems of government. No one know where the witch hunts started, but they kept people from speaking out in fear of being labeled a "witch", and they also allowed people to scapegoat their neighbors. The witch trials were a form of social control to keep the masses of people scared of speaking out for fear of death and to keep the authority figures seemingly all powerful. Calling someone a witch was a form of scapegoating- it was nice to believe that one person could explain all of someone's issues.

The Enlightenment

Causes The Glorious Revolution and Restoration led to the Enlightenment because they called for a remodeling of the government which had to bring in new philosophers and politicians to think about these ideas. Books and libraries became more popular as well, increasing the amount of written and read material. The number of books related to religion went down whereas books on science went up -- "reading revolution"-- encyclopedia. Salons also provided a forum for political debate for both men and women in society. Components The Enlightenment was an 18th century intellectual movement that emphasized Rationalism-- thinking critically, not taking anything on faith Skepticism-- always question and doubt Progress-- the belief that reasoned thinking leads to better people and better societies Belief that the scientific method can be applied to human relations This caused more thinkers to be introduced into society. The culture of European society shifted towards intellectual and academic focus. Literacy rates went up and more people began participating in society debates and philosophies. Consequences This led to more ideas, radical thinking, and philosophies being developed. This was a shift in mindset towards modernity and technological advancements. The Enlightenment thinkers also had a very large impact on both the American and French Revolutions by providing templates for possible governments and a set of core values of republicanism and democracy.

The Great Awakening

Causes The Great Awakening began in Europe and spread to America. With so much societal emphasis on religion, the Great Awakening was a defined push towards religion. Components The Great Awakening was a religious revival originating in Britain and spreading to American colonies in the 1730s, stressing themes including A charismatic, emotional style of preaching and worship Damnation Rebirth (New Birth) Commonality of worship experience through mass revivals and mass consumption of printed sermons by popular preachers (ex: Whitefield). Consequences The Great Awakening led to a push back against Calvinist ideas of predestination which is the idea that everything is predetermined by God. There was a push towards recommitting oneself to God and Christ. Rhetoric of individual experience and equality within the Great Awakening which both reflected and revolutionized the republican ideas of the Revolutionary era.

The Great Fear

Causes The Great Fear started in local panics in rural areas in France. These panics came from the fear of beggars and aristocrats-- rumor of aristocratic conspiracy hiring gangs of unemployed violent beggars to form banditry crop deforestation to attack back against the peasants. Mass suspicion of beggars as being agents of nobility. Extreme hatred and distrust towards nobility. Components The Great Fear was a series of panics which spread throughout rural France of threats surrounding the people. There was an idea among the peasants that there could be no trust. This widespread fear led to riots throughout towns across France which had a ripple effect across the country. Mass chaos, confusion, disorder, and mistrust. Consequences Ultimately, the Great Fear was simply a rumor that spread across a country, inspiring fear and violence in peasants. The Great Fear led to the downfall of the aristocrats as they had become hated, distrusted scapegoats for the anger and frustration of the peasants. This defensiveness of the peasants continued throughout the French Revolution-- they were always quick to pick up weapons and fight back whenever they felt that their rights were being threatened. This is much like Bacon's Rebellion and Shays' Rebellion in America.

The Reign of Terror and the Republic of Virtue

Causes The execution of KIng Louis XVI Internal conflict between counter revolutionaries and revolutionaries, peasants and aristocrats, and Christians and revolutionaries. Conflict because of national draft (part of Levee en Masse) Lack of food Components The National Convention decided that in the state of emergency that France was in, it was necessary to have one absolute government to make the executive decisions for the entire country. The National Convention creates the Committee of Public Safety which begins to go around and kill all of the suspects for counter revolutionaries (aristocrats). Most of these counter revolutionaries that the Committee of Public Safety executed were actually common people. Consequences The Committee of Public Safety, led by Robespierre, began to try to make a strong national identity in France that was based off of the revolution. This was done by instituting: 1. De-Christianization- government wanted to get rid of the Church's control, divine order which supported the monarchy in the past was against the republican values 2. Institution of Reason Worship- Robespierre's religion, republican values, reason in religion, no divine order 3. Republic Calendar 4. Festival of Supreme Being 5. Public Education which was not religion based (this lacked the funding and teacher that religious schools had-- literacy rates went down) 6. French language 7. Naming shift back to ancient Roman names 8. Metric System 9. Divorce 10. Less power of the father in families and equal inheritance of children regardless of sex This shift to the far left of extreme republicanism actually ended up instituting an extreme right dictatorship as there were no checks on the government, and a select group of people got to decide what was the right thing for the greater good.

The Birth of American Slavery

Causes The need for tobacco production rising at an increased rate Poor white farmers wanted to be able to start their own plantations-- plantation labor increases Need for people below the poor white farmer Components American slavery became institutionalized because of economic and social reasons. America needed more free slave labor to be able to keep their production rates of tobacco up without ripping off poor white farmers. With poor white farmers being so volatile, it was necessary to have a group that they could oppress below them, so that the slaves could be scapegoated instead of them rebelling against the government again. Way to keep Bacon's Rebellion from happening again. From practical definition of slavery to the advent of institutionalized slavery circumscribed by legal limits and boundaries. Codification of slave owner's political, economic, and sexual power. Codification of slaves lack of power. Intellectual apparatus for the justification of slavery Consequences The biggest debate on the origins of slavery was whether slavery came about as a function of racism or whether racism came about from slavery. There is no "right" answer to this question, both sides could be argued. African slaves were chosen because they were thought of as lesser, could be easily identified as the "other", and they were foreign. Institutionalized slavery has a lasting influence on American culture in the form of hypocrisy in the government and inequality circumscribed in the American nation by the blood of the slaves.

Settlement of Virginia

Causes The pilgrims came over to settle in Virginia in search of gold, silver, and other precious metals (spurred on by Spain). The "undesirable" people came to America-- second born sons from poor families. Components Once the people came over to America, none of them really wanted to work because they did not find the precious metals they were hoping to discover. The settlers relied on the Native Americans to help them live their first couple years in America. Once tobacco started to be farmed, the "indentured servant" became slowly phased out for free slave labor. Consequences Once tobacco was discovered as a major commodity, settlers began to reduce their reliance on Native Americans and indentured servants. Virginia quickly became a society that relied on a strong social hierarchy with wealthy white men on the top, poor white men in the lower-middle, and slaves on the bottom. Native Americans were out of the picture and were not thanked or credited for all of their help those first few months. Poor white men became angry that they did not have a place on the hierarchy as their jobs were being taken by slaves.

The Cat Massacres

Causes The poor men working in the French printing press industry had increased resentment towards their owners, the bourgeois, as they were not treated humanely. These apprentices were well trained, but because of the lack of small businesses due to government run printing presses, these men had little hope to rise up in ranks. Cats were treated better than these men at times, and were symbols of witchcraft, sex, class, and spells. Components The men of the printing press were so angry at their owners that they pretended to be cats and yelled into the room of the bourgeois all night long. The bourgeois ordered the men to round up their beloved cats, and the men held a mock trial for the cats and executed them in masses. This event was the joke for the next years of this men in the form of copies, in which one person would given an exaggerated recapitulation of the event that happened. Consequences The cat massacre highlighted the class tensions in urban France at the time-- displaying a hatred of the lower class towards their middle class bosses. The Cat Massacre relates directly to the September Massacres in which there was a very similar mob mentality, violence, mock court trial, and mass execution, the only difference was one was cats and one was people. This Cat Massacre may not have actually happened, but the fact that on some level, the idea was conceived displays the social tensions and poverty of the peasants at the time.

Scientific Revolution

Causes The Scientific Revolution began with Copernicus turning away from Aristotle's theory about the earth being at the center of the universe. This sparked the beginning of an era in Europe in which new scientific discoveries would occur with philosophers and scientists playing off of and debating each other's ideas. Rise of the medieval university-- permanent communities of scholars studying similar problems. Age of exploration-- need for more precise navigational tools. New methods of obtaining knowledge and thinking about obtaining knowledge. Components Once Aristotle's discoveries were being questioned, everything that was considered normal had to be re-evaluated as the Church and other systems of Europe were founded around Aristotle's theories. This answers the question of why Europe. With so many new discoveries and innovations, Europe began to prosper and colonize more, leading to more patronization and opportunity for academics. There were also many more universities in which scholars were studying new problems. Additional, the Age of Exploration called for more precise navigational tools. Renaissance emphasis upon individual judgement. New methods of obtaining knowledge and thinking about how to obtain knowledge (reasoning). Consequences This ultimately led to the Rise of the West and colonization. Arguably, the Scientific Revolution is not over, but is still going on. The Scientific Revolution catalyzed the turning away from the Church and classical values, and a shift towards modern thought.

Constitutional Convention

Causes With Shays' Rebellion providing a wakeup call for representatives in the American government that they needed reform of the Articles of Confederation, a Constitutional Convention was called during the hot summer of 1787. Representatives from all of the 13 colonies came to the convention except for Rhode Island. Components There were a series of compromises between the states on issues regarding representation and slavery: 3/5 Compromise: Slaves counted as 3/5 of a person for purposes of both representation (to appeal to South) and taxation (to appeal to North) Great Compromise Virginia PLan-- more favorable to large states, representatives=population New Jersey Plan-- set number of representatives to two per state Compromise-- two house legislature Senate- two senators per state (NJ Plan) Originally elected by state legislature House of Representatives- number of representatives based on population, elected by people Slave Tax Tax on slaves limited to no more than $10 of tax per slave. Slavery could not be abolished for at least 20 years Run away slaves had to return to their masters even if they escaped to free states 1808- importation of slavery banned, but there was a naturally reproducing slave population Consequences The compromises within the Constitution show how the government had to appeal to multiple opposing views most notably between the North and the South and between the large and small states. The Constitution made a more federal government and limited the power of the state legislature in order to get rid of the problems with the Articles of Confederation which included rebellious individual states causing poverty of their people.

Bacon's Rebellion

Causes With inadequate policy of Government Berkely being too lenient towards Native Americans, lots of land in Virginia was not secure from frontier with raids. With this, there was less land for poor white men living in America which made them angry as they had not hope to start their own land empires. With heavy tobacco prices and falling taxes, the poor white men were losing their jobs and land in America. These white men also lacked the right to vote because they did not hold land. Components White poor men became very angry and rebelled under the leadership of Nathaniel Bacon. The rebels marched on Jamestown's, sacked it, and briefly took over. English warships were sent to subdue the rebellion from England. Consequences The major response by the authority figures in America and England were how to prevent the rebellion from happening again. There were a series of responses to the rebellion: Less indentured servitude-- more rights to white men Slavery-- restricting laws/rights of slaves Racism-- targeting blacks which are easy to target because of their skin color, racism in society Scapegoating-- poor white men blame slaves for their issues. More aggressive Native American politics

The Agrarian Revolts

Causes With the high price of bread in many areas throughout rural France, more peasant revolts began springing up. With these riots can more anger from the peasants about their situation and lack of food which they were promised by the government-- sparking anger towards aristocracy. Because of food shortages, crop payments (taxes), and the summoning of the Estates General and the breaking off of the Third Estate to the National Assembly showing the power of the peasants, the peasants felt justified in their rebellions and revolts. Components The Agrarian Revolts were a series of rebellion that took place in rural France of the peasants against the aristocracy. In these rebellions, the peasants took out their anger on infrastructure, not necessarily the aristocratic individuals-- attack on manor houses. The peasants wanted to burn the archives were all their records on taxes were kept so that they could not be charged. Consequences These rebellions led to an increased sense of chaos, violence, and paranoia in rural France. These revolts also contributed to the growing sentiment against the aristocracy in France and blaming the aristocracy for problems in France. This idea of making the aristocracy feels as they do. Ultimately, the Agrarian revolts led to the Great Fear.

The English Civil War

Causes Elizabeth I, King James I, and King Charles I, three leaders of England before and during the Civil War had varying views on religion and tolerance. Elizabeth I was relatively tolerant, but enforced Protestantism. King James I emphasized Catholicism and the divine right of kings. Charles I believed in absolutism, the belief that the king should hold all of the power, and picked fights with Parliament (practically disregarded Parliament in some cases) that led to a civil war. They all had different views on the role of the monarchy and Parliament. Components Because of such political and religious turmoil throughout this time, the monarchy and Parliament grew very tense with each other. With other people rebelling and the public supporting either Parliament or the monarchy based off of religion (Parliament -- Protestant, Monarchy -- Catholic), a civil war broke out. Charles I amassed an army out of militia from London from his Catholic supporters. The Parliament's New Model Army was under the control of Oliver Cromwell. Consequences The fighting lasted, but Parliament defeated and executed Charles I. Cromwell took control of England, establishing a military state called the Protectorate (1653-1658). Cromwell was a Puritan Christian who believed in no free human rights and absolute control. Cromwell had very some religious tolerance: only Christians, but no Catholics. Irish Catholics were executed and massacred. This left very severe hatred in Ireland towards the English. Eventually, after Cromwell died, the monarchy returned.

Carnival (event)

Causes Holiday season beginning about one month before lent in parts of Europe. Liberated people and kept them in their place. People had worked hard for a whole year, were tired, and needed to let off steam. Black Death. The role of ritual. Drinking, sex, and violence. Components Pressure release- stress reliever, lets people do everything that they will have to give up during lent. "World Turns Upside Down"- reverse of roles to keep people from rebelling against society. Live for the switch that lets slaves be the masters. Reversed morals- people can do whatever they want, everything is accepted. Carnival started after the Black Death, live for today mindset- partying for months. Ritual to keep people in order and in line with societal views. Rape and violence against the minorities were very present during Carnival- women were sexualized and oppressed by men. Consequences Carnival got out all of the sin for people before lent, but often ended up with people living for the wrong reasons in society. The best time of year is when people are the most rebellious and immoral. The Carnival was when people could get rid of all of their sin and desires that build up throughout the year, so that these people would not rebel because of all of their pent up anger. Carnival was effectively a form of social control-- made people not consider rebel because they were allowed to have a mini "rebellion" during Carnival. This would be taken out on minorities that could not defend themselves against such oppressors. Generates a culture that is accepting of oppression and violence. The rebellious urges that are released during Carnival could be for just causes that go unheard.

The Wealth of Nations

Context Adam Smith argued that the economy should be controlled by the people and not the government. Smith argued in his The Wealth of Nations for a free market and international trade. He believed that having economic independence and freedom for citizens would benefit both the individual and the whole. Content Smith argues that if the economy is built around the individual desires and success of the people, it will succeed. Smith states that it is not the sovereign's role to regulate the economy, but to instead protect: Against invaders The natural rights of the people The public institutions Economical success does not come from a leader, but from the people. Invisible hand- people have their own desires, but actually help the greater good by accident. Significance Smith argues that not only should everyone have natural rights, but also economical freedom. The government should have no role in the economy the economy will succeed the most if it is self-regulated. Inflation and fluctuation of the economy cannot be controlled by a leader, but is instead a natural cause from the people.

"Slavery is Justified"

Context After Bacon's Rebellion, slavery seemed like the perfect option to keep the tobacco trade going without angering poor white men. There needed to be justification for slavery; this justification was found in the church, the economy, and blaming the British. Content The reason for slavery in the colonies is because of the British pressure to get sufficient tobacco and the mass importation of slaves by British ships to the colonies. Because of the plantation lifestyle in Virginia, cheap labor is necessary to keep the colony from being impoverished. With slavery being pushed upon these plantation owners, it is natural the slavery would take hold and become a large institution. Significance Through placing the blame of slavery on the British, it is obvious that certain people believe that slavery is morally wrong. To escape the guilt of enslaving fellow human beings, owners blame the British for enforcing a lifestyle in which it is necessary for slavery to exist.

English Declaration of Rights

Context After taking the throne from James II, Parliament created the Bill of Rights which gave the power back to the people through Parliament. The Bill of Rights, or as it was previously known as, The English Declaration of Rights, set up a series of checks and balances for the ruler. It was argued that the English colonization violated many laws within the Bill of Rights. Content A series of laws was laid out by Parliament after they got William and Mary into the monarchy, willing to have limited power. Parliament was to make all of the laws. The king was not allowed to have outside contacts, finances, and he could be put on trial if necessary. Everyone had the right to bear arms, but there would not be a standing army in peaceful times. Everyone has natural, undeniable, human rights. Significance Although the broad statements of human rights, equality, and freedom of speech all sound perfect, there is a very specific type of person that these statements apply to, and everyone else is an acception. Women were not allowed to vote, there was limited religious freedom in England, and the government was ruled by the upper classes. Additionally, the colonization of the Americas goes against the ideas of equality and freedom for all people. There is also contradiction between the idea of no standing army, which implies that the government is working towards a peaceful state, and the fact that everyone is allowed to possess weapons. There is great hypocrisy and inequality within these seemingly perfect document.

The Massachusetts Bay Colony Case against Anne Hutchinson

Context Anne Hutchinson was a threat to the entire society of Massachusetts because of her gender and her opposition to the Puritan church. She believed that ministers were liars and their teachings were flawed. The trial is ironic because the Puritans who fled because of religious oppression from England are now just oppressing their own. Content Anne Hutchinson argues that she spoke to women, and only women, about her revelation from God, and it was her right to do so. Governor John Winthrop argued that her morals and teachings would uproot the foundation of Massachusetts. Hutchinson claimed that God came to her as He did to Abraham and spoke the truth to her about society. She thus felt that it was her duty to teach people about the truth if they ask it of her, whether they are men or women. Significance Anne Hutchinson was so threatening to society because she claimed that God came to her with a message of truth over men. This is going against the idea that men are superior to women if God trusted women more than men. Furthermore, another argument against her was that her messages were against the Puritan church.

The Albany Plan of Union

Context As the French-Indian War became a full out battle in America, delegates came together in Albany to discuss their situation. The delegates decided to make peace with the Iroquois and united the colonies in a written document. The document was rejected by Britain, but its legacy lives on in the Constitution. Content The Albany Plan of Union argues for the uniting the colonies into a government for America which will be make up of elected representatives appointed by the people of the country and approved by the King of England. The number of representatives (delegates) in the Union will be proportionate to the amount of money coming out of each colony, ranging from two to seven delegates. The President will be in charge of all Native American relations and laws/taxes with consent of the delegates. The Union will still have to defer to the King of England for approval on their laws and representatives. Significance The Albany Plan of Union shows how America was becoming a more independent state with its own ideas of freedom and values/morals of society. Within this plan, many remnants of the Constitution can be seen through the election of a President and delegates. The tension between America and England is visibly rising, as America wants to become a self-governing nation with minimal allegiance, if any as time progresses, to England.

Attack on Authority and Advocacy of Experimental Science

Context Bacon (1561-1626) believed that scientific knowledge could help benefit society as a whole. Bacon thought that the best way for people to learn was from nature itself instead of discussing big questions. He praised the inductive method to science in which there is investigation, collection of data, and experimentation. Bacon was not a scientist himself, but he was very opinionated on the subject. Content Bacon believed that people should not only listen to Aristotle because he is just one man, who may be very smart, but very flawed as well. Everyone can be a genius if they question everything and take inspiration from nature, and nature only. Nature is better than human logic, so that is where humans should look for answers. To make true advancements in science, everything must be questioned from the founding principles. Significance Bacon wanted to see progress in science in society. Because everyone was so caught up in Aristotle's ideas, they could not look past his theories to what he was actually talking about, nature. Bacon wanted scholars to stand up for their own ideas, no matter how crazy they may sound, as long as they had evidence.

Essay on Slavery

Context Caesar Sarter was a slave that gained their freedom before the Revolutionary War broke out. Sarter spoke out for the freedom of slaves in America. Content Sarter calls the colonies out on the rights that they outlined for themselves including natural rights, stating that according the Golden Rule setup by God, the slaves deserve the rights as well. Sarter asks for the colonists to take pity on the slaves and give them the freedom that they deserve. Sarter also makes connections with the past, stating that the founding Pilgrims came to America, bearing the savage Native Americans, all for their hope of freedom. Through using the Bible and forcing the colonists to imagine if they were slaves, Sarter makes the colonists feel empathy for what they are doing to the slaves. Significance Sarter uses religion and universal human experiences to get the colonists to feel for the slaves' situation. Sarter recognizes that in order to get the colonists to try to abolish slavery, it is necessary to get them to think that slaves are humans. Sarter is writing to religious white men across the colonies, hoping that they hear what he is trying to communicating about extending American values to all.

Discourse on Method

Context Descartes thought that everything in the world could be explained by math and the human mind. He believed that all mathematical and scientific discoveries were capable from any human all the "truths" were just locked inside everyone's head. Descartes said in his source, writing autobiographically, that humans had unlimited potential. Descartes, the French mathematician, is considered the founder of modern philosophy. Content Descartes outlines in part one that his quest for knowledge left him more aware of his ignorance than before, so he decided to study himself. In part two, he discusses that he is against throwing away all of one's previous knowledge to move forward, but rather thinks it is necessary to remember everything. He also talks about only finding truth if there is absolutely no doubt. Lastly, in part four, he brings up big questions such as: what is reality? He also thinks of the famous quote, "I think, therefore I am." Significance Descartes truly shows how much the human mind was valued during the Renaissance and the Scientific Revolution. Instead of following philosophies from other people or religions, the truth was found if one was able to turn inwards and study oneself. This changed the focus of society from religion and faith, to knowledge and truth. This created a more secular West that we still see today.

Virginia's Statutes Illustrate the Declining Status of African American Slaves, 1660-1705

Context Describing a series of acts that show how slaves are being treated worse and worse between 1600-1705. Content The act of 1660-1661 states that any Englishman who runs away with a slave will have to pay or be imprisoned for this act. The act of 1662 states that mixed raced children will follow the status of their mother, and the white person that contributed to the child will have to pay. The act of 1705 states that every pregnant slave must serve one more year than what was previously stated because of the inconvenience. The pregnant women must give money or service to the church in which the child is born to repay their debts. The child must also be a servant in the church until they are 31 years old. Significance Through these three acts, it can be seen how the rules and perceptions of slaves worsened as the years went on. Originally, there were not so many rules regarding slaves, but as slavery became an institution, more rules and regulations were made. This can be seen through the length of the acts.

Levy in Mass

Context During the summer of 1793, there were internal and external enemies which were dealt with in two ways: Internal enemies-- reign of terror External enemies-- national army of patriots Robespierre and other Jacobians believed that terror was the only way to save the Revolution and the traitors (anyone who was not for the Revolution) must be killed to maintain the greater good. To create a strong army, the government called for a national draft of 18-25 year old men and infused them with national spirit. Content In order to defeat the tyranny of other lands and spread French "republicanism" everyone in society was needed to help in the war effort. Committee of Public Safety was in charge of France during war, and they had unlimited power to do whatever they saw fit during this time. The draft would be consisted of unmarried or widowed men from 18-25 years of age. The government would regulate the army, and taxes would have to be paid by farmers to keep the army strong. Significance In order to create a national identity, the government created the French army to be a martyr, fighting against tyranny everywhere. **Everyone, according to this document, had an essential role they could play in the war effort, giving everyone a united purpose/goal that could unify the nation. ***The Committee of Public Safety was invested with unlimited power to regulated over the people-- under facade of fighting against tyranny abroad makes people forget the tyranny back home.

Grievances of the Third Estate

Context Each estate wrote a list of grievances that they wanted to be addressed in the Estates General. All of the estates stressed the ideas of loyalty to the monarchy and church, a new constitution, and an elected assembly. The first and second estates wanted a focus on traditional rights. The third estate wanted massive reform throughout French society. Content The Third Estate calls for equality throughout France-- uniform taxes with no distinctions on region, class, or social group/religion. The Third Estate also requests that there be a fair justice system with judges appointed based on skill and merit, not based off of social standing. Overall, the Third Estate calls for the equality for jobs between noble and peasant born people. Lastly, the Third Estate requests that they are given the right to property and privacy that should be respected by the government. Significance The Third Estate is reasonably calling for equality throughout France without any exceptions. Slaves? The peasants want the opportunity to be able to rise up in ranks if they want to without being beaten out of jobs they are more qualified for because of their lack of noble status. **Overall, the Grievances of the Third Estate echoes many ideas seen in the Constitution of America-- natural rights and equality for all.

What is the Third Estate?

Context Emmanuel Sieyés (1748-1836) was trained to be a Jesuit priest, but then became interested in Enlightenment ideas related to the French Revolution. Sieyés expressed the resentment of the middle class towards nobility. Sieyés also denounced ideas of special privilege for a selected few, arguing for equality and liberty, two key aspects of the French Revolution. Content The Third Estate is described as having the largest, essential role in society. **The nobility and privileged few do not fall under the common laws in society and are exceptions to government; therefore, they should not exist. Jobs should be rewarded based on merit, skill, and effort, not social status. Without the existence of the First and Second Estates, France could be ruled under the equal leadership of the Third Estate and flourish. Significance Sieyés argues for the complete abolishment of any privileged classes, but unfortunately, there will always be a wealthy elite. Whether the wealthy elite is gained hereditarily or by skill, society naturally falls into different class structures which keep society functioning. **Sieyés is arguing for a Rousseau-type society with one massive governing body that controls everything based off of the General Will without any class distinctions or social constructs. Is this republicanism or anarchy?

Independence Day Oration

Context Frederick Douglass, a slave that escaped to freedom, describes the meaning of the Fourth of July for slaves in his second volume of his biography. Content Douglass discusses the role of the Fourth of July for slaves, saying that he is not against celebrating the moral ideas of the founding fathers, but because of American slavery, the day becomes on of hypocrisy. While white people celebrate freedom, slaves are kept in bars in their backyards. The Fourth of July is described by Douglass as the biggest sham and cover up ever, because deep down, the American people know that slavery is bad. Through all of the laws restricting slaves that are not applicable to animals and alike to the laws restricting white people, it shows that Americans do truly believe that slaves are human, thus deserving of the natural rights outlined in the Constitution. Slaves also act like men of different races. Douglass believes that it is necessary to put America on trial, identify its hypocrisy and create a unified nation. He describes America as the true tyrants. Douglass does have hope that American values of liberty and progress will bring about the self-destruction of slavery. Douglass also believes that soon, through TRADE, the entire world will be unified in knowledge, and peace can exist. Significance Douglass makes a very controversial claim, calling out American hypocrisy and stating that all people believe that slaves are not brutes and less than them. Douglass paints a dark picture of American culture, describing it as a country of shame, lies, and tyranny. What makes America so bad in his eyes is that they pretend to be a country of liberty, when in reality, society rings true with oppression and slavery. Douglass hopes that if American people open their eyes to the hypocrisy of their world and try to create a unified nation with rights for all, peace can be achieved. Douglass believes that slavery will end one way or another because the hypocrisies are too obvious to ignore.

What is Englightenment

Context Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) was a German philosopher that left a very large legacy in revolutionary ideas. He believed that everything that everyone does should be moral and an example for society. Kant saw the French Revolution as a great triumph in modern thinking. Content Kant argues that Enlightenment is when one leaves self-induced immaturity and fully thinks for themselves. Kant says that society is riddled with advisors and leaders that will rule over people and tell them what to do. To be fully enlightened, one must break away from these comfortable molds and begin to think for themselves. In order to do this, there must be revolution and rebellion. Kant argues that through revolution, the society can change the way it works, but can never truly alter the comfortable stereotypes which cause a fixed state of mind unless people are granted absolute freedom of thought. Otherwise, there will always be the unthinking mass. He ends saying that society is on its way to enlightenment. Significance Kant's argument that to become enlightened and have a prosperous society, everyone must have freedom of speech is echoed throughout modern history. Today, one of the most valuable rights is freedom of speech and thought. When people are oppressed to conform to a singular mold and are creatively restricted, very little progress occurs.

Resolutions of the Stamp Act Congress

Context James Otis, a politician in America, called together a government meeting in New York that would have representatives from all the colonies there to discuss their situation with Britain. Nine colonies sent delegates, four did not; three out of four of the colonies that did not send delegates were southern. The meeting produced a draft of a resolution against the Stamp Act which was sent to the King of England. Content The colonists very respectfully call for equal rights to those born in Britain. This includes the right to a fair trial and natural rights. The colonists also call for representation in Parliament by a delegate which they elect. Britain is also called to be in charge and responsible for their own finances, and they cannot unfairly tax America to make up for their debts. The colonists lastly call for a removal of the Stamp Act, as they believe it is unfair and unjust. Significance As the colonists begin to expect more and more rights from Britain, the British are becoming less tolerant of the irreverent colonists who do not follow their laws. The colonists are asking Britain to, instead of ruling over the colonies, become partner countries with one government with both sides represented. Although framed very modestly, the King of England would have certainly been angered with the colonists for rebelling against England when the country is already in war debts from the Seven Years' War.

Second Treatise on Government

Context John Locke (1632-1704) was a British philosopher who believed contrarily to Hobbes that humans were inherently good beings. He came up with the idea that all humans deserve natural, unalienable, rights. He thought that the role of government was to protect these rights. Content Locke argues that the purpose of government is to protect the natural rights of the citizens of that nation. Governments are founded out of mutual trust. Rulers should be elected by the people in a democratic nation. Laws should be applicable to everyone. People have the right to rebel when their government is corrupt. Significance Locke creates a system of government that is modernized in a way in which it relies on the equality of the state. The government is also forced to be moral otherwise the people have the inherent right to rebel. This government and philosophy was adopted by many nations- America adopted the idea of rebellion to keep order by having a fresh, new election, campaign, and legislation every four years.

The True Law of Free Monarchies

Context King James I of England (1603-1625) who was also James VI of Scotland (1567-1625) believed the kings were inherently better than normal human beings. He anonymously published a book named True Law of Free Monarchies which discussed his views on politics and the monarchy. This source is an excerpt from this popular book. Content King James I states that Parliament is only an advisory to the king, but does not actually have to make any laws. The king controls the law making and the life and death of everyone within his lands. A king never has to justify himself nor follow the laws he instates, but most kings will do this. A king is a minor god under the influence of God; James finds justification for this in the Bible and other philosophies. In order to be loyal subject, people must never question the government nor question the divine right of kings and the monarchy. Significance Through King James I's philosophies, he is attempting to give the king limitless power. King James is stating that kings never should be held accountable or tried for treason because they are only doing the will of God, and such things would be heresy. Also, kings never have to explain why they are doing such things for they should be trusted absolutely and never questioned in the first place. James finds justification for this in the Bible and other philosophies. In order to be loyal subject, people must never question the government nor question the divine right of kings and the monarchy. Significance Through King James I's philosophies, he is attempting to give the king limitless power. King James is stating that kings never should be held accountable or tried for treason because they are only doing the will of God, and such things would be heresy. Also, kings never have to explain why they are doing such things for they should be trusted absolutely and never questioned in the first place.

The Sovereignty and Goodness of God

Context Mary Rowlandson was an Englishwoman living in Massachusetts who was taken hostage during Metacom's War by the Native Americans. She wrote down her experience as a hostage, and how she had to assimilate to Native American culture to survive in 1682. Rowlandson dehumanizes Native Americans, and idealizes Puritans and their holiness, saying that God was testing her strength and purity. Content Rowlandson describes how the Native Americans stormed their village with their awful guns, which they got from the Colonists, and killed many families and children. She then discusses how she was taken as a slave to a mean master and mistress who did not value her life at all. She describes how she was abused physically and not allowed to practice her religion without scorn, so she had to do it in secret. This is what the colonists did to the Native Americans as well. Lastly, Rowlandson does touch upon some Native Americans that were kind to her. Significance Rowlandson's view on the Native Americans shows how the Colonists thought of them as savages and barbarians because of their culture and religion. Rowlandson was shocked when the Native Americans did not view her as above them and treat her with respect which is very naive as the Colonists did the same and worse to the Native Americans before. Lastly, Rowlandson works to dehumanize all Native Americans, even if a significant number did show her kindness when she needed.

A Vindication of the Rights of Woman

Context Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797) was an English writer who wrote A Vindication of the Rights of Women arguing for gender equality. She wanted women to be strong, independent, and treated equally to men. She believed that these qualities in women would greatly benefit society as a whole. Content Women are unconfident and, at times, sinful because they are only educated for a single purpose, and if they do not fit in that mold seamlessly, they feel inadequate and useless. Men only complement the physical beauty of women, thus suppressing her more "manly" qualities which are seen as sinful and ugly. Women are enslaved by men to have not voice men use their education that they deprive of women to justify sexist stereotypes and oppression of women. If women are educated, they will benefit society overall and become as virtuous as men, but men must first free women from their chains. The most educated and smart women are shamed into silence by jealous men. Significance Men are scared that they will lose power to women if they give women equal power and opportunity. Because they will pose a threat to the dominance of men, women have to be objectified and brainwashed, so they believe that they have no value. Similar to breaking a slave- getting women to be unconfident and insecure. If men can accept that they are not the dominant species, then the world will make more progress and discoveries with the help of women.

Worship of the Supreme Being

Context May 7, 1794, the National Convention passed a document establishing the Worship of the Supreme Being as a state cult. The purpose of this state religion was to hope to provide a uniform set of political and civic morals. This religion followed the religion of deism and was led by Robespierre. Content The document forces people into a religion to enforce a set of uniform morals. The religion enforces the ideals of the Revolution and the idea of festivals and state celebrations. Like Rousseau's ideas of festival. Religion celebrates revolutionary society like it is utopia-- not seeing the flaws of it. Significance This document shows the true limitations on freedom of the Revolutionary society on its people. **By having constant festivals on Revolutionary society like it is a utopia, they are trying to cover up the flaws of society by pretending that it is perfect.

Memorandum

Context Mercantilism is an economic system that focuses on the government regulated trade, currency (inflation), and agriculture. Jean-Baptiste Colbert was the prime minister under Louis XIV who was born into a wealthy family of merchants. He was in charge of finance and supported the mercantilist economic system. He wrote two memorandums: one about an alliance with England, one about mercantilism. Content Colbert states that the Dutch is way ahead of both England and France in their economies, so it is necessary for the two to join together against a common enemy. Also, Colbert argues that inflation is necessary for the economy and should be regulated by the government. Inflation benefits everyone in society. Colbert wanted the price of foreign goods to be raised, and the price of domestic goods to be lowered. Lastly, Colbert states that with more French factories and regulating the economy, the King will be able to finance a stronger navy. Significance This source shows that the French government believed that they should regulate the economy for everyone's best interest. There was also great economic competition between France, England, and the Dutch. Colonization generated a large profit as well.

The Spirit of the Laws

Context Montesquieu (1689-1755) was a French nobleman, judge, and political thinker. He was very famous for his views on government and the English Constitution. He published The Spirit of the Laws in 1748. Content Montesquieu argues that the government should be divided into three sections: legislative, judicial, and executive branches. These branches should all have the power to check the other if they get out of control or become tyrannical. The executive branch should have a single leader, the other two branches should be controlled by a group of leaders. The soldiers in the military should live as civilians until they are called upon for duty. Significance Montesquieu's writing plays exactly into the form of government which exists in America today. The idea of separating the power within a government to avoid tyranny is essential. Also, the branches must be able to check each other to maintain balance (checks and balances). Lastly, the government must respect and uphold the rights and liberty of the people.

"Bacon's Manifesto" (1676)

Context Nathaniel Bacon was a young, white farmer who came to Virginia and challenged Governor William Berkeley on his Native American policies. He marched with his followers against the government in Jamestown to show his anger. Bacon wanted to exterminate all of the Native Americans in their territory to secure their land. Content Bacon claims that the Native Americans are evil beings that are trying to destroy the Europeans and take their land, so it is necessary for them to be exterminated completely. They should also be completely cut off from society and trade and not protected under any European laws. Bacon repeatedly states that his argument is innocent and only for the safety and greater good of the European men. With the Native Americans gone, the colony will easily prosper. Significance The fact that Bacon argues that the Native American have stole and lied to the Europeans is completely hypocritical. The Europeans are the ones that repeatedly deceived the Native Americans, kick them out of their own lands, and take advantage of their lack of knowledge about European culture. Also, it is never justified and innocent to wipe out an entire race in an area for safety; Bacon is calling for a Hitler like extermination of the Native Americans.

The Declaration of the Rights of Women

Context Olympe de Gouges was the daughter of a butcher who led the fight for women's rights in France. In her declaration, she argued against the inferiority of women presumed by men of women. Gouges was tried and executed for her treason against the National Assembly November 3, 1793. Content Gouges argued that with the Revolution in the air, women could argue for their rights if they wanted it bad enough. Men are equal to women, and since men are rising up, as should women. Women have the sole role of birthing children in society to their husbands, as marriage is not founded in trust and love, but rather an economically beneficial situation for men. In order to redefine gender stereotypes, there must be three changes in society: national education, stronger morals, and marriage built on love and trust and equality. Significance Gouges uses the spirit of Revolution occur in France to argue for the rights of women. **She believes that since men are no longer oppressed by the upper classes, they will abuse this new power on women. In order to prevent this from happening, women must quickly obtain their own rights, so that they can be protected and ensured.

"On Education"

Context On Education written by Rousseau in 1762 was a book that argued for the rights of children and good treatment. It stated that every child should be educated, as education saves children. Rousseau argued that education should reflect gender roles and keep up societal norms. Content Rousseau states that men and women are made similarly, but have different roles in society which should not be messed with. Therefore, it is necessary to treat and educate men and women differently to reflect these roles. Women will never have an use for knowledge, reading, or anything "manly", so there is absolutely no reason for them to learn. Rousseau further argues that girls do not want to lead and are not designed to, they would much rather play with dolls. Significance Through Rousseau's source, it is apparent that European society is founded upon gender inequality and stereotypes. Political, cultural, and religious roles all pertain to the idea of men leading and fighting, women taking care of the children. Society has become so warped that people truly believe that women cannot, should not, and do not want to be equal to men.

The Women's March

Context On October 5, 1789, the women of Paris marched on Versailles armed with weapons to express their anger. They posed a dangerous threat to the nobility and the security of the gender hierarchy. Content In Paris, there was a scandal and resulting riot over the lack of break that a baker was making for the people and keeping the most for himself-- letting the people starve. The women became so angry that they, along with some men, marched to Versailles and spoke to the National Assembly and the monarchy about the issues they were having. The women requested that the monarchy come to Paris to witness and hear the grievances of the peasants. The monarchs were effectively kidnapped, not given food, and taken to Paris to attest for their crimes. There was special resentment towards Marie Antoinette, although she acted humbly and received some respect. Significance The fact that the peasants are gaining more and more power in France shows the crumbling authority of the government and laws. The authority figures such as the police are forced to submit to the rioting people so as to not spark outright rebellion and revolution. The monarchs, the symbols of power in a country, were taken by the people and not given food-- showing the fall of the power in France.

Common Sense

Context Paine, a self-taught British scholar who moved to Philadelphia at the age of 38, came from humble and poor backgrounds in England. Paine believed that it was ridiculous to fight Britain just to fall back under their control. In Paine's source Common Sense, he argued for American independence. Content Although Britain may have helped America in their trade, defense, and growth, it is time for America to separate from Britain and move forward as an independent nation. British protection has been necessary from Britain's own wars. Now that America is introduced into European trade, it would be best if they were unbiased in trading with Europe and had no connections/loyalty to one specific country. With British massacring the colonists, it is the duty of the colonists to avenge their loved ones by fighting against the tyranny of Britain. The moment that Britain killed innocent colonists, reconciliation could no longer be considered. Britain and America can never go back to being partners after all the bloodshed that has occurred. America, a large continent, should also not be ruled by a small island on the continent of Europe, but rule itself. America can be a haven for freedom in an oppressed world if it fights for independence. Significance Paine outlines a series of reasons why independence is imperative for America to progress. Paine argues that maintaining a relationship with Britain in any way will lead to the downfall of America. With independence, America can become a nation of its own values and laws which will center around ideas of liberty, freedom, and equality without having to submit to England's tyrannical rule.

"On the Death of the Reverend Mr. George"

Context Phillis Wheatley, a young slave from Africa who was named after the ship she was transported on, became a celebrated poet in American society. Phillis was taught and supported by her mistress, Susanna Wheatley, and Phillis's poems were eventually published in newspapers and books. Wheatley writes about the death of George Whitefield, the emotional preacher of Christianity. Content Wheatley describes Whitefield as a saint, angel, and prophet. Wheatley also uses the term of, "Americans" throughout her writing and poetry. Whitefield is described by Wheatley as being a champion of rights and equality, wanting these natural rights for all Americans. Significance By classifying all Americans as the same under one broad term, Wheatley is unifying America into a single state. She does not divide people by race, class, or religion, but instead views everyone as the same because they live in America. She is trying to continue Whitefield's message of equality through her poetry.

The Clerical Oath

Context The Clerical Oath tested the loyalty of the clergy to the new government of the Revolution. The government greatly limited the power of the Church in respect to the government. Content The National Assembly was effectively asking the clergy to submit to the will of the government even if it is contrary to their religious beliefs. In order to ensure that the clergy would be loyal to their country above their religion, the National Assembly forced all the clergy members to take an oath. If the clergy members did not take this oath, they would be unable to preach and teach their religion-- if they were caught teaching after not taking the oath, they could be detained and punished accordingly. Significance The Clerical Oath sparked controversy about the power that the government had over the Church, contributing to a long lasting debate-- separation of the church and the state? Many supporters of republicanism and the Revolution were appalled with this enforcement of laws that limited the loyalty of the clergy members to God. This decree is possibly violating the freedom of religion-- one of the natural rights Locke outlined.

Republic of Virtue

Context Robespierre was the leader of the Jacobins during the Reign of Terror. Robespierre believed in virtue as the value of the Republic for the loyal citizens, and terror as the form of justice for the sinners in the Republic. Robespierre outlined his theories on the greater good in his speech in 1794. Content Robespierre is arguing that in order to achieve a perfect, virtuous society which is his goal, they must first increase the existing virtue in France of the loyal citizens and get people to think in terms of the greater good. Next, in order to destroy the internal and external threats of the Revolution, terror must be used as a method to maintain virtue. Counterrevolutionaries are so dangerous because they may disillusion the sans-culottes (lower class) into joining their side in rebellion against the Revolution. Therefore, it is necessary to enlighten the sans-culottes to the virtue of Robespierre and his followers. Significance Robespierre believes that his actions are benefiting the greater good, but why is he responsible for what is good and bad for the masses of people. Instead of giving the people a voice in politics as promised, Robespierre is creating a totalitarian government under the facade of a republic by saying that he is acting under the general will. In the end, Robespierre is acting under his own judgement and philosophies, not listening to the people and their views, just suppressing any people that disagree with him by accusing them of being tyrannical. Robespierre is pronouncing his philosophy as the way to utopia and eternal peace, and every other existing view as tyranny that must be silenced. He silences this "tyranny" by executing his opposer.

The Social Contract

Context Rousseau believed that knowledge corrupted human beings and society. He thought that too many people were becoming educated, powerful, and determined. He called for reform in society and tried to get political power to be rewarded based off of tradition. Content Rousseau argues that person ambition cannot be in government, and the government must protect the natural rights of the people. The government must also think in terms of the greater good or general will, where politicians within the single association must at times give up their own selfish desires, welfare, and rights for the greater good of society. Civil liberty, the general will of society, is more important than the Natural Liberty, which is the freedom of the individual. Rousseau says that people lose natural liberty but gain civil liberty in his plan. Lastlly, Rousseau states that the government must remain unified, and persecution is justified by the government to keep down uprising factions and rebels from taking over. Significance Rousseau's argument is one that relies on the selflessness of politicians. Power corrupts very easily and makes people think that their word is law, so it is a very dangerous and risky form of government which relies on the morality and strength of politicians. Also, civil liberty suppresses the individual freedom which is in turn more important than the general will. If there are no individual rights, than the group as a whole has no rights either thinking of the greater good leads one to overlook the role of the individual which makes up the greater good. Persecution to keep the state unified will not solve issues, rather it will cause more tension and will ultimately lead to corruption and failure of the state.

Emile

Context Rousseau further argues in Émile that in order to create a strong society, children must be able to think, learn, and take care of themselves. He thought that a hands on approach to learning would lead children to be more independent. Content Children loath and hate school because they are taught material that they do not think is relevant and practical, and are ordered around all the time. It is necessary to allow Nature to be man's teacher so that men learn when they think that it is necessary. Then, men will not think that they are receiving a lesson if they are teaching themselves out of practical means. Both physical and mental exercise are equally important, so people can rely and trust themselves, not others. Significance Rousseau's argument is one that is trying to inspire future leaders who will not rely on other people to make their decisions for them. Rousseau wants society to be more prosperous, and for the power of the state to rest in a single person. Following this education, Rousseau is trying to create a method of teaching that will lead this said leader to be responsible enough with the immense amount of power to make rational and moral decisions.

Principia Mathematica

Context Sir Isaac Newton completely demolitioned the Medieval form of thought. He led the breakthrough in understanding the universe. He used different methods of experimentation to get to his discoveries. Content Newton believed that Nature was inherently simple, so it would follow all of the same, uniform laws. Newton stated that gravity was the force that held the universe together, and it was proportionate to the distance and mass of the object. Newton then uses science to justify and explain the role of God. He says that God is separate from the universe because he created it, so he does not follow any of the laws within the universe. He also denounces the idea of worshiping God as a human form because this is restricting his power. Lastly, Newton talk about the difference between Fate, God, and Nature. Significance Newton truly broke away from traditional views during the Medieval time period without fear of scrutiny. Due to the past theories from fellow scientists, Newton was able to build upon ideas and create his own while having a community of science to fall back on for support. Newton was deeply religious as seen in the source, but if Newton did not use religion to justify further unknowns, he may have been able to discover even more. Does religion hold back scientific discovery?

Mayflower Compact

Context The Mayflower Compact was written by the Puritan men that sailed across the ocean to land in Massachusetts with fellow Puritans, and a few others that were there for practical reasons. Three founding morals are seen in the compact: godliness, husbandry, and industry. Showing the morals of religion, gender, and economic success. The compact combined the Church and the State into a single document. Content The compact in the beginning credits God and the monarchy for their findings and shows how the Pilgrims believed they were in northern Virginia, not Massachusetts. The Pilgrims say that they will combine themselves into a single political body and will enact laws and justice. The compact also states that the political body will act for the greater good the colony. Significance Morals from England and Puritan religion are expressed in the Mayflower Compact. The ideas of the greater good and creating a democracy made up of the people descends directly from Enlightenment thinkers and Parliament in England. The Pilgrims valued justice, equality (in some sense), and good morals which can all be seen in the Mayflower Compact.

The Revolution Begins, 1789-1791

Context Slave Rebellions Slaves spread a rumor of the abolishment of slavery by the King of France to inspire rebellion. Although this rumor was not true, there was an increase in abolition sentiment in France. List of Grievances of Slaves and Free Black People During the summer of 1789, the French government was completely reforming their form of government. The abolition movement was likewise spreading-- abolition meetings were increasing across France. One abolition meeting, led by a white lawyer named Dejoly, wrote down a list of grievances of black people living in France and sent it to the National Assembly. National Assembly The National Assembly passed a decree in 1790 describing the election process in France. Despite the many abolition arguments, the mention of people of color voting was completely left out. Content Slave Rebellions Abolition movement spread by some white people (priest) to slaves-- slaves escape out of captivity to join other slave gangs. Some slaves return to plantation on their own; any found escaped slaves are tried for their crimes. Militia is sent out to bring escaped slave to justice, so they cannot spread the ideas of freedom to other slaves. The slaves also used the spirit of the Revolution (liberty) to call for the abolishment of slavery. Likewise to many American document, the abolition letters used pity, religious justification, and flattery for the king to try to get their point across. List of Grievances of Slaves and Free Black People This list of grievances states that mixed race Frenchmen are oppressed despite their supposed freedom. The slaves in the colonies of France in the Caribbean are oppressed beyond imagination. *In order to create a strong nation of equality and peace, there must be equality and peace among all Frenchmen, irrespective of race. **The French people of color request natural rights and representation-- exactly what the peasant request of the government. The National Assembly The decrees of the National Assembly have to do with the relationship between the National Assembly, based in France, and the Colonial Assembly, based in the French colonies in the Caribbean. The Colonial Assembly is under the National Assembly-- the National Assembly must ratify all external laws of the Colonial Assembly before they are put into effect. The parish assembly is made up of 25+ year old property owning Frenchmen who have lived in the parish for two years and pay taxes. All French citizens have the power to list their grievances and vote (voting system very unclear in document). Significance These documents all have to do with extending the ideas of the Revolution of liberty and equality to slaves and people of color living in France. One can see a very similar argument in many American documents, but the French ones specifically called peasants out for not extending the rights they want for themselves to others that are deprived of these rights as well. These abolition documents use less pity and religious justification overall, and more bold, aggressive writing about the necessity for slaves to be freed. Overall, these documents are more effective than the American ones because they specifically outlined the rights that are necessary for slaves, leaving no room for debate.

A Proclamation of Shaysite Grievances

Context Small farmers in Massachusetts were being financially abused and ignored by the wealthy politicians. These small farmers banded together and took over multiple small counties and established their own, brief, government under the leadership of Daniel Shays. An army was called out by Governor James Bowdoin which crushed the rebellion. Content Daniel Gray, the chairman of the government established by the farmers, lays out the four reasons that the rebellion has occurred. Reason #1: The taxes are too harsh on the government and have left the farmers in debt. Reason #2: Money raised by government has not be used to help the farmers. Reason #3: Government temporarily getting rid of Habeas Corpus-- right to a fair trial. Reason #4: The government has given unlimited power to authority to do whatever they want to maintain "justice". Significance The small farmers argue that they are simply trying to defend their liberty against the tyranny of the American government. This is rebellion is a microcosm of the Revolutionary War: the farmers are the Americans, America is Britain. The threat of Shays's Rebellion can be easily seen as it was a very dangerous idea that the American government was no better than the British-- this could possibly lead to a dangerous widespread rebellion.

Washington and Jefferson on Shays's Rebellion

Context The Articles of Confederation established a weak central government that could not maintain order over the 13 colonies. 55 framers drafted a new Constitution in Philadelphia the summer of 1787 which created a much stronger central government. Big states including Virginia and New York were the last to ratify the Constitution because they did not want to give up their power to one central government, but eventually, all 13 colonies agreed on the Constitution. Washington Context: Washington was alarmed that the The Articles of Confederation could not control the 13 colonies and feared that America would divide into many different states. Jefferson Context: Jefferson served as the second ambassador to France from 1785-1789 after Ben Franklin served his term. Jefferson wrote of Shay's Rebellion to his friend and colleague James Madison. Content Washington Content: Washington realizes that there needs to be a strong central government to keep the American citizens in check-- the entire government cannot be solely based on the good of human nature. There must be some checks in place. Government must change some of its ways to reflect the needs of the people to keep a revolution from breaking out. Washington fears that a republic based on liberty is impossible and that the American government will fail and have to go back to a monarchy. Jefferson Content: Jefferson does not think that Shays's Rebellion is a serious threat, but rather that it will not stunt the growth of the American Republic. Jefferson states that rebellions are products of freedom and liberty, and they are necessary for the progress of society to occur so that people to do not forget about other groups' rights. Jefferson states that instead of taking away the rights of rebels as a dictatorship should do, the rebels should be mildly punished. Significance Washington Significance: Washington believes that a nation of liberty would be optimal, but he fears that with so much rebellion, it is impossible to achieve. Washington truly wants America to be able to create a strong government, so he is putting his faith in the Constitution as a final attempt to create a republic. If the Constitution fails in uniting the colonies, many politicians talk of creating a monarchy instead-- Washington does not want to go back to the form of government that created so much oppression for them in the past. Jefferson Significance: Jefferson truly believes that American democracy and republicanism will be the solution to everything and will succeed no matter what. Jefferson has faith that despite rebellions, America will continue to be unified as one nation of liberty and freedom. Jefferson argues that if the government has the correct values, rebellions will not pose a significant threat to the progress of a just nation.

August 4th Decrees

Context The August 4th Decrees gave civic equality to everyone in France. They removed the special privileges of the nobility. These decrees were passed by the National Assembly with the consent of the nobles and helped ease the panic of the Great Fear. Content The National Assembly abolished the feudal system and gave all Frenchmen the right to hunt and have property (previously limited). Taxes were only allowed to be given to public institutions or aiding the public, not to personal people including nobility. There was now the freedom of opportunity in France for people to hold whatever job they want if they are qualified for it-- trying to get rid of class distinction. Significance The August 4th Decrees are trying to make France a national of equality and liberty, but there are many more rights that need to be given to the people. **One document will not be enough to solve the issues of a class hierarchy as it is ingrained into French society. To fully abolished inequality in France, there needs to be widespread reform in society.

Chapelier Law

Context The Chapelier Law of 1791 was a decree that abolished large labor organizations that had previously kept talented workers on the bottom. This was a revolutionary document which supported the idea of equal opportunity. This abolishment was done with the hope that more small businesses would take the place of the large ones. Content The Chapelier Law laid out specific guidelines against creating large corporations. Any businesses were not allowed to form a corporate hierarchy in which some people had authority over others. People were also not allowed to make "under the table" deals that went against the government or authority forces; if this happened, people would be punished accordingly. Significance With the hope to strengthen the prosperity and opportunities available for the common man, France prohibited large corporations from developing. **Although this would be more beneficial for creating a strong middle class, it does not increase inflation in society as businesses can only become so successful. *This law would help the prosperity of the middle and lower classes, but it would limit the power of the upper class who are usually the providers of jobs which lead to mass production and strengthens the economy.

The Declaration of the Rights of Man

Context The National Assembly passed The Declaration of the Rights of Man which outlined Enlightenment values and morals of liberty and equality. The document states that the power of the government is invested in the people, everyone deserves natural rights, and the government's job is to protect the rights of the individual. This document is known by some as the marker of the end of the Old Regime. The Declaration of the Rights of Man takes inspiration from modern liberalism, Locke, and other American documents. Content The National Assembly is meant to represent the general will of the population. All men living in France deserve natural rights, equal opportunity, a fair trial, and freedom of speech. People are innocent until proven guilty and must follow the laws that the government lays out based off of the desires of the country. An army or militia must be created by Frenchmen to defend the country if needed. Finally, the last right is the right to property which can never be taken away from anyone. Significance There are many visible influences of this document-- American documents including the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution displaying the values of the individual and the power of the people. Also, Rousseau makes an appearance along with other Enlightenment thinkers including Montesquieu and Locke on issues of natural rights, general will, and the separation of powers. Lastly, the values of France can be seen in the declaration as the right to property is stated last for emphasis as one of the major issues with the feudal system was limited property rights for peasants.

The Petition of Right

Context The Petition of Right (1628) is a letter sent to Charles I from Parliament concerning the legal reform that Parliament wanted to enact upon the monarchy. This document catalyzed the English Civil War. Many of the ideas and arguments were used in the American Revolution against the British. Content Parliament is calling Charles I out on breaking England's laws. They are saying that Charles I is making his own laws, loans, and executions without fair trial by Parliament. Only Parliament has the right to make laws, and every freeman in England should have a fair trial before they are imprisoned or executed. Overall, Parliament is requesting for Charles I to submit to Parliament and go back to the laws established in previous years, such as the Magna Carta, limiting kings' power. Significance As the power of the monarchy corrupts the individual figurehead that holds all of the power, Parliament is realizing that a monarchical government may not be the most effective. Previous times throughout English history have kings become power hungry, and Parliament has always acted in various ways, from instituting limiting laws such as the Magna Carta to fighting back, to keep the king from becoming a dictator. In this source, Parliament is limiting kings' power even more, and as time goes on, the monarchy will go from the source of power in England to a ceremonial position with no real say in politics

Governor John Winthrop Provides a Model of Christian Charity

Context The Puritans who emigrated to Massachusetts wanted to form a church without any Catholic influence. Their settlement would be like a "city upon the hill" of community, piety, and moral. John Winthrop writes in 1630 to try to convince people to come to the New World. Content John Winthrop describes the settlement as a peaceful and prosperous self-governing society that is working in the name of God to spread the teachings and morals of Christ. The settlement is enacting upon the ideas of love and community to create a better world. The city is "city upon the hill", an example state that would set the example for all of the future settlements to be built up in America. There is pressure of the people and God upon the Puritans, but it is their duty to act. Significance The settlers in Massachusetts did not take their role lightly-- they wanted to build a nation of strong morals and community by setting a strong example. **The difference between the settlements in Massachusetts (north) and Virginia (south) can already be distinguished-- the Massachusetts settlement cared more about community and principles, whereas the Virginia settlement wanted money and success. **Is this document the precursor to the founding documents of "liberty", the Constitution and the Declaration of Independence, or were these morals lost as Colonists became more focused on material wealth?

The Argument Over Slave Importation

Context The issue of slavery became a heated debate, and the two opposing sides were the North vs. the South. The population count of states which would contribute to the number of representatives in Congress would include slaves as 3/5 of a person. Congress agreed to not take up slavery for twenty years (benefits the South), but when Congress made laws about shipping, they would only need a simple majority, not 2/3 majority (benefits North). These two clauses above (b and c) were ammendment written in the Constitution. James Madison, a well written man who is considered one of the founding fathers of liberty and freedom, argued for slavery to continue. This document shows a series of responses to the amendment in the Constitution on slavery. Content Anti-Slavery Arguments Tax on all slaves because slavery is against American morals. The end of slavery will happen naturally because of the hypocrisy of the values of America, so taxes on slaves is irrelevant in the big picture. Slaves leads to the increased poverty of poor white farmers in America as their jobs are taken by the slaves. Slavery also dehumanizes the slave owners. Cheap white labor will naturally drive slavery out of America-- die a natural death. Slavery Arguments Slavery is not supported in the Constitution, and because the South relies on it, it may be necessary for the South to leave the Union. Southern states need slavery in order to continue to prosper. Slavery helps the American economy go up overall. Neutral Arguments Each state should have the individual power to decide whether they have slavery or not. States should be able to make their own slave laws. Significance The arguments of slavery begin to divide as time goes on in America. Northern states begin to see how slavery clearly contradicts the American values of freedom and liberty, and that slavery is inherently wrong and dehumanizes everyone in the process. Southern states begin to rely on the slavery even more as economic pressures increase, creating a need for slavery in the South.

Abigail Adams to John Adams

Context This document is a series of letters sent from Abigail Adams to her husband John Adams. John Adams became the second President of the United States. Abigail Adams was a close advisor to her husband throughout his political career. Content Abigail Adams discusses the state of Boston during the Revolutionary War; it was in a state of chaos, disorder, and anarchy. Abigail Adams next discusses that when they will obtain freedom, they can relax and live their lives in peace and comfort without constant fear. Abigail Adams advises her husband to make sure that he includes representation and rights for women in the Declaration of Independence, so that they are not suppressed and have a role in America. Abigail describes that these gender rights will be beneficial for the whole country, so that the women do not rebel and stir up trouble. Adams lastly outlines that instead of making women objects for men's pleasure, he should describe men and women as equals and friends as Abigail and John Adams are for each other. Significance Abigail Adams is a powerful woman at the time as she has one of the founding father's ears on issues of gender inequality and rights. Adams argues on behalf of women, trying to convince John Adams that women are inherently equal to men and deserve to have a role in this new country they are creating. Abigail and John have an unconventional marriage in which they consider each other equals and close friends. **Abigail tries to tell John that if women were just given representation, voices, and rights, relationships between men and women could be like their marriage across the country, making the United States of America the strongest country in the world.

Leviathan

Context Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) was a British philosopher who lived through the English Civil War and the execution of Charles I who believed that humans were inherently evil and immoral beings. He believed that an absolutist government, in which one supreme ruler governed, was the only way to suppress and control human's selfish and competitive human nature. In Medieval times, rulers were justified their power through religion, and there were hundreds of official posts throughout the empire. Hobbes believes that rulers should rule through science, not religion, and should be relatively independent. Hobbes' novel Leviathan written in 1651 goes against the Medieval school of thought. In this particular passage, he outlines the characteristics of human nature and conflict. Content Hobbes argues that humans are relatively equal to each other, so they become very competitive if left to their own devices. Human have three natures: Competition which leads to violence. Diffedence which leads to self preservation and safety. Glory which leads to one caring and maintaining their reputation. If alone, humans would be in a state of constant fighting with each other, considering everyone an enemy, that Hobbes names Warre. Having a common power or sovereign will reduce Warre and society and create peace. When everyone gives up their rights and free will to a single sovereign, there is no competition between the people, and the ruler can make good decisions for everyone. This establishes a common wealth. This will reduce freedom of speech and keep down rebellions. People can also never get out of their Covenant with the ruler through religion because the ruler is under God, so breaking away from him is breaking away from God. Significance Hobbes makes a strong argument, but he overlooks certain aspects of human nature that disprove his theory. Hobbes underestimates the power of family, friendship, and love. People are united by these aspects of life and are willing to give up their own life if they care enough about another person which goes against the idea that everyone each other's enemy. Hobbes also overestimates the character and moral of a single ruler when he is given limitless and unchecked power history has proven that this often results in dictatorship and tyranny. By limiting free speech to keep the people silent and unrebellious, this breeds anger which leads to more rebellion. Lastly, people are not inherently trusting of others that they do not know, so most people would probably be wary about giving up all of their power to a single, entitled man.

Declaration of Independence with Congress's editorial changes

Context Thomas Jefferson, a wealthy planter from Virginia, was selected by a committee in the Continental Congress to draft their declaration of independence. Jefferson had previously attacked Parliament, and slowly came to be against the King of England as well. The Declaration of Independence was written in 1776. Content The Declaration of Independence states that it is necessary for America to break with their tyrannic rulers of England and make their own state which will be founded on the ideas of natural rights, consent of the governed, and the right to rebel and create a new form of government. The Declaration of Independence outlines all of the crimes that the King of England has committed against the colonies through him completely ignoring all of the laws that the colonists created. **Within the document, the Congress added a part denouncing slavery and blaming England for its existence in America. *Congress also added that the colonists founded the land by themselves without any British help, and now the British are coming to destroy their land with foreign mercenaries unless America fights for its freedom. The document ends stating that America is free from the rule of Britain and can do whatever they please as their own country. Significance The Declaration of Independence blames England for many issues in America that existed before the Revolutionary War. These parts were mostly added by Congress. For example, the document blames England for the existence of slavery, but slavery continued to be a large part of America even after America was free from Britain. Also, the document exaggerates the crimes of the King of England against America, and falsely states that Britain never helped the colonies during their inception.

The Age of Reason

Context Thomas Paine (1737-1809) was an English deist who moved to America in 1774. He believed in revolution, freedom, and progress in society. He was against Christianity, calling it superstition, and believed in a religion that reflected reasoning and scientific values. Content Thomas Paine says that he believes in a God, and he thinks that religion is supposed to spread peace and happiness throughout the earth. Paine is against the establishment of the Church and believes that many of the stories they tell have no divine origin. Paine also thinks that Jesus was a real, moral man, but was not divine at all. He believes that Jesus was like Confucius, spreading knowledge and lessons, but not the son of God. Paine lastly states that the Apostles that tell the story of Jesus' resurrection are the only evidence, thus there is no factual reason to believe any story of Christianity. Significance Paine bravely takes on the Church in this source and outrightly commits heresy on multiple accounts. He shames the stories of the Church, including the one of Jesus, calling them superstition and myth. Paine took a very dangerous path, one that may have forced him to leave England and travel to America after he published these controversial comments.

On the Principle of Population

Context Thomas Robert Malthus (1766-1834) was an English clergyman who believed that population increase caused poverty. Malthus argued that population would always increase and soon overwhelm the natural resources, but it was also kept in check through famine, war, and other natural elements. He believed that the poor should remain poor, because if they were helped, they would increase the population even more. Content Malthus argues that the population levels must be equal to the amount of food to supply the population. Malthus also states that people can self-regulate the population by abstinence or not marrying. Natural causes can regulate the population- war, famine, disease, drought, poverty, plague, or bad child care/human health. The poor people make themselves poor by having too many children that they cannot feed. Significance Malthus argues that limiting the amount of children will solve the issue of poverty. But, it is human nature to desire a family and partner to live one's life with. Thus, it requires a restrained and selfless human that will give up his natural desires to help the population. The poor can only help themselves by realizing that it is their children which cause poverty. There are many other factors that Malthus is not considering and he oversimplifies this issue very much.

Candide

Context Voltaire was on the many French Philosophers that wrote about issues in society through a satirical lense. Voltaire took on the ideas of philosophical optimism and militarism in Candide. Voltaire believed that if people looked at society in a solely optimistic way, they will never be able to achieve progress. Content Voltaire wrote of Candide, who was a naive man taught the philosophy that everything happened for a good reason. Candide tricked to enlisting in the Bulgarian army after he was too trusting towards these two men. Candide then is punished multiple times and forced to fight in the brutal war. Candide observes the destructive force of the military, destroying civilizations and causing deaths. Significance Through the satirical source, Voltaire is trying to show that not everything is leading towards a good path. At times, it is best to lose faith and switch your path then stay on a bad path. Voltaire is clearly against the optimistic philosophy. Also, Voltaire is showing how militarism is awful and destroys lives.

A Plea for Tolerance and Reason

Context Voltaire, the pen name François Marie Arouet (1694-1778), criticized French society greatly. He believed that Christianity was at the heart of the society's problems as it went against reason. Voltaire was a Deist in which he believed there was a God that created the universe, but then did not interact with the world after that. Content Voltaire discusses that tolerance never harms anything, only helps and creates peace and acceptance in society. He states that Christianity teaches acceptance, but the Church goes directly against this. He further argues that the teachings of Christianity are false and do not go with reasoning. Fanaticism, which is obsessive religiousness, is obtained by many Christians when they are so infatuated that they would kill for people. Persecution is based solely off of the fact that people don't agree with each other. Superstition is shown through the obsession with witchcraft which makes no sense and only creates fear and violence. Significance Voltaire is trying to show that the establishment of the Church is completely hypocritical and flawed. He proves through various methods that the teachings, the persecution, and superstition that these cause result in violence, rebellion, and death. The Church is what causes unrest, but more importantly, it stunts the progress of society in morals, science, and government.

Petitions of New England Slaves for Freedom

Context With ideas of natural rights and freedom spreading across America, slaves began to gain knowledge of these topics as well. Slaves used this new knowledge of American rights and liberty to support their petitions to the government arguing for varying degrees of their freedom. The Revolutionary War effectively spread these ideas around America to everyone including slaves. Content The petitions argued that slaves have the moral rights of Americans, and, once granted freedom, they will be good Christian additions to their communities under a common God with the white colonists. The petitions also argued that slavery is an unnecessary evil which does not help anyone, and with the values of freedom so strong in America, they should be extended to slaves as well in some form. It is stated that even the Spanish allowed their slaves to have minor rights such as working for themselves one day a week to hopefully eventually buy their freedom, a privilege that the colonists would not even grant the slaves. The petitions states that if granted freedom the slaves would only return home, and they are equal to their white masters. The petitions end with the argument that the Bible is against slavery as all humans come from a common ancestor-- Adam. Significance These petitions use multiple angles to get their point across that slavery is evil: pity towards slaves, religion, and revolutionary ideas of freedom. By arguing with the Bible and extending the "American" ideas of freedom to slavery, the petitions are attempting to connect with white people across America to get them to understand the hypocrisy of slavery. Attempting to inspire pity is an effort to get people involved with slavery to sympathize with the slaves and understand their awful situation.

Plight of the French Peasants

Context With severe resentment of the lower/middle classes towards the upper class, the tensions grew high in France despite the fact that the French peasants were comparatively well off to their central/eastern European counterparts. With an increased population leading to less land per peasant, high taxes on the peasants, and a bad harvest in 1788-1789 leading to famine, the peasants fell into poverty. Arthur Young (1741-1820) was an English agricultural expert who noted the environment in the French countryside before the Revolution began in 1789. Content The power of the monarchy was invested into a selected few who reigned tyrannically over the peasant masses. There were three types of taxes the peasants had to pay (land, income, and person), whereas the wealthy clergymen and nobility did not have to pay anything at all. The punishments on the peasants were very steep as well-- the punishments were either slave labor in galleys or death. The nobles (Capitaineries) took away the game on peasants' land for sport (hunting), when the peasants were starving because of their lack of food. The peasants despised the people that ruled them who forced them into poverty and oppression in the corrupt feudal system. Significance The environment before the French Revolution began were very tense between the First and Second Estates and the Third Estate. Because of the tyranny of the officials, flaunting their power in the face of the peasants through oppression, the resentment of the peasants grew to a breaking point. Young, an Englishman writing after the Revolutionary War in America, was disgusted by the level of oppression by the French to the peasants, showing that the peasants had reason to rebel.

The Great Cat Massacre

Darnton Printing press men (poor) were angry at their bourgeois' cats which were a symbol of their wealth. They killed them in a similar way to the September Massacres (later) Shows class tensions

What was so revolutionary?

Darton The Revolution was a series of extraordinary changes that occurred to ordinary people trying to understand and contribute to what was going on around them. Violence was a means to create and maintain these circumstances.

Queen Elizabeth I

England 1533-1603 Queen Elizabeth I was an early "feminist" in a way; she never married or had kids and claimed to be a virgin until death. She established the Protestant Church in England as the Church of England. She reinstated the Book of the Common Prayer as a means to popularize Protestantism.

King James I and VI

England 1566-1625 King James I of England and VI of Scotland ruled on the basis of the divine right of kings, stating that kings were God's lieutenants on earth. He believed that a good king frames his actions around the law but is not bound by it. He was interested and believed in witchcraft. King James had favoritism towards English Catholics.

Oliver Cromwell

England 1599-1658 Oliver Cromwell fought against King Charles I under Parliament's guidance, and after the beheading of Charles I, Cromwell established a military dictatorship called the Cromwell Protectorate and made himself Lord Protector. Cromwell declared Martial Law (military law in place of normal laws). He also created a Puritan state: no sports, no theater, no free speech, no Catholicism. He crushed an Irish rebellion by massacring priest.

King Charles I

England 1600-1649 King Charles I went even further towards absolutism. He attempted to collected taxes without Parliament's consent for his person money for his own agenda. He suppressed Parliament without the consent of the people after ruling without Parliament from 1629-1640. Charles I was tried for treason and beheaded.

King Charles II

England 1630-1685 King Charles II was the first king after the English Restoration which brought back the monarchy after the failed Cromwell Protectorate. The English restoration had more checks and balances which Charles II did not accept and he had corrupt dealings with the French. Charles II was Catholic which opposed the Church of England.

King James II

England 1633-1701 King James II succeeded King Charles II and was the last monarch before the Glorious Revolution. He violated the Test Act as he, likewise to Charles II, did not enjoy his limited power by Parliament. James II was Catholic which opposed the Church of England.

Queen Mary II

England 1662-1694 Queen Mary II became queen with her husband, William of Orange after the Glorious Revolution. The monarchy now was at the will of Parliament and lacked the power it previously had. They were both Protestants.

Thomas Paine

England 1737-1809 Thomas Paine was an English deist who moved to America in 1774. He believed that Christianity was flawed and that it was not reasonable at all. He disproved the theory of Jesus and believed he had a role like Confucius. He thought that Christianity was like superstition and mythology, which might have been part of the reason he left England.

King Louis XVI

France 1754-1793 King Louis XVI was the king before the French Revolution started. Although he tried many methods to quell the revolution before it started, his calling upon the Estates General showed the peasants their power and ultimately led to the French Revolution. Louis XVI was symbolically executed-- showing the shift in France away from the power of the king and that no one was above the law.

Marie Antoinette

France 1755-1793 Marie Antoinette was the foreign Austrian wife of King Louis XVI who was hated among the lower class people of France. She was known for spending money in excessive ways while her people were starving. She was ultimately guillotined during the French Revolution. Marie Antoinette represented the class differences in Paris.

Maximilien Robespierre

France 1758-1794 Robespierre was the leader of the Committee of Public Safety and is known for being the leader during the Reign of Terror and the Republic of Virtue. Robespierre takes great influence from Rousseau, as he believes in extreme republicanism and the general will. He believed that the way to get a perfect republic was to use terror to suppress those that decent. Terror was method to achieve virtue and was a form of justice. Although his ideals imply that he would focus on individual rights, Robespierre created a dictatorship by attempting to achieve a utopian society by exterminating everyone that posed a potential threat to his system.

The Headless Horseman: The Reign of Terror Revisited

Gopnik French society was violent before and after the Terror. Does it matter the justification for violence in society? Or is the violence itself the contributing factor?

Aristotle

Greece 384-322 B.C.E. Created many philosophies that were adopted by the Church and Western society during the Middle Ages. Specifically, his theory that the earth was the center of the solar system, and the planets and heavenly bodies revolved around a fixed earth and other impenetrable forces was the most popular and adopted.

Galileo

Italy 1546-1642 Galileo was an astronomer that created many new astronomical objects to be used. He pioneered the experimental method, and founded the uniform force of gravity that is applicable to uniform acceleration. He also discovered the law of inertia, which states that rest is not an object's natural state (object in motion stay in motion in the absence of an opposing force- ex: friction).

Agrarian Revolts The Great Fear

Lefebvre Outlines what happens in these two events Explains possible way that information could have spread- marketplaces

Copernicus

Poland 1473-1543 Believed that the sun was at the center of the universe, which went directly against Aristotle's views, and thus against the Church. He also theorized circular orbits, but did not publish his findings until right before he died out of fear of scrutiny from the Church and society. He is often considered the person who began the Scientific Revolution.

George Washington

Virginia, USA 1732-1799 George Washington was the first president of the United States and was the commanding general during the Revolutionary War. He was appointed his position of commanding general by the Second Continental Congress. He was a believer in the Republic.

Thomas Jefferson

Virginia, USA 1743-1826 Thomas Jefferson, the third president of the USA, is known for being one of the founding fathers of America. Thomas Jefferson wrote the Declaration of Independence and was one of the firmest believers in republicanism, equality, and liberty. Thus, it is ironic that he held many slaves his entire life and never gave them up.

James Madison

Virginia, USA 1751-1836 James Madison was the fourth president of the USA who was a founding father as well. James Madison is known for writing the Constitution of America.