Final Midterm study set for SPC2608

extemporaneous speech

A carefully prepared and rehearsed speech that is presented from a brief set of notes. Unlike an impromptu speech, which is delivered off-the-cuff, an extemporaneous speech is carefully prepared and practiced in advance. In presenting the speech, the extemporaneous speaker uses only a brief set of notes or a speaking outline to jog the memory. The exact wording is chosen at the moment of delivery.

Hasty generalization

A fallacy in which a speaker jumps to a general conclusion on the basis of insufficient evidence.

False cause

A fallacy in which a speaker mistakenly assumes that because one event follows another, the first event is the cause of the second.

ad hominem

A fallacy that attacks the person rather than dealing with the real issue in dispute.

Either-or

A fallacy that forces listeners to choose between two alternatives when more than two alternatives exist.

Red herring

A fallacy that introduces an irrelevant issue to divert attention from the subject under discussion.

Bandwagon

A fallacy which assumes that because something is popular, it is therefore good, correct, or desirable.

appeal to novelty

A fallacy which assumes that something new is automatically better than something old.

Appeal to tradition

A fallacy which assumes that something old is automatically better than something new.

Slippery slope

A fallacy which assumes that taking a first step will lead to subsequent steps that cannot be prevented.

Pie graph

A graph that highlights segments of a circle to show simple distribution patterns.

Bar graph

A graph that uses vertical or horizontal bars to show comparisons among two or more items

comparative advantages order

A method of organizing persuasive speeches in which each main point explains why a speaker's solution to a problem is preferable to other proposed solutions.

Problem-solution order

A method of organizing persuasive speeches in which the first main point deals with the existence of a problem and the second main point presents a solution to the problem.

Vocalized pause

A pause that occurs when a speaker fills the silence between words with vocalizations such as "uh," "er," and "um."

speech to gain passive agreement

A persuasive speech in which the speaker's goal is to convince the audience that a given policy is desirable without encouraging the audience to take action in support of the policy.

Question of policy

A question about whether a specific course of action should or should not be taken.

cliché

A trite or overused expression.

Dialect

A variety of a language distinguished by variations of accent, grammar, or vocabulary.

Chart

A visual aid that summarizes a large block of information, usually in list form.

Graph

A visual aid used to show statistical trends and patterns.

Specific purpose statements for persuasive speeches on questions of fact

But many questions of fact cannot be answered absolutely. There is a true answer, but we don't have enough information to know what it is. Some questions like this involve prediction: Will the economy be better or worse next year? Who will win the Super Bowl this season? Other questions deal with issues on which the facts are murky or inconclusive. To persuade my audience that an earthquake of 9.0 or above on the Richter scale will hit California in the next 10 years.

Manuscript

Certain speeches must be delivered word for word, according to a meticulously prepared manuscript. In such situations, absolute accuracy is essential. Every word of the speech will be analyzed by the press, by colleagues, perhaps by enemies. In the case of the president, a mis- stated phrase could cause an international incident.

clutter

Discourse that takes many more words than are necessary to express an idea

Guidlines for presenting visual aids

Display visual aids where listeners can see them. Avoid passing visual aids among the audience. Display visual aids only while discussing them. Explain visual aids clearly and concisely. Talk tto your audience, not to your visual aid. Practice with them. Check the room/equipment

Practicing Delivery

Go through your preparation outline aloud to check how what you have written translates into spoken discourse. Prepare your speaking outline. Practice the speech aloud several times using only the speaking outline. Now begin to polish and refine your delivery. Finally, give your speech a dress rehearsal under conditions as close as possible to those you will face in class.

Good delivery

Good delivery does not call attention to itself. It conveys the speaker's ideas clearly, interestingly, and without distracting the audience. Most audiences prefer delivery that combines a certain degree of formality with the best attributes of good conversation—directness, spontaneity, animation, vocal and facial expressiveness, and a lively sense of communication. When you plan your first speech (or your second or third), you should concentrate on such basics as speaking intelligibly, avoiding distracting mannerisms, and establishing eye contact with your listeners.

Use a Consistent Pattern of Symbolization and Indentation

In the most common system of outlining, main points are identified by Roman numerals and are indented equally so as to be aligned down the page. Subpoints (components of the main points) are identified by capital letters and are also indented equally so as to be aligned with each other.

The Special Nature of the Online Environment

In the online environment, you have a fundamentally different relationship with your audience. Because you're not in the same room with them, gauging their responses can be difficult.In fact, almost every aspect of the speech communication process can be affected by the online environment. Think, for example, about the kinds of interference you might face online. Interference can come from the physical spaces where your listeners are located—someone unexpectedly entering the room or a noise in the hallway outside. But interference can also come from the technology connecting you with your audience.

Using Language Vividly

Just as you can be accurate without being clear, so you can be both accurate and clear without being interesting. Speakers can use imagery in much the same way to make their ideas come alive. Three ways to generate imagery are by using concrete words, simile, and metaphor. As we saw earlier in this chapter, choosing concrete words over abstract words is one way to enhance the clarity of your speeches. Concrete words are also the key to effective imagery. Concrete words call up mental impressions of sights, sounds, touch, smell, and taste. The concrete words create images that pull us irresistibly into the speech.

inclusive language

Language that does not stereotype, demean, or patronize people on the basis of gender, race, religion, disability, sexual orientation, or other factors.

factors of credibility

Many things affect a speaker's credibility, including sociability, dynamism, physical attractiveness, and perceived similarity between speaker and audience. Competence—how an audience regards a speaker's intelligence, expertise, and knowledge of the subject. Character—how an audience regards a speaker's sincerity, trustworthiness, and concern for the well-being of the audience. Initial credibility—the credibility of the speaker before she or he starts to speak. Derived credibility—the credibility of the speaker produced by everything she or he says and does during the speech itself. Terminal credibility—the credibility of the speaker at the end of the speech.

Ethics and persuasion

No matter what the speaking situation, you need to make sure your goals are ethi- cally sound and that you use ethical methods to communicate your ideas. Meeting these obligations can be especially challenging when you speak to persuade. Show respect for the rights of free speech and expression, and stay away from name-calling and other forms of abusive language

Guidlines for online speaking

One way to control the visual environment is to choose a setting that will communi- cate the level of professionalism needed for your speech. Find a quiet room where you will not be interrupted by traffic noise or by people coming and going. Make sure there are no posters, paintings, or knickknacks behind you that will deflect attention from your message. The same is true of clutter—cups, dishes, pens, paper, erasers, staplers, and so forth. One way to adjust your pacing is to alter what appears on the audience's screen; this is especially important the longer a speech becomes. In a real-time presentation, it's usually a good idea to stay on-screen early in the speech, thereby establishing a visual connection with the audience. Once you've established that connection, you can alternate between shots of yourself and your visual aids.

Presentation Technology

Presentation technology allows you to integrate a variety of visual aids—including charts, graphs, photographs, and video—in the same talk. The most widely used presentation program is PowerPoint, but in recent years it has been joined by a host of competitors. When used well, presentation technology is a great boon to communication. Unfortunately, it is not always used well. Too often speakers allow it to dominate their talks, wowing the audience with their technical proficiency while losing the message in a flurry of sounds and images. Visual aids make a speaker's message clearer, more interesting, and easier to retain. If you are going to employ presentation technology effectively, you need a clear idea of exactly why, how, and when to use it. Rather than putting everything you say on-screen for the audience to read, you need to choose which aspects of your speech to illustrate. This requires careful planning.

Specific purpose statements for persuasive speeches on questions of policy

Questions of policy arise daily in almost everything we do. To persuade my audience to donate to the Wounded Warrior Project. To persuade my audience to vote in the upcoming state and local elections. To persuade my audience to establish retirement accounts early in their careers.

Methods of Reasoning

Reasoning for specific instances, principle, casual reasoning, analogical reasoning, and fallacies

Analogical reasoning

Reasoning in which a speaker compares two similar cases and infers that what is true for the first case is also true for the second.

Reasoning from specific instances

Reasoning that moves from particular facts to a general conclusion.

Casual reasoning

Reasoning that seeks to establish the relationship between causes and effects.

A note on Inclusive language

Regardless of the situation, audiences typically expect public speakers to use inclusive language that is respectful of the different groups that make up American society. They also expect speakers to avoid stereotypes based on age, race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, disability, and other factors. Avoid the Generic "He", Avoid the Use of "Man" When Referring to Both Men and Women, Avoid Stereotyping Jobs and Social Roles by Gender, and Use Names That Groups Use to Identify Themselves

Analyzing questions of policy

Regardless of whether your aim is to elicit passive agreement or to gain immediate action, you will face three basic issues whenever you discuss a question of policy— need, plan, and practicality.

repetition

Reiteration of the same word or set of words at the beginning or end of successive clauses or sentences.

Alliteration

Repetition of the initial consonant sound of close or adjoining words.

denotative meaning

The literal or dictionary meaning of a word or phrase.

Volume

The loudness or softness of the speaker's voice.

connotative meaning

The meaning suggested by the associations or emotions triggered by a word or phrase.

Mental dialogue with the audience

The mental give-and-take between speaker and listener during a persuasive speech.

Logos

The name used by Aristotle for the logical appeal of a speaker. The two major elements of logos are evidence and reasoning.

Ethos

The name used by Aristotle for what modern students of communication refer to as credibility.

Pathos

The name used by Aristotle for what modern students of communication refer to as emotional appeal.

Burden of proof

The obligation facing a persuasive speaker to prove that a change from current policy is necessary

Visual environment

The on-screen elements seen by the audience during an online speech.

rhythm

The pattern of sound in a speech created by the choice and arrangement of words.

visual framework

The pattern of symbolization and indentation in a speech outline that shows the relationships among the speaker's ideas.

Articulation

The physical production of particular speech sounds.

target audience

The portion of the whole audience that the speaker most wants to persuade.

persuasion

The process of creating, reinforcing, or changing people's beliefs or actions.

Reasoning

The process of drawing a conclusion on the basis of evidence.

Plan

The second basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: If there is a problem with current policy, does the speaker have a plan to solve the problem?

parallelism

The similar arrangement of a pair or series of related words, phrases, or sentences.

How to distinguish a speech title

Whatever the reason, if you do decide to use a title, it should (1) be brief, (2) attract the attention of your audience, and (3) encapsulate the main thrust of your speech. Those in the first group clearly reveal the topic, but they are not as provocative as those in the second group. Those in the second group are sure to arouse interest, but they do not give as clear an idea of what the speeches are about. Remember that a question can be a title as well.

Meanings of Words

Words have two kinds of meanings—denotative and connotative. Denotative meaning is precise, literal, and objective. It describes the object, person, place, idea, or event. to which the word refers. One way to think of a word's denotative meaning is as its dictionary definition. For example, denotatively, the noun "school" means "a place, institution, or building where instruction is given." Connotative meaning is more variable, figurative, and subjective. The connota- tive meaning of a word is what the word suggests or implies. For instance, the conno- tative meaning of the word "school" includes all the feelings, associations, and emotions that the word touches off in different people. For some people, "school" might connote personal growth, childhood friends, and a special teacher. For others, it might connote frustration, discipline, and boring homework assignments. Connotative meaning gives words their intensity and emotional power. It arouses in listeners feelings of anger, pity, love, fear, friendship, nostalgia, greed, guilt, and the like.

abstract words

Words that refer to ideas or concepts.

concrete words

Words that refer to tangible objects.

Aims of persuasive speaking

Your aim will be to convey knowledge and understanding—not to advocate a cause. Your speech will be judged in light of three general criteria: Is the information communicated accurately?Is the information communicated clearly?Is the information made meaningful and interesting to the audience?

Types of speaking for speeches

extemporaneously—which means the speech is carefully prepared and practiced in advance, but much of the exact wording is selected while the speech is being delivered. speaking outline—the most widely recommended form of notes for extemporaneous speeches.

Reciting from memory

practice of presenting even the longest and most complex speeches entirely from memory. Nowadays it is no longer customary to memorize any but the shortest of speeches—toasts, congratulatory remarks, acceptance speeches, introductions, and the like. If you are giving a speech of this kind and want to memorize it, by all means do so. However, be sure to memorize it so thoroughly that you will be able to concentrate on communicating with the audience, not on trying to remember the words.

Analyze questions of value

questions of value are not simply matters of personal opinion or whim. if you say, "Bicycle riding is the ideal form of land transpor- tation," you are making a statement about a question of value. Whether bicycling is the ideal form of land transportation does not depend on your own likes and dislikes. To defend the statement, you cannot say, "Bicycle riding is the ideal form of land transportation because I like it." Instead, you must justify your claim

Important pieces of the speakers body

personal appearance, movement, gestures, and eye contact.

Concept

A belief, theory, idea, notion, principle, or the like.

thesaurus

A book of synonyms.

speaking outline

A brief outline used to jog a speaker's memory during the presentation of a speech.

font

A complete set of type of the same design.

Monotone

A constant pitch or tone of voice.

Preparation outline

A detailed outline developed during the process of speech preparation that includes the title, specific purpose, central idea, introduction, main points, subpoints, connectives, conclusion, and bibliography of a speech.

Line graph

A graph that uses one or more lines to show changes in statistics over time or space.

Problem-cause-solution order

A method of organizing persuasive speeches in which the first main point identifies a problem, the second main point analyzes the causes of the problem, and the third main point presents a solution to the problem.

Monroe's motivated sequence

A method of organizing persuasive speeches that seeks immediate action. The five steps of the motivated sequence are attention, need, satisfaction, visualization, and action.

Pause

A momentary break in the vocal delivery of a speech.

speech to gain immediate action

A persuasive speech in which the speaker's goal is to convince the audience to take action in support of a given policy.

question of fact

A question about the truth or falsity of an assertion.

Question of value

A question about the worth, rightness, morality, and so forth of an idea or action.

impromptu speech

A speech delivered with little or no immediate preparation. Most speeches in life. You might be called on suddenly to "say a few words" or, in the course of a class discussion, business meeting, or committee report, want to respond to a previous speaker.

informative speech

A speech designed to convey knowledge and understanding.

Real-time online speech

A speech that has been created specifically for an audience that will view it online as it is being delivered.

Recorded online speech

A speech that is delivered, recorded, then uploaded to the Internet.

manuscript speech

A speech that is written out word for word and read to the audience.

Contrast

A statement of the differences among two or more people, events, ideas, etc.

Comparison

A statement of the similarities among two or more people, events, ideas, etc.

Description

A statement that depicts a person, event, idea, or the like with clarity and vividness.

Process

A systematic series of actions that leads to a specific result or product.

Creating common ground

A technique in which a speaker connects himself or herself with the values, attitudes, or experiences of the audience

Invalid analogy

An analogy in which the two cases being compared are not essentially alike.

Fallacy

An error in reasoning

simile

An explicit comparison, introduced with the word "like" or "as," between things that are essentially different yet have something in common.

metaphor

An implicit comparison, not introduced with the word "like" or "as," between two things that are essentially different yet have something in common.

Event

Anything that happens or is regarded as happening.

Object

Anything that is visible, tangible, and stable in form.

Four reasons listeners are persuaded by a speaker

Because they perceive the speaker as having high credibility.Because they are won over by the speaker's evidence.Because they are convinced by the speaker's reasoning.Because their emotions are touched by the speaker's ideas or language.

Vocal variety

Changes in a speaker's rate, pitch, and volume that give the voice variety and expressiveness.

Inflections

Changes in the pitch or tone of a speaker's voice.

nonverbal communication

Communication based on a person's use of voice and body, rather than on the use of words.

Eye contact

Direct visual contact with the eyes of another person

delivery cues

Directions in a speaking outline to help a speaker remember how she or he wants to deliver key parts of the speech.

Guidelines for Informative speaking

Don't overestimate what the audience knows, relate the subject directly to the audience, don't be too technical, avoid abstractions, personalize your ideas, and be creative.

Transitions

Including transitions ensures that the speaker has worked out how to connect one idea to the next. Notice that the transition is not included in the system of symbolization and indentation used for the rest of the speech.

Using language appropriately

Language needs to be appropriate to a speaker's topic, as well as to the audience.A speech on kitesurfing would use more action-oriented words than would a speech about theories of psychology. Needs to be appropriate for the occasion, audience, topic, and the speaker.

Gestures

Motions of a speaker's hands or arms during a speech.

Kinds of Visual aids

Objects and models, photographs and drawings, graphs, charts, videos, and the speaker

Guidlines for preparing visual aids

Prepare visual aids well in advance. Keep visual aids simple. Make sure visual aids are large enough. Use a limited amount of text use for effectively. Use fonts effectively. Use color effectively. Use images strategically.

conversational quality

Presenting a speech so it sounds spontaneous no matter how many times it has been rehearsed.

reasoning from principle

Reasoning that moves from a general principle to a specific conclusion.

Preparation for persuasive outline

State the Specific Purpose of Your Speech. Identify the Central Idea. Label the Introduction, Body, and Conclusion. Use a Consistent Pattern of Symbolization and Indentation.

Specific purpose statements for persuasive speeches on questions of value

Such questions not only involve matters of fact, but they also demand value judgments—judgments based on a person's beliefs about what is right or wrong, good or bad, moral or immoral, proper or improper, fair or unfair. To persuade my audience that bicycle riding is the ideal form of land transportation.

Evidence

Supporting materials used to prove or disprove something.

pronunciation

The accepted standard of sound and rhythm for words in a given language.

credibility

The audience's perception of whether a speaker is qualified to speak on a given topic. The two major factors influencing a speaker's credibility are competence and character.

Terminal credibility

The credibility of a speaker at the end of the speech.

Initial credibility

The credibility of a speaker before she or he starts to speak.

Derived credibility

The credibility of a speaker produced by everything she or he says and does during the speech.

Online environment

The elements of Internet communication that influence an online speech, including the remote audience, factors of technology, and unique forms of interference.

Need

The first basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: Is there a serious problem or need that requires a change from current policy?

Pitch

The highness or lowness of the speaker's voice.

Antithesis

The juxtaposition of contrasting ideas, usually in parallel structure.

Rate

The speed at which a person speaks.

Kinesics

The study of body motions as a systematic mode of communication.

Practicality

The third basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: Will the speaker's plan solve the problem? Will it create new and more serious problems?

imagery

The use of vivid language to create mental images of objects, actions, or ideas.

Methods of delivery

There are four basic methods of delivering a speech: (1) reading verbatim from a manuscript, (2) reciting a memorized text, (3) speaking impromptu, and (4) speak- ing extemporaneously. Let us look at each.

How listeners process persuasive messages

We often think of persuasion as something a speaker does to an audience. In fact, persuasion is something a speaker does with an audience. Listeners do not just sit passively and soak in everything the speaker has to say. Instead, they engage in a mental give-and-take with the speaker. While they listen, they assess the speaker's credibility, delivery, supporting materials, language, reasoning, and emotional appeals. They may respond positively at one point, negatively at another. At times they may argue, inside their own minds, with the speaker. This mental give-and-take is especially vigorous when listeners are highly involved with the topic and believe it has a direct bearing on their lives