Food Final Material

Butter Cakes

Sometimes called shortening cakes, these are cakes made with butter or shortening, flour, eggs, liquid, and baking soda or soda. Avoid overmixing batter, which can cause tunnels or a sunken center. Bake cakes on center oven rack, arranging pans so that there is at least 1 inch of space between the pans and the sides of the oven. If not all pans will fit on one rack, refrigerate one pan of batter until the others are baked, and then bake remaining layer separately. Grease pans with solid shortening, not butter or margarine. Use cooking spray if recipe calls for it. To remove cake from pan, insert knife betwen cake and pan, then slide around edge to loosen it. Place wire rack upside down over cake. Invert carefully so cake is on rack and remove the pan. Invert onto another rack to flip cake right side up. Cut cake with thin, sharp knife in gentle sawing motion.

brown sugar (measure)

Spoon into cup and pack tightly, leveling off to finish. Brown sugar should hold the shape of the cup when it's dumped.

Foolproof (foam cakes)

The best foam cakes are high, golden brown with cracks in the surface, soft, moist and delicate. Here are some tings that can happen, with solutions to help. Low and compact-underbeaten, overmixed, or overfolded batter, incorrect cooling or underbaking. Coarse and not tender--underbeaten egg whites or underfolded batter.

Best pans

The best pans to use for making pies are actually heat-resistant glass pie plates. The next best alternative would be a dull aluminum pie pan. Shiny or disposable pie pans reflect the heat and prevent crusts from browning. Dark pans absorb heat, causing overbrowning. Nonstick pans can cause a filled crust that isn't well anchored to the edge of the pan or an unfilled pie crust to shrink excessively. Use the size pie plate or pan called for in the recipe. Because pastry is high in fat, there is no need to grease the pie plate.

Ways to Cook

The cookbook addresses many ways to prepare a bird, from roasting to microwaving. Whatever cooking method you choose, make sure you don't expose the bird to too high heat for too long, as this will result in a dry product. Additionally, make sure your preparation method ensures safe and complete cooking of the poultry. Many chicken recipes call for cooked chicken pieces. Chicken cooked in any fashion can be used in such recipes, but one easy way to cook chicken is to boil it. You just need to make sure you have enough water and that you do not overcook the meat. The following is a simple way to cook any type of thawed chicken pieces (breasts, thighs, etc.) in a pot of water. If you follow these directions, the chicken should turn out cooked, tender, and moist.

Turkey

A lot of preparation is required to prepare the traditional Thanksgiving dinner. For this reason, many people have the misconception that it is difficult to roast a turkey. In fact, roasting a turkey is simple. It requires a bit of planning and even less work for a great end product. A good cook can get many meals out of a turkey. Most people enjoy warm turkey the day it is prepared, but afterwards, extra turkey can be used in salads, sandwiches, casseroles, soups, and about any recipe that calls for chicken. In addition, when you consider food products made from turkey—ground turkey, turkey ham, turkey sausage, turkey bacon, etc.—it is easy to see how versatile turkey can be.

Foam Cakes

Angel food, sponge and chiffon cakes are types of foam cakes, which depend on beaten egg white for their light and airy texture. Angel food cakes-- contain no added leavening, fat, or egg yolks. They have a high proportion of beaten egg whites to flour. Sponge cakes--use both egg whites and yolks and sometimes a little leavening, but do not contain other added fat. Chiffon cakes are a cross between foam and butter cakes, made with some leavening, vegetable oil, or shortening and egg yolks, as well as beaten egg whites.

Complete Proteins

Animal sources of protein provide the body with all the essential amino acids

Chicken Saute

Another method is to cut chicken into bite-sized pieces and sauté in vegetable oil in a skillet until firm and no longer pink. This method is quick, but takes a bit more constant watching and work on your part than does the previous method. Try both and see which works best for you.

Texturizer (and fermentation aid- without sugar yeast doesn't activate and rise-- sugar feeds the yeast)

As an ingredient in ice cream, yogurt, cakes and cookies, sugar makes these products creamy, light and soft—sugar is a texturizer. You already learned in lesson 6 that sugar is a fermentation aid in yeast breads. Without sugar and warm water, yeast doesn't activate and rise, because sugar feeds the yeast. Sugar and other sweeteners are vital ingredients in many products. Artificial sweeteners aren't recommended for yeast breads because they can't "feed" the yeast.

Pre-sifted Flour (measure)

As its name indicates, pre-sifted flour has already been sifted. If pre-sifted flour has been stored for a long time and has become packed, you may need to stir it before you lightly spoon it into a measuring cup and level it.

Sugar and Liquid (make candy)

Because a mixture of sugar and liquid is the basis for all cooked candy, making candy is a great way to see how sugar works. When you follow a good candy recipe carefully, you will get a product with the right consistency, flavor, and texture.

Cake

Birthdays! Weddings! Celebrations! Cake is associated with fun. It is easy to make a cake, and decorating a cake can be a creative outlet. Many people don't even realize that cake can be made from scratch. Commercial cake mixes have become prevalent and are some of the few convenience foods that are actually less expensive to buy than to make from scratch. When flavor is compared, however, there is nothing that compares to a homemade cake. When you have mastered the art of cake baking and want to branch out, you can take your talents one step further by taking a cake decorating class through a local continuing education program, a retail craft store, or even some supermarkets. Think of the fun you can have!

Cold Water Test

Both of these factors can be accounted for by doing a simple test each time you use your candy thermometer. Unless otherwise indicated, cooked candy recipes are written for sea level, where water boils at 212º F. To calibrate your candy thermometer, follow the simple steps below: Place the candy thermometer in a pan of water and bring to a boil. Make sure the bottom of the thermometer is not directly touching the bottom of the pan, as the temperature of the pan and not that of the water will register on your thermometer. Once the water boils, check the temperature on your thermometer. If the thermometer reads higher than 212 ºF, you will add that number to the degrees given in the recipe. For example, if your water boils at 214 ºF (2º above 212) and the recipe tells you to cook to 234º F, you will actually cook to 234 ºF plus 2, or 236 ºF. If the thermometer reads lower than 212 ºF, you will subtract that number from the degrees given in the recipe. For example, if your water boils at 205 ºF (7º below 212) and your recipe tells you to cook to 234 ºF, you will actually cook to 234 ºF minus 7, or 227 ºF. It's that easy, and you should check your thermometer each time you make candy. If you don't check your thermometer and adjust the recipe accordingly, you could either cook your candy for too long or not enough time, resulting in an inferior product. If your thermometer is off by a large number (more than 15°) consider replacing your thermometer.

Quick Bread

Breads that use baking powder or baking soda as the leavening to make them rise are called quick breads. Unlike yeast breads, which require rising time, quick breads usually can be baked as soon as they are mixed. Muffins, scones, and biscuits are a few common types of quick breads that you can make, no matter what your skill level, as they offer fresh-from-the-oven results, easily.

fridge temperature

Check the temperature in your refrigerator and make sure it is 35-40° Fahrenheit.

Freezing Filled Pies

Completely cool baked pies before freezing. Completely cool baked pies before freezing. Freeze pies with room around them so that the pastry edge won't get broken or misshapen during freezing. Once they are frozen, other items can tough up against the pies. Do not freeze cream, custard, and meringue-topped pies. The filling and the meringue will break down and become watery. Fruit pies can be frozen baked or unbaked> pecan and pumbpkin pies need to be baked before freezing.

Cookies

Cookies make great everyday snacks. Almost everyone has made cookies once in their lives. If you are in a "cookie rut," making the same cookies each time you want to indulge, try a new recipe from the cookie section of your cookbook. You can't go wrong. Keep in mind that the high elevation adjustments mentioned in the cake section above usually apply when making cookies. Maybe the cookie recipe you just can't get to turn out well actually will with a few changes. Keep trying!

disposable tissue

Cover coughs and sneezes with disposable tissues.

same spoon

Do not use the same spoon more than once for tasting food while preparing or cooking. (In addition, using a spoon to serve baby food directly from a jar or can may contaminate any remaining food).

Safe Meat

Don't forget about safe food handling! When working with raw meat keep your hands, preparation tools, and preparation surfaces clean. Watch out for cross-contamination. Don't serve cooked meat on plates that held raw meat. Thoroughly cook marinades if they are to be used as a sauce with your cooked meat. Thaw frozen meat in the refrigerator or microwave; never on the countertop. Always thaw meat in a dish with sides to catch any drips during thawing. Remember, when you reheat protein-rich foods, the temperature needs to reach 165º Farenheit.

carefully

Follow recipes carefully, using the proper equipment.

Tenderize or stabilize (fat and sugar, or flour)

For cakes, cookies, brownies, etc., at higher elevations, you need to either decrease the amount of tenderizing agents (fat and sugar) or increase the amount of stabilizing agents (flour). If you choose the latter method, you should probably add a bit of water so the end product isn't too dry.

Remove Skin (For lower fat)

For our discussion on poultry, we will focus mainly on chicken and turkey, as these are the most commonly consumed birds in the U.S. Poultry does not differ greatly from other meats in nutritional value, except that the white meat of the breast is lower in fat and cholesterol than other meats. Much of the fat in poultry is in or directly under the skin. This fat adds moisture, but does not transfer to the meat, during cooking. The skin can be removed before eating for a lower fat food.

Will ripen

Fruit such as bananas, pears, peaches, cantaloupe, and kiwifruit will ripen after purchase.

Fruits

Fruits provide vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates, and fiber (indigestible parts of plant foods that aid in digestion and elimination). Most fruits have very little, if any, fat, making them a perfect snack food.

ripe fruit

Fruits such as berries, pineapples, watermelon, cherries, and apples will not ripen after purchase, so look for ripe fruit.

Fat (Fat has nine calories per gram while carbs and proteins provide on four calories)

Though there is much talk about reducing fat in the diet, fat must still be an integral part of human nutrition. Some of us just make fat more integral than it needs to be. Our bodies need fat to store energy, carry vitamins, and cushion internal organs. Fats also carry food flavors and give us a sense of fullness. Remember, fats have more than twice the calories per gram than either carbohydrates or proteins. Fat has nine calories per gram, while carbohydrates and proteins provide the body with four calories per gram. The most commonly used fats in cooking and baking are butter, margarine, cooking oils, salad dressings, and mayonnaise. In addition to being an ingredient in recipes, fat naturally occurs (often called hidden fat) in a number of previously discussed foods like cheese, whole milk, meat, nuts, and egg yolks.

Baking tips (pies)

Tips for baking pies and pastry: Bake pies at higher temperatures than cakes (375ºF to 425ºF) to dry and brown the pastry while cooking the filling thoroughly. Cover pastry edges with a protective ring or foil covers to keep them from getting too brown, then remove the cover for the last 15 minutes so the edges will brown nicely.

Storing Cakes

Tips for storing cakes: Cool unfrosted cakes completely before you cover them so the tops won't become sticky. Place cakes with creamy powdered-sugar frosting in a cake carrier or loosely cover them with plastic wrap or foil, and store them at room temperature. It's best to serve cakes with meringue-type frosting the same day you make them, because egg-white based frostings tend to get soggy in storage.

Paper Bag

To ripen fruits after purchase, place them in a paper bag at room temperature 1 to 2 days. Don't use a plastic bag, as mold can form.

temperature and time

Two main factors in food preparation and service warrant special attention: temperature and time. Bacteria, mold, yeast, and enzymes spoil food, even making it poisonous, if allowed to develop. Between 60 and 125 °F, bacterial growth is rapid. Food maintained within this range for two to three hours or more may be unsafe to eat. Some growth still occurs between 40 and 60 °F and between 125 and 140°; therefore, it is safest to keep hot foods above 140 °F and cold foods below 40 °F. Serve food as soon as possible after cooking. If you prepare food in advance to serve later, refrigerate it.

Poultry and Seafood

Two more foods that fit in the Proteins Group are poultry and seafood. These foods offer nutrients similar to others in the Proteins Group, but they are generally lower in fat. You can achieve greater variety in your menu planning when you know how to cook with protein sources other than ground beef.

Tips (For perfect cakes)

Unlike cooking, baking requires accuracy for success. Heat the oven to the correct temperature. Invest in an oven thermometer and to be sure your oven is at the correct temperature by placing it in the center of your oven. Be sure to measure ingredients accurately using the right measuring equipment for the ingredients being measured. Use butter for best results and flavor. If you choose to substitute margarine, use those with at least 65 percent fat. Do not use reduced-fat butter or whipeed products. For testing, we use handheld electric mizers. If you have a stand mixer, follow the manufacturer's directions for speed settings. Don't judge cake doneness just by the time given. Bake for the minimum amount of time listed, checking for doneness by using the doneness indcator given in the recipe (usually the toothpick test or by touching lightly with a finger.) Bake longer if needed. Follow directions for cake cooling and pan removal. If a cake is left in the pan too long and sticks, try reheating it in the oven for 1 minute, and then remove. Cool cakes on cooling racks to allow for air circulation.

Baking Tips (Foam Cakes)

Use a clean, dry bowl and beater to beat egg whites so they will whip properly. Even a speck of fat from an egg yolk can keep whites form whipping up properly. Do not grease and flour pans unless directed in a recipe. During baking, batter needs to cling and climb up the sides of the pans. For any tube pan cake, move oven rack to the lowest position in the oven so the cake will bake completely without browning to much.

Picking Cake Pans

Use the pan size called for in the recipe. If the size isn't printed on the bottom of th epan, measure the length and width from inside the edge to inside edge. Too small a pan may allow butter to overflow and bake up with the center still raw; too large a pan may result in a short cake with an overbaked, dry texture. Shiny pans reflect heat, baking cakes that are tender and light. Dark pans or pans with nonstick coating absorb heat faster, causing cakes to brown too quickly. Unless otherwise specified, fill cake pans half-full with batter.

Dry Milk

Usually made from fresh pasteurized skim milk by removing all liquid. If dry milk is made from milk other than skim, it will have a shorter shelf life because of the fat content. Regular nonfat dry milk reconstitutes in warm water; instant nonfat dry milk dissolves in cold water.

Grilling Weather

Weather conditions can affect grilling. Check the use and care manual of your grill for specifics. Still, some general rules apply. Your grill should be out of the wind, as wind slows heating and cooking times. Cold weather also slows cooking and might require more charcoal or more heating time on a gas grill.

Inaccuracy and altitude

What do we mean by a properly calibrated candy thermometer? There are two things that can have an effect on a candy thermometer: Simple inaccuracy: Even a brand-new candy thermometer can be off by a couple of degrees. Altitude: Since there is not as much atmospheric pressure at higher elevations, altitude can have an effect on boiling point, affecting temperatures for cooked candies.

Poultry Dollar

When buying chicken or turkey, let unit price and your personal needs guide you. Also be mindful of waste with bones and skin; you don't want to pay a lot of money for something that will go in the trash. If you watch the cycles of sales at grocery stores, you can usually find a good deal on boneless skinless chicken breast, which has the least waste, is the lowest in fat, and is probably the easiest to work with for basic chicken recipes. It is usually one of the most expensive forms of poultry, so stock up when it's on sale. When you find a great deal on a whole chicken, follow the guide in your cookbook for cutting up the chicken or roast it as you would a turkey. It's up to you to balance your budget, needs, and preferences.

Grilling

When discussing meats, it would be a shame to not discuss a very popular method of cooking meats—grilling. Grilling is also more widely used than ever before for preparing vegetables. There is no way to match the flavor you get from grilling foods. Just remember that grilling is a dry heat method of cooking, so if you are going to grill a less tender cut of meat, you should marinate or tenderize it first. The good news is that ground beef is considered a tender meat, so make hamburgers and grill away!

Cooking Legumes

When planning protein sources into your diet, don't forget to incorporate legumes. Tips for cooking dried legumes: You can use any legumes of the same size and cooking time in a recipe. Add 1 tablespoon of butter or oil to reduce foaming or boiling over as you're cooking legumes. You can also skim off foam if necessary. When the legumes are done, drain and rinse them. Add salt and acids (like tomatoes, vinegar, and so on) after legumes are tender; adding them during cooking can make the legumes tough. You may need to increase cooking time if you're at high altitudes, because water boils at lower temperatures the higher you go. Don't use a pressure cooker to boil legumes, because the foam can clog the pressure valve and cause pressure releases or lid explosions.

Watch price

When you buy meats, let the labels and unit pricing guide you. For example, you may be planning to make a stew, so you pick up a package marked stew meat. Read the label. It may cost $2.39/lb. Right next to it, there may be a flank steak, not cut into cubes for stew, for $1.56/lb. You do not need to pay an extra $.73/lb. just to have the meat cut into cubes; you can do that yourself.

Two Ways (to get light and flaky)

When you make a pie, you want the crust to be light and flaky. There are two main ways to achieve this goal: Cut the fat into the flour until it is in very tiny pieces, about the size of peas. A pastry blender is the best tool for this job. If you don't have one, use two dinner knives in a crisscross motion. When you incorporate the liquid into the flour-fat mixture and even afterwards, handle the dough as little as possible. The more you handle the dough, the tougher the crust will be.

Grainy Product

When you make candy, you do not want a grainy product, which is the result of sugar crystals finding their way into the candy as it cooks or cools. Once these unwanted crystals form, they tend to grow and clump together, resulting in a grainy product. You can use the following precautions to avoid grainy results:

Dry and Moist Heat

Why is an understanding of dry and moist heat, tender and less-tender cuts important? Think of the money you can save! Purchase a less expensive cut of meat and prepare it using moist heat and the result is tender, juicy, flavorful meat. These principles of meat cookery apply to meat other than beef, but because pork and veal are the marketed flesh of young animals, they tend to be naturally tender meats. You can also find charts of veal, pork and lamb in the meat section of your cookbook.

Not hands

With few exceptions, use clean utensils, not hands, to mix foods.

Yeast BRead

Yeast breads are unmatched for aroma and flavor. They may seem intimidating to make at first, but you will find that the only difficult part about making yeast breads is the planning. Yeast breads do take time to rise, as yeast is the leavening agent. However, if you plan enough time into your schedule, you can enjoy fresh, hot, homemade yeast bread products.

Freezing Pie Pastry

You can make pastry ahead and freeze it to have on hand for when you are ready to make a pie. Better yet, freeze the pastry in a freezer-to-oven glass pie plate so you are even closer to homemade pie. Unbaked and baked pie pastry (without filling) can be frozen up to 2 months. For rounds of pastry dough wrap tightly in plastic wrap and freeze. Thaw in refrigerator before rolling and filling. For unbaked pastry crust in a pie plate, wrap tightly in foil or place in a freezer plastic bag. Fill crust while frozen and bake so that the crust won't be soggy. For baked pastry crust in a pie plate, wrap tightly (when completely cold) in foil or place in a freezer plastic bag. Thaw before using.

Four ingredients

ll pastry recipes use the same four basic ingredients: fat—makes the crust tender and flaky; usually shortening, lard, or vegetable oil flour—gives the framework for the crust; use all-purpose flour liquid—holds the flour and fat together; usually cold water is used salt—a flavor enhancer

Yogurt

I can't stress enough the versatility of yogurt as an excellent, flavorful source of calcium and protein. One cup of yogurt can provide over half the daily requirement for calcium, and because yogurt is from an animal source, it is an excellent low fat source of complete proteins (lacking no amino acids). Yogurt can add extra nutritional bang to sauce, soup, and dip recipes when substituted for mayonnaise or sour cream. Just be careful if you need to heat yogurt, as it can break down when heated too quickly. In addition, yogurt can usually be digested by those who otherwise have a difficult time digesting dairy products.

Avoid (Grainy results)

If the recipe calls for butter or margarine, use some of it to grease the sides of the saucepan before you add other ingredients. Do not use reduced fat spreads in place of butter or margarine. Heat the milk or water before adding sugar; the warm liquid will make the sugar dissolve more quickly. If sugar crystals begin to form on the sides of the pan, briefly cover the pan to allow steam to melt crystals. Or, use a wet pastry brush to wash down the sides of the pan. Wash and dry a stirring spoon that has been removed from hot liquid, as it may have crystals on it, before you reuse it. Do not move candy mixture while it is cooling.

One year

In fact, while dried legumes are best when used within a year, they can be stored in a tight container for much longer than that. Older beans usually require longer cooking and can be inferior in quality.

Good fruit

Purchase fruit that is bright in color, heavy for its size (indicating juiciness) and firm to the touch for the variety. Fresh fruit should not show any sign of decay or have soft spots. For berries, check for mod, which can occur in closed containers.

Incomplete Protein

Remember, legumes are a source of incomplete protein, so they should be combined with other grains such as rice, or served with small amounts of animal sources of protein to obtain a complete protein. Legumes have much more to offer than just protein—they are also rich in fiber, are basically fat-free, are very inexpensive, and store well.

Legumes

Legumes, or dried beans, were briefly discussed in Lesson 9 when we discussed vegetarianism. Because legumes are a rich source of protein, they fall in the Proteins Group of the MyPyramid.

Fats

Let's clarify a few confusing terms associated with fat, such as saturated fats, unsaturated fats, trans fat and cholesterol. Doctors believe that health risks like heart disease and hardening of the arteries are due in part to a diet rich in saturated fats, found chiefly in meat and dairy products and hydrogenated fats (oils chemically changed from liquid to solid form.) Often hydrogenated fats have an odd molecular structure that can lead to health concerns. Such fats are called trans fats and should be avoided. Read your labels. These fats are usually solid at room temperature. Saturated fats cause the body to produce excess cholesterol, which can cause the above-listed health hazards. Cholesterol is a type of fat, different from both saturated and unsaturated fats that the body needs for making bile and nerve tissues. Your body naturally makes all the cholesterol it needs, so there is no need to provide it with more via foods high in saturated fats. The type of fat that does less damage to arteries and the heart is unsaturated fat, which is found in vegetable fats and oils. These are usually liquid at room temperature. Include fat in your diet because your body needs it, but make wise choices about the types and amounts of fat you ingest.

Evaporated Milk

Milk from which about 60 percent of water has been removed. Sold in cans and is often used in recipes for baking. This product can be reconstituted with water and substituted for milk.

First Appearance

Much of how we feel about a meal or just a single dish is determined at first sight. The way in which you present the food you prepare can make a difference. While the professionals might spend hundreds of dollars and numerous hours to make food look perfect for photo shoots, every cook can take simple steps to make the presentation of their food special. It doesn't take a lot of time or equipment to make a plate extraordinary. Often, all you need is your imagination and a paring knife. Keep these presentation and garnishing tips in mind.

Cuts of Meat

Once you have a cut of meat, you need to determine the best way to prepare it. The goal of cooking meat is to have an end product that is juicy, tender and full of flavor. Even the least expensive cuts of meat can result in an excellent meal if you prepare them correctly. There are two methods of cooking meat—using dry heat and using moist heat. The cut of meat you buy will dictate which cooking method is best for achieving the desired outcome. The chart in the meat section of your cookbook shows the outline of a beef carcass. It shows the nine wholesale cuts that come from beef, and then breaks these wholesale cuts into retail cuts. You probably recognize the names of the retail cuts because these are printed on the labels of meat you buy. Cuts of meat from the rib, short loin, and sirloin have little connective tissue and are naturally tender cuts of meat. They can be prepared using dry or moist heat methods. Cuts of meat from more worked muscles of the animal where more connective tissue has been developed are tougher. If cooked as they are with dry heat, the result will be a tough, dry product. A wise cook can tenderize such cuts of meat by marinating them or applying a meat tenderizer to them before using a dry heat method or by cooking them using a moist heat method.

Pies

Pies have been served for centuries; the first pies were meat pies. Now, dessert pies seem to be the favorite—fruit pies, cream pies, custard pies, ice cream pies. Family and friends will be truly impressed if you can bake a pie. It is easy to make a pie crust if you find a pastry recipe you like and follow it carefully. A

Boiling Chicken

Place thawed chicken pieces in a large pot. Add enough water to completely cover chicken pieces by at least one inch. Bring the water and chicken to a boil over high heat. Turn down the temperature slightly and allow the chicken to boil lightly for five minutes. Remove the pot from the heat and cover. Allow the covered chicken to set for an additional twenty minutes. Test the chicken for doneness. Once the chicken is cooled, you can break or cut it into bite-sized pieces for use in casseroles, soups, etc. You may want to reserve the liquid for sauce and soup recipes.

Incomplete Proteins

Plant sources of protein are missing some essential amino acids.

Liquids

Pour liquid into a liquid measuring cup to the correct mark. Check at eye level.

Thick Liquids

Pour the liquid into a liquid measuring cup or spoon. Do not dip measuring spoons or cups into thick liquids, because a large amount will stick to the outer sides of the cup, resulting in over measurement. Spraying the liquid measuring cup with cooking spray before measuring can keep product from sticking to measuring tool.

Pasteurized Process Cheese

(also called "cheese foods") are made by heating natural cheeses; this type of cheese includes wrapped slices of "American" cheese and packaged cheese spreads like spray cheese.

High Altitudes

Here, another mention of altitude is needed. If you live in altitudes higher than 3,000 feet, there is not as much atmospheric pressure, and baked goods get light in texture quickly. If using a boxed baking mix (brownies, cake, etc.), follow the directions printed on the box for high altitude alterations. If a cake recipe calls for cake flour and you live in a high elevation, you are better off to use all-purpose flour or the product will be too light. (Note: If you are making a cake at lower elevations and do not have cake flour, an easy substitution is: one cup cake flour = 1 cup minus 2 tablespoons all-purpose flour.) F

Guidelines

Here are some guidelines you can follow. Keep in mind that you may have to experiment until you get the texture just right. Add one additional tablespoon of flour per cup of flour called for in the recipe and add one to two tablespoons extra liquid. Subtract one to two tablespoons of fat for each cup of fat called for in the recipe and subtract one to three tablespoons of sugar for each cup of sugar called for in the recipe.

30 percent

It is recommended that you keep your caloric intake from fat to 30 percent or less of your total caloric intake in any given day. Just be cautious not to get fat intake too low. Remember, your body needs some fat to function. Usually, foods that come from animals are higher in fat than foods that come from plants. However, there are so many lower fat options in milk, cheese, and other animal products that you can still eat your favorite foods and have a low-fat lifestyle. Though all fats supply nine calories of energy per gram, all fats are not the same. Some fats are saturated; some are unsaturated. Some foods high in fat are also high in cholesterol; others are not.

inward

Keep pot handles turned inward so they cannot be bumped, which may cause the pot to fall and the contents to spill.

Candy Thermometer

Many cooked candy recipes require the use of a candy thermometer. As you read in the "Candy Basics" section of your cookbook, you can use a cold water test instead of a thermometer, but a properly calibrated candy thermometer takes the guesswork out of candy making.

Whole Wheat Flour (measure)

Measure as you would white flour-stir, lightly spoon, and level.e

Menu Choices

Since poultry, like beef and pork, can be the most expensive components of a meal, be creative in ways to extend your meat dollar. You can make chicken or turkey go a long way if it is in a casserole, stir-fry dish, soup, or stew. In contrast, a recipe like Pesto Chicken Packets requires one boneless skinless chicken breast per serving. That can be costly. Again, you need to make menu choices based on your budget, needs and preferences. It's all up to you—be creative!

Storing Cookies

Store crisp cookies at room temperature in loosely covered containers. Keep chewy and soft cookies at room temperature in resealable food-storage plastic bags or tightly covered containers. Let frosted or decorated cookies set or harden before storing; then store by placing them between layers of parchment or waxed paper, plastic wrap or foil. Store only one type of cookie in a container to keep the texture and flavor intact. If different types of cookies are store in the same container, they can trasnfer moisture to one another, making crisp cookies soft, and they can also pick up flavors from each other. Most bars can be stored tightly coverd, but follow specific recipe directions, as some may need to be store loosely covered or may need to be refrigerated. For general directions on freezing and thawing cookies and abars. Do not freeze meringue, custard-filled, or cream fillled cookies.

Storing Cakes

Store layer or tube cakes on a plate under a cake cover or inverted mixing bowl. Serve cake with fluffy frosting as soon as possible, as the cake will tend to absorb the frosting. Store under a cake cover, but slip a knife under the edge so it isn't airtight.

Preservative

Sugar and other sweeteners are ingredients in many types of foods. In sauces, salad dressings, ketchup, etc., sugar and other sweeteners are added as flavor enhancers. Without sugar, these products would be bitter or sour. Sweeteners balance out the acidity of other ingredients. Sugar, and often corn syrup, act as preservatives in jams and jellies, preventing spoilage. Because it doesn't crystallize, corn syrup is a great choice for pecan pies, fruit sauces, and jellies.

Sugar

Sugar provides only energy for the body—it is 100 percent carbohydrate. Molasses, also a sweetener, contains the natural ash of the plant juices from which it is made, and therefore, contains a small amount of calcium and iron. Since foods high in sugar content provide little more than calories, the new ChooseMyPlate guidelines are to limit sweets and desserts. On the average, each American consumes about 43 pounds of sugar annually. (Source: Introductory Foods by Bennion and Scheule).

Sweeteners

Sweeteners such as sugar, honey and corn syrup perform different functions in many food products. There were probably sweeteners even in prehistoric times. There are drawings on Egyptian tombs that seem to indicate that beekeeping was practiced for honey as early as 2600 B.C. The honey was probably available only to the wealthy and influential citizens. (Source: Introductory Foods by Bennion and Scheule). During times of war, sugar and other sweeteners are commonly rationed products. Currently, we have sugar and other sweeteners readily available to us, so we enjoy cooking with them.

Cream

The fatty part of milk. It may be light, medium, or heavy, depending on the fat content, and types are usually interchangeable. It whips best when cream, bowl, and beaters are all cold. Be careful to not over-beat cream.

Seafood

There are thousands of types of fish and shellfish in the world and even more ways to prepare seafood. How many types of seafood have you tried? Seafood has nutrients similar to lean meat and can add variety in menu planning. When cooking seafood, the main caution is to not overcook the product. As long as you follow the recipe and charts in your cookbook, you should be fine. Certain types of fish can be more expensive than others, so refer to the chart on page 279 of your cookbook to find substitutions that will work with the recipe you are using and fit your budget.

Overcooked Eggs

Green eggs and ham? Eggs can have a green surface (scrambled) or ring (hard cooked) if overcooked. The white and yoke also toughen. Eggs and dairy products are often combined in meal planning: omelets, quiches, salads, and many breakfast combinations incorporate eggs and dairy products.

Skim Milk

(also referred to as nonfat milk): Milk from which as much fat as possible has been removed; contains less than 0.5 percent milk fat.

White Sugar (measure)

Fill the cup to overflowing and level with a straight spatula or the straight, back end of a butter knife.

Whole Milk

Milk that contains from 3.0-3.8 percent milk fats.

Reduced-fat Milk

Milk that has lower fat content, but must have the same amount of other nutrients as whole milk. The fat contents are usually 1 percent and 2 percent.

placement

Be cautious of where electric appliances and cords are placed.

Cooking Terms

After completing the assigned readings, you will define common cooking terms. It is important that you understand common cooking terms. When you read a recipe, you need to be able to perform the cooking tasks asked of you. Your textbook defines some of the most common cooking terms and cooking techniques that might be required of you in this course. Read through the directions for the Chinese vegetable stir fry recipe. Make sure you understand and can provide a simple definition for each cooking term. Chinese Vegetable Stir Fry 1 cube chicken bouillon ½ cup hot water 1 cup uncooked chicken, cubed ¼ cup flour 3 tbsp. oil 1 medium onion, diced 1 clove garlic, minced 1 can (16 oz.) mixed Chinese vegetables 1 tbsp. cornstarch ¼ head broccoli, chopped 2 stalks celery, sliced diagonally 1 medium zucchini, pared and sliced 1 carrot, peeled and grated 1 tsp. seasoned salt Directions: Dissolve bouillon in water. Heat oil in wok to medium-high temperature (375º). Coat chicken in flour, then sauté in oil. Add onion and garlic and continue to cook, stirring constantly. Add dissolved bouillon and place lid on wok to steam for three minutes, stirring occasionally. Meanwhile, drain canned vegetables, reserving liquid. Set vegetables aside. Mix cornstarch and reserved liquid. Add broccoli and celery to chicken mixture. Stir fry for one minute. Blend in zucchini. Cover and steam for one to two minutes, stirring occasionally. Add liquid, mixed Chinese vegetables, and carrots. Stir until thickened. Season with seasoned salt and serve with warm rice.

Measuring Basics

After studying information about measuring ingredients, you will identify proper equipment for measuring, define common abbreviations used in listing measurements, and use recipe math to double and half a recipe. Even when you practice safety and cleanliness in the kitchen and know you are working with a quality recipe, you must still carefully follow the recipe's directions. An important part of that accuracy is using proper measuring techniques. The next section explains measuring guidelines. Use only standard measuring cups and spoons. Any recipe you follow has been tested with standard equipment. Make all measurements level. In measuring dry ingredients or fats, use standardized cups that nest and hold 1/4, 1/3, 1/2, and 1 cup. In measuring liquids, use clear liquid measuring cups and check the level of the liquid from eye level. Small amounts of liquids are measured with measuring spoons.

Unit Prices

After studying information about unit prices, you will calculate the unit prices of various grocery items. You will find that most grocery stores use unit pricing, listing the cost of an item per ounce, pound, piece, etc. For example, if a box containing ten packages of fruit snacks costs $1.99, then the unit price, or price per package, is $.19. Unit prices are usually on the shelf tag below the item. You will find the price of the item in large numbers, and somewhere on the tag you will find the unit price printed in smaller numbers. It is to your advantage to understand unit pricing for a number of reasons. First, you can compare the cost of different forms of a product. For example, you can determine if it is more economical to buy fresh or frozen broccoli. Second, with unit pricing, you can compare cost based on package sizes. For example, by reading unit prices, you will often find that breakfast cereal is more expensive per ounce if it comes in a small box than the same cereal packaged in a larger box. Third, you can compare cost by brand when you are aware of unit prices. National brand peaches may be $.09 per ounce, while store brand peaches may be $.05 per ounce. You may not always purchase the most economical product for a number of reasons, but when you are aware of the unit price, you can make informed decisions about your purchases. Remember that even a fraction of a cent makes a big difference when you are buying large quantities.

Good Recipe

After you study the basics of a well-written recipe, you will be able to list problems in a poorly written recipe. Before you proceed, you need to understand the components of a good, complete recipe. Have you ever tried to duplicate a recipe given to you by a neighbor or relative only to realize you don't know what size of pudding box to use or at what temperature to bake the item? You probably haven't had that problem with recipes from reputable cookbooks and magazines. A good recipe should: List ingredients in order of their use. Give exact measurements of all ingredients. Include simple, step-by-step directions listed in the order they must be completed. List the kind and size of equipment to be used. Give exact cooking time and temperature. State the number of servings/yield the recipe will make.

Eggs

Another great source of protein is the egg. Though eggs are in a different food group than milk (eggs are in the Protein Group), they have similar characteristics to foods in the Dairy Group. For example, eggs are low in cost and rich in nutrients. Eggs also require cooking at low temperatures for short amounts of time. The exception here: omelets can handle medium heat.

Limited Space

Because refrigerator and freezer space is usually limited, many of us buy canned or packaged goods (for example, fruits, vegetables, baking mixes, cereals and sauces) that can be stored in a cool, dry place. When in doubt about storage of a certain food, read labels and packaging, or look up the food item in your cookbook and read the information about storage. For example, in Betty Crocker's Cookbook, there is information specific to storing eggs and cheese. Also, look at the refrigerator and freezer food-storage chart in your cookbook as a reference.

Bread Machine

Bread machines have become increasingly more affordable, and thus, more popular. If you have a bread machine and know how to use it, you can have homemade bread anytime; all it takes is a little planning. Bread machines come in all types and price ranges, but the basic concept behind all of them is the same—to help you enjoy bread with little effort. Bread machines can be as versatile as you can imagine. You can make dough for pizza, cinnamon rolls, or dinner rolls ahead of time, and then all you have to do is the assembly. You can put the ingredients in the baking pan in the evening and set your machine on a timed cycle so you have warm bread for breakfast the next day. Again, the possibilities are endless. For more ideas, look at the recipes in Betty Crocker's Cookbook or check out web sites for bread machine recipes. The idea behind a bread machine is that you add the ingredients into a type of baking pan where mixing, kneading, and baking all occur. Many bread machines still produce a loaf that doesn't really resemble a traditional bread loaf. There are newer bread machines, however, that have a more oblong pan, producing a more rectangular loaf. If you want the look of a traditional loaf, you can always just mix the dough in the bread machine, then shape it in a loaf pan and bake your bread in the oven.

Two Divisions

Breads are made with cereal grains. Breads are consumed at all times of the day in the U.S. in the form of slices, rolls, biscuits, muffins, coffee cake, etc. There are two main divisions of bread: Yeast breads—Yeast is the main leavening ingredient. These are more time-consuming to prepare. Quick breads—These are quicker to make because they are leavened by baking soda, baking powder, eggs, and steam.

powdered sugar (measure)

Confectioner's Sugar (also known as powdered sugar) If lumpy, sift or press through a sieve before measuring. Spoon sugar lightly into cup and level.

Milk Group

Did you know that all vitamins known to be essential for human nutrition are present in milk and milk products? Foods included in the milk group are milk, yogurt, cheese, pudding and ice cream. These foods provide the body with calcium, a mineral needed for healthy bones and teeth; protein, a nutrient for building and maintaining body tissues; and vitamins A, D, B12, thiamin, and riboflavin. In the first year of life, infants should consume breast milk or a purchased formula. These best meet infants' nutritional needs. Children from age 12 months through age two should consume whole milk, which provides nutrients—including fat—that their growing bodies need.

ChooseMyPlate

Directions: Record your food choices and physical activity for three days using the ChooseMyPlate tracking system called SuperTracker. Go to www.choosemyplate.gov, click "SuperTracker & Other Tools" and follow the directions for setting up a profile and tracking your diet. Note: Do not submit this assignment as part of your portfolio. Use this assignment to answer the questions following Self Check.

Functional Egg

Eggs perform different functions in cooking and baking. Eggs can be a thickening agent in sauces, they aid in the leavening process in cookies and cakes, and they can add color to a food product such as lemon meringue pie. Eggs can also be used as a glaze for bread products, to add volume to an angel food cake, or as a binder in meatloaf. Whatever the use or function, make sure you follow recipes carefully for a successful end product.

Storing Eggs

Eggs, like other cooked or protein-rich foods, should not be out of the refrigerator for more than two hours. Also, make sure that the eggs you buy at the store come from the refrigerated section. You take a risk of food poisoning if you leave them at room temperature longer. Keep this in mind when you have Easter egg hunts and get those "found" eggs in the refrigerator as soon as possible.

Physical Activity

Finally, the ChooseMyPlate encourages physical activity as part of a healthy diet. It recommends that adults (18 to 64) engage in at least 2 ½ hours of moderate activity or 1 hour 15 minutes of vigorous aerobic activity each week. Children and adolescents are encouraged to be active for an hour each day of the week. Check out the information on physical activity on the website—it is a great resource!

Meat and Protein

Foods from the Proteins Group of ChooseMyPlate may provide many vital nutrients, the chief ones being protein, iron, and fat. Meat, poultry, eggs, fish, peanut butter, nuts, and dried beans are all categorized in the Proteins Group. We have already discussed eggs in Lesson 10. Poultry and fish will be discussed in Lesson 12. The amount of protein, fat, and other nutrients in meat products varies widely. You can read labels and consult your cookbook to find meat products that fit your personal tastes and needs. By making wise choices, you can maintain a low-fat diet and eat the recommended amounts from the Proteins Group.

Protein Group

Foods from this group are usually rich in protein and iron. These foods can also be high in fat, so choose wisely. The ChooseMyPlate recommends that you choose lean and low-fat options, that you try and increase the amount of fish you eat to twice a week, and that you vary your protein choices, including nuts, beans, peas, and seeds in your diet. The website also gives information to help vegetarians increase protein in their diets.

Vegetable Grouo

Foods from this group provide your body with vitamins and minerals. These foods can also be rich in fiber. Because of this the ChooseMyPlate recommends that half of your plate be fruits and vegetable. Since they are high in complex carbohydrates, some people wonder if potatoes fit in this group or in the grains group. Because of their nutritional contribution and the manner in which they are grown, we will place potatoes in the vegetable group. The ChooseMyPlate suggest, however, that you eat more dark-green and orange vegetables like broccoli, spinach, carrots, and sweet potatoes since they are richer in nutrients. The ChooseMyPlate also discusses how beans and peas can be placed in the Vegetable Group as well as a part of the Meat group, especially for a vegetarian diet. Make sure you check out the ChooseMyPlate website to find out what's in the vegetable group, how much is needed, what counts as a serving, and the health benefits that come from this group.

Fresh Fruits

Fresh fruits are living and continue to respire, even after harvesting. This means that most will continue to ripen after harvest. Refrigeration retards ripening and spoilage, so if you purchase fruits that are at the level of ripeness you desire, store them in the refrigerator. If you purchase fruits that still need to ripen, keep them in a pantry or on a counter until they ripen, then store them in the refrigerator. Bananas should never be stored in the refrigerator, as this causes the peel to turn an unsightly black. If you have overripe bananas, try this trick: peel the bananas, cut them up, place pieces in a plastic bag, and freeze until you are ready to use them in breakfast drinks, breads, etc. Fresh fruits should always be washed to remove soil, pesticides, dust, etc. If a fruit browns easily (for example, bananas and some apples) and they will be on a fruit tray, in lunch sacks, etc., cut and dip the fruit in pineapple or lemon juice. These acidic juices do not stop, but will decrease, the browning caused by exposure to the air.

Types of fruits

Fruits can be categorized as follows: Berries (in bunches or developed from several ovaries on one flower): grapes, raspberries, strawberries, blueberries, blackberries, etc. Citrus (rich in vitamin C and developed from one ovary in one flower): oranges, grapefruit, lemons, limes, etc. Drupes (have a pit that houses a seed): apricots, peaches, plums, nectarines, etc. Melons (developed from a single flower on a vine): cantaloupe, honeydew, watermelon, etc. Pomes (have a core with many seeds): apples, pears, etc. Tropical (come from tropical or sub-tropical climates): bananas, mangoes, pineapple, pomegranate, etc.

Fruits Grouo

Fruits provide the body with simple carbohydrates as well as a great source of fiber. Citrus fruits are an excellent source of vitamin C. Again, the ChooseMyPlate recommends that half of your plate be filled with fruits and vegetables. Remember, because of the added sugar, it is recommended that you limit your intake of fruit juices. The ChooseMyPlate is an excellent resource to discover new fruits, find out appropriate serving sizes, and tips to help you get enough fruits in your diet.

equipment

Have you ever read a recipe that uses a term you don't understand? Have you ever wondered if there's more you can do with your electric frying pan than making pancakes? This lesson expands your knowledge of cooking terms and usage of kitchen equipment. You will learn the proper way to execute basic cooking techniques. In studying the "how-to's" of small kitchen equipment, we will spend a bit of time specifically on the microwave oven. There are a number of ways you can make use of that handy appliance. You will also learn how to teach yourself more about other small kitchen appliances and equipment by utilizing the owner's manuals included with such equipment.

Yeast Tips

Here are a few tips for your yeast breads: for a shiny crust, brush top of bread with egg white beaten with a little water. for a soft crust, brush with milk, butter, or margarine. for a crisp crust, spray lightly with water. always pre-heat your oven for baking yeast breads. adjust oven racks if necessary. The top of your loaf should be in the center of the oven. remove bread from pans immediately so crust doesn't get soggy. when slicing warm bread, place the loaf on its side to avoid crushing the top of the loaf. store your homemade bread in airtight containers in a cool, dry place for up to five days. Your bread will get stale if stored in the refrigerator, so, only refrigerate if it contains meat or cheese as an ingredient. you can freeze tightly wrapped bread for up to three months. if you are using pans with a dark, nonstick coating, watch the bread carefully so it doesn't get too brown. You may have to decrease the temperature by 25 degrees. use non-insulated pans and cookie sheets, because they let heat circulate freely to brown crusts more evenly. different flours have different protein content and moisture levels, so judge the amount of flour by how it feels when you knead it, not by a set amount of flour (this is why recipes usually say "2-3 cups flour," rather than giving a single number). bread flours are made from higher-protein wheats, so they produce more gluten when you knead them, and that affects the texture of the breads. it's best to use bread flours for yeast-bread recipes and for making bread in bread machines. Reading Assignment

contagious

If you have a contagious illness, an infected cut on the hand, or other skin infections, you should probably try to avoid food preparation duties

Proper Methods

In nutritional discussions, vegetables are often combined with fruits because their nutritional contributions are so similar. Like fruits, vegetables offer vitamins, minerals, and fiber. Color can be an indicator of nutritional value. The darker yellow and green vegetables have more nutrients than the paler ones. Your cookbook has helpful information on selecting fresh vegetables. Like fruit, vegetables are also readily available canned and frozen. When purchasing canned vegetables, use the same guidelines you use for canned fruit. When purchasing frozen vegetables, look for un-opened and undamaged packages. Contents should not be in a solid block, as this indicates that the contents have thawed and been re-frozen. The exception to this rule is spinach, which is frozen in a block. Many vegetables are eaten cooked. Cooking vegetables softens the tissues and sometimes even improves their taste and digestibility. The main thing you need to remember when cooking vegetables is to do whatever you can to maintain the maximum nutrients in the vegetable. Be aware that heat and liquid can destroy vitamins, so cook vegetables for the shortest time possible and in as little liquid as possible. Microwaving and grilling are great ways to achieve this end. You might even think of saving the cooking liquid for soups and gravies; that way, you don't pour vitamins down the drain. The ideal cooked vegetable will have a bright color, fresh flavor, and tender-crisp texture. More than ever, people are incorporating vegetables into their meals. Be creative. The possibilities are limited only by your imagination. Look through your cookbook and try something new or go to the ChooseMyPlate website for suggestions on incorporating more vegetables into your diet. The site also has ideas for getting children to eat more vegetables.

Sweetened Condensed Milk

Milk to which about 15 percent sugar is added. It is then concentrated to about one-third its original volume. This product is often used in baking, and, because of its sweetness, is not a good substitute for milk. Though sweetened condensed milk is sold in a can as is evaporated milk, they are not interchangeable.

Difficult Guidelines

It is difficult to give guidelines for selecting fresh fruit because there are different signs of freshness and ripeness for each type of fruit. When in doubt, consult your cookbook or ask the produce manager at your local grocery store for help. Make sure the fruits you purchase aren't bruised, overripe, or foul-smelling. It is most economical to purchase fresh fruits when they are in season. For example: In the United States, best prices and flavor for oranges are in winter. Strawberries are at their peak in June and July. When you purchase canned fruits, make sure you read the label carefully to make sure you are buying what you need. Canned fruits can come in chunks, slices, or pieces in heavy syrup, light syrup, or the fruit's own juices. Make sure cans don't have dents or bulges, especially at the seams, as these can be signs of an unsafe product inside the can—a food that could cause botulism, a food-borne illness. When buying frozen fruits, read the label carefully and make sure the packaging is free of holes and ice formation (a sign of freezer burn).

Meats

Meat plays an important role in meal planning, since most meals are planned around the main dish and many main dishes contain meat. Meat is also the most expensive part of most meals. When you know how to select and prepare meats, you can get the most for your dollar. In addition, you can save money when you learn how to incorporate inexpensive meat substitutes or meatless meals into your meal plans. For our discussion, meat refers to the flesh of cattle, swine and sheep, since these are the most consumed in the U.S. Remember that the principles of meat selection, handling and cooking apply not only to these three types of animal flesh, but also other less-common meats such as rabbit, venison, camel, llama, etc.

Four components

Meat, as sold in the stores, is made up of four components: muscle tissue, connective tissue (collagen and elastin), fat, and bone. The type of muscle and amount of connective tissue has an effect on the tenderness of a cut of meat, while fat adds flavor. Bone not only adds flavor, but is also helpful in identifying the various cuts of meat.

Menu Planning

Menu planning is an important aspect of diet and kitchen management. A good menu plan helps you achieve variety in your diet while saving you money and time. When you plan ahead, you save the hassle of trying to figure out what you are going to eat each time you are hungry. In addition, you are more apt to make healthy food choices if you have planned ahead and purchased foods that will help you make wise choices. Menu planning can also help you save money. You are less likely to make impulse purchases at the grocery store if you shop with a well-planned list and a well-planned list comes straight from your menu plan. You can also avoid wasting food with wise planning. For example, if you find a recipe you want to try that uses celery, but you know you don't eat a lot of celery, you can plan other menus into your week that include celery.

Butter

Milk product made from cream to which sugar and salt are often added. High quality butter smells fresh, is smooth, and spreads evenly. Margarine: Inexpensive butter substitute usually made by mixing milk with vegetable oils.

Cultured or Fermented Milk

Milk products to which harmless bacteria has been added to produce a sour taste. Yogurt, sour cream, and buttermilk are examples.

Storing Milk

Most milk and milk products are stored in the refrigerator. Products that you purchase frozen should be stored in the freezer. If you buy cheese in bulk and want to store it in the freezer, it is best to shred the cheese first, because once cheese is frozen, it tends to crumble when thawed. Canned milk can be stored in a cool, dry place until opened, and then opened cans should be stored in the refrigerator. Dry milk is best stored in a cool dry place. Note the expiration date on dry milk. It is important to keep milk out of light because riboflavin is easily destroyed by light. When in doubt about storage, read the product label or consult your cookbook.

White Flour (measure)

Most purchased flour is pre-sifted, so if a recipe calls for sifted flour, you can eliminate that step. If flour is measured incorrectly, it is possible to get as many as two to four tablespoons excess flour per cup. Spoon flour carefully into the cup and level it with a metal spatula or other flat edge. If you ever do use a sifter to incorporate air into dry ingredients, do not wash your sifter with soap and water. Sifters are just wiped clean with a clean, dry cloth.

Vital Role

Nearly every part of your body is made up of protein. Protein also has a vital role in body chemistry—the way your body functions. Protein helps your body grow and repair itself. The basic building blocks of proteins are amino acids. Your body naturally produces some amino acids, but not all of them.

Tackle Recipe

Now let's look at how to tackle a recipe. You need to: Read the entire recipe all the way through before you begin. Check your supplies to see if you have all of the necessary ingredients. If not, are there simple substitutions you can make? (For example, you might substitute cooked chunk turkey for chicken in a soup recipe.) See if you have the right equipment to work with. Again, if not, is there a substitution you can make? (For example, you might substitute muffin tins for a loaf pan for banana bread.) Look up any ingredients that you are not familiar with. Get out all ingredients and equipment. Do as much preparation as you can prior to combining ingredients. Follow the recipe to the letter. Only the experienced cook can take liberties with or make changes in a recipe.

Halve Egg

Occasionally, if you halve a recipe, you will need to also halve an egg. To do this, crack the egg into a liquid measuring cup. Lightly beat the egg with a fork and measure the amount of egg in the cup (it is usually 1/4 cup in volume). Remove half of the volume (usually 2 tablespoons). The remainder can be discarded or covered in the refrigerator for use in pancakes, omelets, etc. Use it quickly, however.

Food Consumerism

Part of being a good cook is being a wise consumer. Have you ever wondered why you have to walk to the back of the supermarket to buy a gallon of milk? Ever wonder how good a deal you are getting on the boxes of breakfast cereal that are in a "special" display? In lesson 2, you will discover some of the hidden secrets of supermarket sales strategies. Once you know what the supermarkets are doing to try to lure you into buying more products than you need, you can beat them at their own game. You will be surprised at the valuable information you will learn in this lesson. If you put these concepts into practice, you can save yourself a lot of money.

Storing Fruits

Proper storage of food is necessary to maintain the quality of what we eat. In general, food storage requires some knowledge and a lot of common sense. The cold temperature in the refrigerator slows the growth of bacteria in many foods. Foods can be preserved even longer in the freezer because the liquid in the food freezes, preventing bacterial growth. The refrigerator also slows the ripening process of most raw fruits. Depending on the results you want, raw fruits can be stored in the refrigerator or on a countertop, but when they are cooked, you should store them in the refrigerator. However, if bananas are stored in the refrigerator, the peel turns an unsightly black color. Most vegetables are stored in the refrigerator to maintain flavor and crispness. Tomatoes, however, lose optimal flavor and texture when refrigerated, so a cool, dry place is recommended. Potatoes, onions, and garlic also store better in a cool, dry place.

Vary (a Quick Bread)

Quick breads are versatile. There are many variations on any typical quick bread recipe. For example, a nut bread recipe can be converted to individual serving sizes in either small loaves or muffins. You just need to experiment with batter amounts in pans and cooking times. You can also vary added-in ingredients like nuts, raisins, lemon zest, etc., in many recipes. Your cookbook often lists variations at the end of each recipe. Sometimes you may like the variation better than the original. Either way, if you follow your recipe carefully, you should be able to make a quality product.

Salads

Salads have been a popular food choice for years. Many people think that salad means healthy and low fat, but this is not always true. Ingredients such as cheese, luncheon meats, olives, avocados, and especially dressing can add unwanted fat to a salad. Try low-fat substitutions for such items. Either way, a salad is almost always a more healthy choice than fries and a milkshake. Salads aren't just "sides" either. We often enjoy a main dish salad, which is usually a heartier serving size than an appetizer or accompaniment salad. Main dish salads often have one or more protein source, like diced chicken, cheese, hard cooked eggs and/or nuts or seeds.

Garnishing Tips

Serve food in dishes that complement the food. Fettuccini Alfredo, with its white sauce would look better in a colored dish than in a white one. At the same time, beware of serving food in or on very decorative dishes, as the food may "get lost." Combine colors in a pleasing manner. Like colors work well. Yellow, orange, and red in a fruit salad, for example, blend nicely. Complimentary colors also make a nice presentation, like spaghetti sauce next to a green salad. When combining foods, strive for contrast in texture, too. Combine soft, crunchy, chewy, crisp, etc. That's why sandwiches and carrot sticks or potato chips are a good combination. Soup is great accompanied by crisp French bread, too. Can you think of other good combinations? Be creative with ordinary foods. Use a melon-baller to serve melon in balls instead of cutting it into regular bite-sized pieces. Slice apples differently. Cut out sandwiches with a cookie cutter for shape variety. In addition, there are a number of ways to arrange foods on plates or platters in a pleasing manner. Try a concentric, or bull's-eye, pattern. A radiating pattern separates foods into sections as if they were divided by spokes on a wheel. Use simple garnishes, like an ingredient from the dish. For example, a sprig of fresh basil is a great garnish for a plate of spaghetti. Sliced oranges, lemons, or limes make an attractive garnish for poultry dishes. There are great books and web sites where you can get more information on making garnishes like tomato roses, carrot curls, etc. With some instruction, you can make quite impressive garnishes.

Baking Powder (Leavening Agent in Quick Breads)

So breads rise properly, be sure to ue only fresh baking powder and baking soda. Check the expiration dates on the containers. Baking powder is probably the most commonly used leavening agent in quick breads. What do you do if you don't have any baking powder? First, check your cookbook for a list of emergency substitutions. You can also make the following adjustments if you don't have baking powder: Substitute buttermilk for the liquid in the recipe and add 1/4 teaspoon baking soda for each teaspoon of baking powder called for. Substitute milk plus 3/4 teaspoon lemon juice or vinegar for the liquid in the recipe and add 1/4 teaspoon of baking soda for each teaspoon of baking powder called for. The internet can also be a valuable tool for finding substitutions.

Fats-Oils-Sweets

The ChooseMyPlate is quick to point out that the oils section is NOT a food group but provides an essential nutrient for our bodies. Foods rich in fat and sugar provide you with what can be referred to as an "empty calorie." Because these foods give you calories for energy but not much in the way of nutrients, it is recommended that you consume these sparingly. The ChooseMyPlate reminds you that most of your consumption of oil and fats come when eating things like nuts, meat, cheese, and vegetable oils. The website discusses the differences between oils and solid fats and encourages you to use healthy oils in your cooking.

Grains

The Grains Group of ChooseMyPlate allows for the most servings per day. Foods from this group are vital to good health. In the U.S., the most commonly consumed grains are wheat, corn, rice, oats, rye, barley, and millet. Grain products contribute complex carbohydrates, protein, vitamins and minerals to your diet. In addition, whole grains also provide fiber, which aids in digestion and elimination. The proteins in cereal grains are low in nutritional value. However, grains can be combined with other foods that can complement and complete the incomplete protein in the grain product. For example, the protein in peanut butter complements and completes the protein in a slice of bread, and the protein in dry red beans compliments and completes the protein in rice. There are many such food combinations that can help you obtain the nutrients you need while saving you money. Such food combinations are especially common in third-world countries.

Lactose

The carbohydrate in milk is lactose. Lactase is an enzyme that is produced in the small intestine and breaks lactose down into simple sugars. The term lactose intolerant refers to people who don't naturally produce enough lactase in their bodies, causing discomfort with the digestion of dairy products. This condition shouldn't preclude anyone from enjoying dairy products. You can now buy milk to which lactase has been added and can buy over-the-counter products such as LactAid that help in dairy digestion. If you still have a hard time with dairy products, you can carefully supplement your diet with calcium fortified breakfast cereals and juices and vitamin supplements.

Word of Wisdom

The doctrine of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, with which Brigham Young University is affiliated, contains a code of health to which its members adhere. Recorded in section eighty-nine of a book of canonized scripture comprised of modern revelation known as the Doctrine and Covenants, this code, known as "The Word of Wisdom," emphasizes the importance of properly nourishing our physical bodies. Modern dietary guidelines confirm the basic instructions outlined in this revelation received by the first President of the Church, Joseph Smith, Jr., on February 27, 1833. The Word of Wisdom highlights the fundamental role that grains play in building a strong nutritional foundation, citing grain as the staff of life for both humans and animals (Doctrine and Covenants 89: 14-16). According to this revelation, all wholesome herbs, including vegetables, as well as fruits are to be enjoyed by mankind with prudence and thanksgiving (Doctrine and Covenants 89:10-11). Meat is likewise ordained for human consumption, but only to be eaten sparingly (Doctrine and Covenants 89:12-13). MyPyramid, which also stresses eating grains, vegetables, fruits and protein such as that found in meat, suggests that following this same pattern will produce overall health. The last few verses of Doctrine and Covenants 89 contain promises for those who abide by the guidelines in the Word of Wisdom. Not only will followers enjoy physical health and strength, but they are also given the additional promise of the ability to acquire wisdom and knowledge (Doctrine and Covenants 89:19-21).

Egg White

The egg white contains protein and water. The yolk contains protein, fat, vitamins, minerals, cholesterol and most of the calories. If you're trying to reduce fat in your recipes, you may substitute two egg whites for one whole egg. This substitution won't work on all recipes; just make sure you know the recipe and the egg function in it. It works well for omelets, brownies, cakes, and other baked goods.

Half-and-Half

The lightest form of cream; often substituted for light cream. It is made of a mixture of cream and milk with a range of fat between 10.5 and 18 percent

Grains Grouo

The main nutrients in this group are complex carbohydrates. Carbohydrates give your body energy. Any foods made from wheat, rice, oats, cornmeal, barley, or another cereal grain is a grain product. The ChooseMyPlate recommends that half of your grains be whole because they also contain iron, B vitamins, and fiber. The ChooseMyPlate website has a great list of whole and refined grains as well as what a how much is needed, what counts as an ounce, and tips to help you eat more whole grains

Apple

The most-baked-with fruit is probably the apple. Apples are both inexpensive and versatile. When baking with apples, consult the informaion in your cookbook to make sure you will have a good product. In general, the more tart apples are better for baking. Tart apples provide a nice flavor and texture when they're baked. The sweeter apples are less desirable for baking; they are best for salads, side dishes, and snacks.

Types of Cheese

There are many varieties of natural cheeses, which we categorize by hardness. The two main types of natural cheeses are: Unripened: cheeses made with acids that coagulate the milk proteins, such as cottage, ricotta, mascarpone, and cream cheese. Ripened: cheeses made with enzymes and culture acids that coagulate the milk proteins, such as cheddar or parmesan.

White or Brown

There is no nutritional difference between brown and white eggs. The color of egg is determined by the breed and diet of the hen. Other than color of shell, they are basically the same. Eggs vary in size, but the most common eggs used in recipes are large (this is what your cookbook uses).

THe grain

The nutritional value of a grain depends on how it is processed. All grains are composed of three parts—the bran, the endosperm, and the germ. The bran, or outer layer of the grain, provides a protective coat and is rich in fiber. The bran is usually removed for white flour, white rice, etc. The endosperm, which is the bulk of the grain, provides food for the new plant as it develops from the kernel. It contains most of the protein and starch of the kernel. The germ is a small structure at the bottom of a kernel. It is rich in fat, protein and vitamins. If the food indicates "whole grain," it is processed with just that—all three parts of the kernel-and thus provides the most nutrients and dietary benefits. If a product indicates "enriched," it has been made from the endosperm, to which nutrients have been added. The nutrients added are the same ones that were lost by removing the bran and germ, but the amounts may vary. When missing nutrients are added to white rice, it is called converted rice. ChooseMyPlate makes grain recommendations in ounces. Equivalents of one ounce portions would be one slice of bread, half an English muffin, half a hamburger bun, one cup of ready-to-eat cereal, half a cup of cooked pasta, half a cup of cooked rice, half a cup of cooked cereal, one tortilla, one roll, or one muffin. One half of grains eaten should be whole grains.

Fortification

The process of adding nutrients to make milk even more nutritious. Vitamins A and D are often added to milk. Vitamin A is found in fat, and since fat is removed from skim milk and its products, the addition of vitamin A to these products is required.

Pasteurization

The process of heating raw milk to a high enough temperature for a long enough period of time to destroy harmful bacteria. This process is required by federal law for all Grade A fluid milk and milk products that are sold in retail establishments.

Homogenization

The process of pumping milk or cream under pressure through tiny holes in a machine called a homogenizer. Homogenization prevents the fat globules in milk from forming a cream and rising because the fat globules are divided into such small particles that they remain dispersed in the milk.

Approaches

There are different approaches to planning a menu. Some people prefer to plan for an entire week and shop accordingly. Others like to plan for the month, doing heavy shopping once and merely buying fresh produce and milk when necessary. Once you have menu plans that you like, you can keep your ideas and re-use them month after month, making whatever changes you choose to incorporate more variety. You may also make changes to your plan depending on weather patterns where you live. Here are some basic ideas (from the "Menu Planning Basics" section of a previous edition of Betty Crocker's Cookbook): Make a grocery list to help make shopping faster and more economical. If you have a list, you're less likely to make impulse purchases. Check your supplies before you go to make sure you don't buy what you already have on hand. Tailor menus to your eating patterns and preferences. If you like a larger meal in the middle of the day or several smaller meals rather than three main ones, plan for that. "Theme" meals or ethnic dishes can also be fun. Start with planning the main course, then pick side dishes that go with it. Choose flavors and combinations that compliment each other. For example, if your main dish is subtly flavored, choose a flavorful side dish. With a heavy meal, choose a light dessert, and vice versa. Make your meals appealing to your senses: taste, sight, touch, and smell. (You can even add hearing for items like popcorn or crispy cereal.) Use interesting textures and temperature combinations. For example, serve spicy foods with mild sides, or compliment crisp food with creamy dips. Combine big chunks with minced pieces, in a casserole, or serve hot and cold foods in the same meal. Don't be afraid to use seasonings, sauces, salsas, condiments, marinades, and other flavorings to spice up bland foods like pasta, potatoes, vegetables, or meats.

Milk and Eggs

There are few foods that are as packed with nutrients and as reasonable in cost as milk products and eggs. Milk products and eggs are rich in protein, iron, vitamins, and minerals and have the potential to greatly enhance a healthy, low-fat eating plan. In this lesson, you will discover the importance of incorporating these nutrient-rich foods into your diet.

Dairy Group

This group is known chiefly for providing the body with calcium, iron, and protein. Depending on the choices you make, milk products can also provide your body with fat, which is a needed nutrient. Still, the ChooseMyPlate recommends that you switch your milk choices from higher fat content to a fat-free or low-fat milk option. The ChooseMyPlate website has a great resource to find out what a serving size should be as well as common portions and cup equivalent sizes.

Essential Amino Acids

Those amino acids that the body cannot produce, that you must get from foods you eat, are called

Preparing Salads

Tips for selecting, storing, and preparing salad greens include: Store unwashed salad greens for up to five days in a plastic bag or tightly covered container lined with damp but not wet paper towels. Core and rinse iceberg lettuce before storage. When you wash the lettuce, remove the core first, run water into the core, then turn it core side down to drain. Before using greens, rinse them in cold water. Shake off the water, then use a salad spinner or gently pat them dry on paper towels before using them. Drying off the greens helps the dressing stick to them and prevents your salad from getting watery. Tips for tossed salads include: Choose nice-looking fresh greens, and remove roots, stems, or wilted spots. Mix different types of greens for contrasting tastes and textures. Tear greens with your fingers into bite-sized pieces. You may also want to use a specialized serrated, plastic salad knife. Cut tomatoes right before you serve a salad so their juice doesn't make the salad watery. You can also remove the seeds to make them drier. Pour a small amount of dressing over the salad right before you serve it. There should be just enough dressing to lightly coat the leaves. You can also serve the dressing in a separate container so that each person can put on the amount they prefer. Salads with dressing get soggy over time, so they are not good for leftovers. Match dressings and greens: strong-tasting greens with strong dressings, blander greens with milder dressings. Note about potatoes for potato salad: Round potatoes, either red or white, have a waxy texture and hold their shape when cooked, so they are best for salads. Longer white potatoes, Idaho and russets, are more starchy, and get soft and fluffy when you cook them. They tend to fall apart in potato salad.

One to Two Days

To make the most of your food dollar, you need to understand how to select, handle and prepare meats. Sometimes your meat choices will be dictated by what you plan to prepare; other times you will make purchases based on what you can afford. You do not always have to buy the most expensive cut of meat to have a good product, and you can shop sales to find good deals on meats. In addition, a little-known corner of the meat department of most grocery stores is the "reduced for quick sale" section. All fresh meat needs to be sold by a certain date as stated on the label. When the date is about to expire, the butcher will place these packaged meats together, usually in a bin at the end of the meat counter, for quick sale. This is a great place to find a bargain. Be careful, however, because meat needs to be used within one to two days of the sell by date. You will need to either prepare or freeze these bargains soon after your purchase.

Solid Fats

Use dry, nested measuring cups for solid fats such as shortening and peanut butter. Pack the fat in so there are no air spaces, then level with a spatula. For easier clean-up, you can first line the cup with a slightly larger piece of plastic wrap. To remove the ingredient, simply pull on the edges of the plastic wrap and dump the ingredient into a bowl. Discard plastic wrap. The water displacement method may also be used for measuring less than one cup of fat. For example, if the recipe calls for 1/4 cup fat, fill a liquid measuring cup with water to read 3/4 cup, then add fat until the water reads 1 cup. Carefully drain off the water. Use a rubber scraper to remove the fat from the cup. Use tablespoons if less than 1/4 cup is needed.

Canned Fruits

Vitamins and minerals are essential for our bodies to function properly. The body needs only a small amount of vitamins and minerals, and with a balanced diet, you should be able to get all the vitamins and minerals you need. Fresh fruits are rich in vitamins and minerals; each fruit has these nutrients in different amounts, so eat a variety of fresh fruits. While canned fruits are often plentiful and convenient, it is important that you do not rely solely on canned fruits because some vitamins and minerals are destroyed by exposure to heat and water, and many canned fruits are packed in syrups. In addition, more cooking of fruits results in a decreased amount of fiber. Additionally, ChooseMyPlate reminds us that it's preferable to eat most of our fruits in their "original" form and to monitor our intake of juices. Since fruits are sweeter than vegetables, we can infer that they contain more sugar than vegetables. While the sugar in fruits are simple carbohydrates, they are not considered refined sugars, as those we find in cakes and cookies, which is another reason fruits make good, satisfying snacks. Go to the ChooseMyPlate website for ideas to incorporate fruit into your diet.

Cooking with Milk

When buying milk and milk products (including cheese), consider grade, brand, intended use, cost, food value, and personal preference. Fresh milk products are perishable, so make sure you also check the label for a sell-by date or expiration date. The main guideline for cooking with milk and milk products is to use low temperatures, because high temperatures can cause scorching, separating, and curdling. You also need to keep cooking times short, as longer cooking can cause scorching of milk and can result in tough, rubbery cheese. The bottom line: If you carefully follow recipes that include milk and milk products, you should have an acceptable product.

Combining Proteins

You can combine two incomplete proteins to create a complete protein, as was briefly discussed in lessons 7 and 10, or you can serve cereals or legumes with small amounts of protein from an animal source, such as milk, cheese, meat or eggs. You do not have to consume large amounts of meat to get the needed amount of protein in your diet; in fact, most Americans consume more protein than is necessary.

Rules (of BRead Machine)

You need to be aware of a few basic rules about bread machines: Make sure you correctly measure the ingredients in the order specified by the recipe. Use room-temperature ingredients, except for refrigerated items like milk, sour cream, and eggs. Before you put the ingredients in the pan, make sure the kneading hook or paddle is in place. Once the rising and baking cycles have started, do not open the bread machine to check on the progress of your bread, as this will alter the temperature inside the bread machine. You should, however, open the door of your bread machine during the first kneading cycle to make sure all of the ingredients are well incorporated into a dough. If not, you may need to use a rubber scraper to scrape ingredients from the side of the pan, helping the mixing and kneading process along. As with other yeast breads, bread flour will create better loaves than all-purpose flour. As with any small appliance, follow the instructions in the user's manual of your bread machine for specific details on recipe variations, bread baking cycles, cleaning and storage of the machine, etc.

Kitchen Tools

You need to understand the functions of various kitchen tools. It is also helpful to know what tools you can use instead of ones specified in a recipe. For example, if you do not own a pastry blender, you can cut shortening into flour with two knives. When you have a basic understanding of tools and their functions, you will be better able to determine which tools are interchangeable. Here are some illustrations of common kitchen tools.

Storing Cheese

You should store different types of cheese in different ways. Soft cheeses have higher water content and shorter shelf life. Store them tightly covered in the refrigerator. Check the expiration date on the package. Semisoft, firm, and hard cheeses should be tightly wrapped (plastic wrap, foil, or waxed paper will work) and stored in the refrigerator. They generally last 4 to 8 weeks. Hard cheeses can be grated and shredded and should be stored in sealed containers in the refrigerator. They should last up to 2 weeks. You can also freeze them for up to 3 months. If you freeze shredded hard cheeses, use them frozen (don't try to defrost first). Shredded cheese can dry out and get moldy faster than uncut cheese. Store it tightly covered and use within a couple of days. Strong-smelling cheese should be double-wrapped or put in airtight containers and stored separately, so other foods don't pick up their aroma. You can freeze cheeses in airtight containers for up to 2 months, but it will make them crumbly. It's best to use defrosted cheese when you need small pieces rather than smooth slices.

Dairy Nutrients

Your task with the Dairy Group is to get the nutrients you need without getting unwanted fat. There are more low- and nonfat dairy choices now than ever before; for example, reduced and nonfat sour cream, cottage cheese and yogurt. If you haven't tried a reduced fat milk or milk product yet, you should. You may find that you really like some, and may not even taste a real difference from the higher fat equivalent. Other products, however, might be so lacking in flavor and texture that you decide it is worth the extra fat for the flavor you prefer. Nonfat sour cream may work in a favorite dip recipe, but you may prefer regular sour cream for topping baked potatoes. Reduced fat cottage cheese could be a good choice for an addition to your lasagna, but you may prefer the regular cottage cheese with fruit for snacking. Try different combinations and uses of low-fat products until you find the right products for your needs and tastes. You can also train yourself and your family to consume the lower fat items. If you currently drink 2 percent milk and want to reduce your fat intake, try switching to 1 percent milk for a while. After that, you may be able to switch to skim or nonfat milk if you choose. It's all a matter of what you're accustomed to.

Processed Cheese

are made by heating one or more types of natural cheeses and mixing them with emulsifying salts. They have a higher water content than natural cheeses.

Cheese Mold

ne way to prevent cheese from getting moldy is to change the wrappings each time you cut some off. If a firm or hard cheese has gone moldy, you can cut pare off the moldy spots (to get all the mold, you may have to cut off about 1/2 inch). Use the rest of the cheese within a week. If a soft or semi-soft cheese like cottage cheese or cream cheese has mold on it, just throw it out.