Foundation 8: Individuals and society

8B: Social thinking (CC8B) Attributing Behavior to Persons or Situations (PSY) How self-perceptions shape our perceptions of others

AAMC Question Bank: Viewer's likelihood Question: A researcher interested in actor-observer bias asks a group of viewer participants to watch a target participant work on a series of puzzles. Which two variables is the researcher most likely to compare in this study? Answer: The viewer's likelihood of attributing the target's performance to intellect and the target's likelihood of attributing his own success to intellect.

8C: Social interactions (CC8C)

Blueprint Exam #2 Question: An outspoken skeptic and opponent of automatic writing attends multiple séances where a medium appears to successfully contact someone who has recently died. If the skeptic's views shift over time to view the practice as fake but harmless entertainment, this evolution is best described by: Answer: reciprocal determinism Explanation: Reciprocal determinism is the theory set forth by Albert Bandura that a person's behavior both influences and is influenced by personal factors and the environment. In this scenario, the skeptic does not believe in the supernatural power of a medium, but attends multiple séances where they may see evidence that could soften their views. The behavior of attending séances, in conjunction with the social environment of others who attend the séances, could cause the skeptic's views on supernatural phenomena to shift.

8C: Social interactions (CC8C)

Blueprint Exam #2 Question: What type of research design was used in this study? Answer: Longitudinal cohort design Explanation: A group (cohort) of medical students was followed over a period of time, which is a longitudinal design. - An experimental design has different groups of individuals who are randomly assigned to different conditions (like different cultural competency training types and a control group that does not receive the treatment). - A retrospective cohort design studies that examines past experiences of a group of individuals. - A case control design compares individuals with a disease or characteristic of interest to similar individuals without that disease or characteristic. AAMC MCAT Exam 2 Question: The research design used in the study employed all of the following techniques EXCEPT: Answer: observational Explanation: The only method not specifically employed was observational analysis. Data was collected via self-report and physiological (testing breath carbon monoxide) assessments, not observational.

8C: Social interactions (CC8C)

Blueprint Exam #2: Which of the following was NOT a finding by Harry Harlow in his experiments with rhesus monkeys and their pairing with a simulated mother made from wire (Wire Mother) or one made from soft cloth (Cloth Mother)? Real Answers: - Monkeys paired with Wire Mothers drank similar amounts of milk and grew at a rate comparable to monkeys paired with Cloth Mothers. - Monkeys paired with a Wire Mother sought soothing from their "mothers" less frequently than monkeys paired with Cloth Mothers. - When given a choice, monkeys spent more time holding Cloth Mothers than Wire Mothers.

8B: Social thinking (CC8B) Processes Related to Stereotypes (PSY) Stereotype threat

This is when exposure to a negative stereotype surrounding a task can cause a decrease in the performance of an individual when attempting a task. Question: Stereotype threat occurs when a person worries about confirming adverse stereotypes about his or her social group. In this example, Amy fears that speaking up in class will confirm the negative belief that women are overly emotional. Answer: In her philosophy class, Amy is afraid to express her critique of an ethical system, as she believes that the class will think she's overly emotional because she's a woman. When she does speak up, she ends up crying and has difficulty speaking clearly.

8B: Social thinking (CC8B) Prejudice and Bias (PSY, SOC) MCAT Official Prep Free Practice Exam Content

Xenophobia refers to the fear and suspicion towards cultures perceived to be foreign. AAMC MCAT Exam 5 Question: A researcher suggests that the healthcare disparities described in the passage are partly due to cultural bias. Which concept is most relevant to this hypothesis? Answer: Ethnocentrism Explanation: Ethnocentrism is the tendency to look at other cultures through the lens of one's own culture. Bias and prejudice can be related to ethnocentrism, and of the options provided, ethnocentrism is most directly related to the assertion of cultural bias.

8C: Social interactions (CC8C) Was the independent variable in the study manipulated by the researchers?

Yes; the researchers controlled the similarity of the potential date to the participant's ratings of themselves. The independent variable in this experiment was how similar or dissimilar the potential dates' personality scores were from participants' actual self or ideal scores. The passage states that, "The dates' scores were made up by the researchers to be either similar to or different from each participant's actual self or ideal scores," which supports that the independent variable was manipulated by the researchers. AAMC Question Bank: What is the dependent variable in the study? Answer: State self-esteem Explanation: State self-esteem varied with the independent variable (i.e., type of peer evaluation). It served as the dependent variable in the study, as it was the outcome variable measured by the researcher.

8C: Social interactions (CC8C) Elements of Social Interaction (PSY, SOC) Formal organization

a collection of individuals joining together to coordinate their interactions toward a specific purpose is known as an organization. Formal Organization: has its own set of distinct characteristics, including well-defined rules and regulations, an organizational structure, and determined objectives and policies, among other characteristics.

8C: Social interactions (CC8C) Social Behavior (PSY) Biological explanations of social behavior in animals (PSY, BIO) Mating behavior and mate choice

is the behavior is the behavior surrounding the propagation of a species through reproduction. Natural selection is particularly influential in the process by which one member of a species chooses another individual with which to reproduce. Mate choice is determined by a number of factors, including attempts to judge the genetic qualities, overall health, and potential parenting skills of prospective mates.

8C: Social interactions (CC8C) Social Behavior (PSY) Biological explanations of social behavior in animals (PSY, BIO) Foraging behavior (BIO)

is the set behaviors through which animals obtain food. One of the most important animal behaviors is foraging or the search for food within an animal's environment, because without this ability, the animal will not likely be able to survive and reproduce. Animals optimize the energy expenditure involved in obtaining it. Social behavior can increase foraging efficiency by allowing knowledge of effective techniques to be passed from individual to individual or by allowing the community to achieve what an individual alone could not.

8C: Social interactions (CC8C) Social Behavior (PSY) Aggression

Aggression is defined by psychologist as a range of behaviors that are intended to cause harm to others; it is generally divided into hostile aggression and instrumental aggression. Hostile aggression is accompanied by strong emotions, particular anger. It is associated with being impulsive, unplanned, overt, or uncontrolled. Harming the other person is the goal. Instrumental aggression is a means to an end. It is often referred to as predatory aggression and is associated with goal-oriented, planned, hidden, or controlled behavior. In instrumental aggression, harming the person is used to obtain some other goal, such as money.

Which of these describes a case of individual discrimination?

A female executive believes that women are superior negotiators because they are better at finding compromise. When a position opened up for a negotiator, she only interviewed women.

8C: Social interactions (CC8C)

Subjective norms result from perceived social pressure to engage or to not engage in a behavior.

8C: Social interactions (CC8C) Discrimination (PSY, SOC) Individual vs. institutional discrimination (SOC)

individual discrimination is the prejudicial treatment of an individual based on his or her membership in a certain group whereas institutionalized discrimination refers to discrimination embedded in the procedures, policies, or objectives of large organizations against an individual or group of individuals. AAMC Question Bank: The tendency of doctors to use a physician-centered communication style more often with Black patients is an example of: Answer: discrimination, because the communication style assumed by the doctors is an example of discrimination because it suggests that the doctors are behaving differently based on the patients' racial background. Individual Discrimination: A. Racial discrimination: the unequal treatment between individuals on the basis of racial differences. Such as segregation of racial groups or the exclusion of a racial group from an activity. B. Sexual and Gender discrimination: the unequal treatment of individuals or groups based on their perceived sex, gender, and/or gender identity. Such as the social roles for men and women and jobs for men and women based on gender due to stereotypes. C. Religious discrimination: the prejudicial treatment of a person or group differently based on their spiritual or religious beliefs. Institutional Discrimination targets specific, easily stereotyped, and generalizable attributes of individuals (such as race and gender) and can exist within governments and social institutions such as religion, educational groups, police, etc. Examples of institutional discrimination A. Laws and decisions that reflect racism: for example, the 1896 Plessy vs Ferguson U.S Supreme Court case which ruled in favor of "separate but equal" public facilities between African Americans and non-African Americans. B. The housing market: housing in the united

8C: Social interactions (CC8C) Self-presentation and Interacting with Others (PSY, SOC) Verbal and nonverbal communication

two of the primary vehicles for communication are verbal and non-verbal. Oral communication describes the verbal exchange of information, emotions, thoughts, and perceptions. It includes speeches, presentations, conversations, and discussions. Body language and tone of voice play a significant role in how oral communication is perceived. Since verbal communication almost always involves the simultaneous transmission and receipt of a message, feedback from the audience is immediate. Social psychologist Michael Argyle said that while spoken language is usually used to communicate information about external events that impact the speakers, non-verbal codes establish and maintain interpersonal relationships. Argyle concluded there are five primary functions of non-verbal bodily behavior in human communication: 1. Express emotions 2. Express interpersonal attitudes 3. Work with speech to manage the cues of interaction between speakers and listeners. 4. Present one's personality 5. Conduct rituals (greetings) Humans communicate interpersonal closeness through a series of non-verbal actions known as immediacy behaviors. Examples of immediacy behaviors are smiling, touching, open body positions, and eye contact. Cultures that display these immediacy behaviors are considered high-contact cultures.

8C: Social interactions (CC8C) Social Behavior (PSY) Altruism

unselfish concern for the welfare of others. It is referred to as selflessness, is the principle or practice of concern for the welfare of others. Voluntary behavior with the intent to help other people is known as prosocial behavior. Specifically, altruism is the desire to help others even if the costs outweigh the benefits of helping. AAMC Question Bank: Which of the following is an example of how altruistic behavior can improve inclusive fitness? Answer: An animal making noise to alert its brood that there is a predator Explanation: Inclusive fitness involves an animal behaving in ways that ensures the propagation of its, or related, genes. An animal alerting its brood that there is a predator puts that animal at risk, but ensures that its genes may survive via its offspring. Reciprocity involves an exchange of positive actions between people. It is the give and take in relationships. We contribute to relationships, but we expect to receive benefits as well; we want our relationships to be a two-way street. Reciprocal actions are essential to social psychology as they can help explain the maintenance of social norms.

8B: Social thinking (CC8B) Prejudice and Bias (PSY, SOC) Processes that contribute to prejudice The role of cognition in prejudice (PSY)

Cognition also contribute to prejudice through the development of schemas. A schema is an organizing pattern of thought that is used to categorize and interpret information, thus shaping individual attitudes and perspectives. AAMC Exam 4 Question: According to the passage, one of the long-term effects of exposure to violence is providing individuals with aggressive: Answer: schemas. Explanation: The passage emphasizes the role of repeated exposure to violence in creating violent scripts (which are a subtype of schemas) and knowledge structures. - Interference is when some information in memory interferes with the encoding, consolidation, or retrieval of other information. - Dissonance is the psychological discomfort experienced when a person holds two inconsistent attitudes or when one's attitude is inconsistent with their behavior. - Modeling is the adoption of others' behavior through observational learning.

8A: Self-identity (CC8A) Self-Concept, Self-identity, and Social Identity (PSY, SOC) The role of self-esteem, self-efficacy, and locus of control in self-concept and self-identity (PSY)

Conformity is the altering of one's own behaviors and opinions to match those of other people or to match others' expectations.

8C: Social interactions (CC8C) Social Behavior (PSY) Attachment

Disorganized attachment - A confused infant-parent bond that is characterized by mixed separation anxiety and a tendency for the infant to resist and have a dazed behavior.

8A: Self-identity (CC8A) Self-Concept, Self-identity, and Social Identity (PSY, SOC) Formation of Identity (PSY, SOC) Influence of culture and socialization on identity formation MCAT Official Prep (AAMC) 1. Sample Test P/S Section Passage 3 Question 10 2. Sample Test P/S Section Passage 5 Question 24 3. Practice Exam 2 P/S Section Passage 2 Question 5 4. Practice Exam 4 P/S Section Passage 7 Question 33

- Socialization prepares people to participate in a social group by teaching them its norms and expectations. - Jeffrey J. Arnett: Socialization has three primary goals: teaching impulse control and developing a conscience, preparing people to perform certain social roles, and cultivating shared sources of meaning and value. - Socialization is culturally specific, but this does not mean certain cultures are better or worse than others. - As they develop, humans go through several critical periods, or windows of time during which they need to experience particular environmental stimuli in order to develop properly. - Feral children provide an example of the effects of severe social deprivation during critical developmental periods. Feral children are children who grow up without social interaction. - Attachment theory argues that infants must develop stable, on-going relationship with at least one adult caregiver in order to form a basis for successful development. - The term maternal deprivation is a catch phrase summarizing the early work of psychiatrist and psychoanalyst John Bowlby on the effects of separating infants and young children from their mother. In the United States law, the "tender years" doctrine was long applied when custody of infants and toddlers was preferentially given to mothers. Blueprint Exam #2 Question: The music children listen to can convey typical social situations and the expected emotional reaction to those situations in a simple, repetitive way that children can internalize. This process describing how children internalize the expected reactions to life situations is: Answer: a normal part of the socialization process. Explanation: Socialization is the process of internalizing the social norms and values expected in one's society, and mass media (such as popular music)

Question on Fundamental Attribution Error

AAMC MCAT Exam 3 Question: Which statement best identifies the fundamental attribution error in a teacher's assessment of students in a classroom? A teacher assumes that any emotional and behavioral problems are due to: Answer: dysfunctional personalities, while the teacher overlooks situational variables. Explanation: This best describes the fundamental attribution error, as the teacher is using the child's personality as an explanation while ignoring situational influences. AAMC Exam 4 Question: A consultant is hired by an organization to break down barriers between managers and assistants by conducting a series of team-building activities over a period of time. If the team-building activities are successful, how would they most likely influence the attributions made by the organization's employees? Answer: Managers and assistants would attribute positive outcomes by managers to dispositional factors. Explanation: If the team building activities are fully effective, then the managers and assistants would all see themselves as part of one group. There would be an in-group bias for all employees. They would all make dispositional attributions for their coworkers' successes and situational attributions for their coworkers' failures.

8C: Social interactions (CC8C) Discrimination (PSY, SOC)

AAMC MCAT Exam Question: A physician approaches a new patient with the assumption that the patient is not well educated and thus less knowledgeable about health issues. Does this scenario illustrate discrimination? Answer: No; the scenario describes an attitude but does not specify differential treatment Explanation: The hypothetical physician displays a biased attitude, and thus a prejudice potentially based on a stereotype. However, no action or behavior is specifically identified with the scenario in the question. Without a description of differential treatment or behavior, discrimination is not identified. AAMC Question Exam 5: Which of the following conclusions about healthcare delivery is best supported by the research in the passage? Answer: The study provides evidence of institutional discrimination in revascularization use, but cannot prove racial prejudice in provider attitudes. Explanation: With a finding that procedure utilization differs by race, the study can suggest that institutional discrimination is a relevant factor. Institutional discrimination typically refers to different treatment among social groups at the system level that generally results from organizational policies and practices (rather than the discriminatory actions of individuals). Although the study can suggest institutional discrimination, due to the observed differences in utilization by race, it cannot directly prove racial prejudice among providers because the researchers neither collected nor reported data on provider attitudes (since prejudice refers to attitudes).

8C: Social interactions (CC8C)

AAMC Question Bank: According to Mead, which behavior is an expression of the Me component of the Self? Answer and Explanation: This is a Sociology question that falls under the content category "Social interactions." The answer to this question is option A because studying for an exam instead of going to a party represents the socialized and conforming aspect of self, described by Mead as the ME component of Self. Responses B, C, and D reflect aspects of Mead's I, the spontaneous, less socialized component of the Self. It is a Knowledge of Scientific Concepts and Principles question because you are asked to identify and differentiate between aspects of Mead's I and Me components of the Self. AAMC Exam 5 Question: According to Mead, the spontaneous and autonomous part of our unified self is the: Answer: I Explanation: According to Mead's theory of identity, the "I" is the spontaneous and autonomous part of the self, making this option the correct answer. AAMC Exam 5 Question: Which development from the passage best illustrates an organizational change in the context of child abuse diagnosis and prevention? Answer: The addition of a pediatric subspecialty in child abuse pediatrics Explanation: Sociology defines an organization as a (relatively) formal group with an identifiable membership that engages in concerted action to achieve a common purpose. Pediatrics fits within this definition of an organization, particularly in terms of the development of a pediatric subspecialty of child abuse pediatrics. The new subspeciality reflects a change within the organizational structure of pediatrics.

8B: Social thinking (CC8B) Attributing Behavior to Persons or Situations (PSY) How self-perceptions shape our perceptions of others

AAMC Question Bank: An individual arrives late at a meeting. Which explanation for being tardy is consistent with self-serving bias? The individual will attribute being late to: Answer: a situational variable Explanation: Individuals experiencing self-serving bias attribute their own negative behaviors to situational variables. AAMC Question Bank: Which statement is NOT compatible with the hypothesis that the self-serving bias can account for participants' explanations of their body weights? Answer: Non obese participants view their healthy weight as a result of not having any fast food restaurants near their home. - A moderating variable is one that changes the relationship between two variables. There is no indication that the level of emotion changes the strength of the relationship between group and behavior. Blueprint Exam #2 Question: If it was found that individuals in the first study who took Truvada but had a high level of perceived stigma related to Truvada use were more likely to use condoms than those who took Truvada but had a low level of perceived stigma related to Truvada use, which of the following terms would best describe the role of perceived stigma on the relationship between taking Truvada and using condoms? Answer: Moderating variable Explanation: A moderating variable is one that affects the strength of the relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable. In this case, perceived stigma moderated the relationship between taking Truvada and using condoms. - A mediating variable is one that explains the relationship between two other variables. Here, emotion could explain the relationship between competence group and behavior. - Interaction variables have effects that, when combined with the effects of other variables, are not additive. In other words,

8A: Self-identity (CC8A) Self-Concept, Self-identity, and Social Identity (PSY, SOC) The role of self-esteem, self-efficacy, and locus of control in self-concept and self-identity (PSY)

AAMC Question Bank: Results from a study indicate that there is a -0.82 correlation between alcohol consumption and internal locus of control. Which statement will most likely be concluded from these findings? Answer: High alcohol consumption behavior is strongly associated with people perceiving that chance or outside forces control their fate. Explanation: -.82 indicates a strong, inverse relationship between internal locus of control (belief that one is personally responsible for their own outcomes) and alcohol consumption, such that as internal locus of control increases, alcohol consumption decreases. AAMC Exam Question 3: Which statement best distinguishes self-efficacy from collective efficacy, as it is described in the passage? Answer: Self-efficacy predicts an individual's coping ability, whereas collective efficacy predicts a group's prosocial behavior. Explanation: Collective efficacy assessed respondents' perceptions that members of their community would help one another out. Collective efficacy can be described in terms of an assessment of the prosocial behavior of a group (predicting prosocial behavior in one's community). Because self-efficacy refers to a person's belief in his or her ability to accomplish tasks, self-efficacy can be described in terms of predicting one's coping ability.

8C: Social interactions (CC8C)

AAMC Question Bank: The aggression scale in Study 1 allowed the researchers to isolate socially-influenced aggressive behaviors. Which alternative method would best determine if aggression was actually being modeled as opposed to already learned? Answer: a biographical sketch of the children's social life up until the study. Explanation: The answer to this question is C because a biographical sketch of the children's sociality is most useful because prior research has found that aggression is very much environmentally influenced. MCAT Exam 2 Question: Which research project provides the best application of the researchers' suggestion for future study? Answer: An observational study of clinicians' verbal and nonverbal communication with patients who have different BMIs. Explanation: The researchers' suggestion calls for more studies that seek to understand how implicit attitudes about weight affect quality of care. This research method (observational study) that investigates communication behaviors (relevant to quality of care) with patients who differ based on BMI. Only this option can yield research findings that would be relevant to behaviors regarding quality of care.

8B: Social thinking (CC8B) Attributing Behavior to Persons or Situations (PSY)

AAMC Question Bank: Which aspect of social interaction best explains the study's findings related to BMI classification? Answer: In-group versus out-group associations Explanation: The findings related to BMI category suggest in-group versus out-group dynamics. The study found that the level of anti-obesity bias was related to the respondent's BMI category. Bias tends to be directed toward out-group members; therefore, it would be expected that weight-related bias would be associated with an individual's BMI category. - Primary group ties belong to small social entities made up of an individual's close social circle, and secondary group ties are built in formal groups, such as workplace and school. These ties are not relevant to the bias regarding the BMI classification. - Front stage and back stage refer to how an individual behaves in front of an audience and without an audience. These concepts are not relevant to how MDs expressed their bias regarding individuals in different BMI categories. - Role-taking refers to how young children start understanding other individuals' point of view and feelings. Impression management is related to how individuals try to maintain their image in front of other people. These two concepts are not relevant to how bias about BMI categories is expressed according to the study findings.

AAMC Content 1 8A: Self-identity (CC8A) Self-Concept, Self-identity, and Social Identity (PSY, SOC) Formation of Identity (PSY, SOC) Theories of identity development (e.g., gender, moral, psychosexual, social)

According to Erikson's theory of psychosocial development, which group of participants are most likely dealing with the challenges of generativity versus stagnation? I. Adolescents II. Young adults III. Adults Explanation: III only, In Erikson's theory, the major crisis facing adults is that of generativity versus stagnation AAMC Exam 4 Question: A person is struggling to achieve generativity, rather than stagnation. In terms of Erikson's theory, this person is a(n): Answer: middle-aged adult. Explanation: According to Erikson's theory, a middle-aged person struggles with generativity versus stagnation.

8C: Social interactions (CC8C) Elements of Social Interaction (PSY, SOC) Status (SOC) Types of status (e.g., achieved, ascribed)

Achieved status: it is earned from your decision and your choice. One can earn his or her social status by his or her own achievements, this is known as achieved status. Ascribed Status: alternatively, one can inherit his or her position on the social hierarchy. An ascribed status is one that we are born with or assigned. Examples include gender, race, and height. Question: Gregory is extremely talented at baseball, but only rarely plays it because he prefers to sing in the local choir. However, Gregory is also a child actor on a television series and is most commonly referred to by others in that respect. Which of the following statements is true? Answer: For Gregory, "male" is an ascribed status.

AAMC Content Exam 1 8C: Social interactions (CC8C) What is the advantage of including a specially trained cultural liaison as opposed to training physicians in cultural competency?

Adding a cultural liaison creates a triadic group, a more stable arrangement than a dyadic group. Explanation: From the perspective of basic group dynamics in sociology, larger groups are generally considered more stable but less intimate, whereas smaller groups are usually considered less stable but more intimate. Dyads, two-person groups such as the physician-patient group, are unstable because either party can break the single social tie. The triad, three person groups such as the physician-patient-cultural liaison group, is considered relatively more stable because of the additional social tie. As a result, the triadic group provides the advantage of added stability in group dynamics.

8C: Social interactions (CC8C) Self-presentation and Interacting with Others (PSY, SOC) Expressing and detecting emotion The role of gender in the expression and detection of emotion

Although both men and women show increased outflow from the amygdala, it communicates with different areas of the brain in men and women. In men, amygdala connects to regions that promote a response to external stimuli, like the visual cortex. In women, the amygdala connects to regions that monitor and regulates conditions within the body, like hypothalamus. Women show a significantly greater activity in the left amygdala when encoding and remembering emotionally arousing pictures than do men, while men show greater activity in the right amygdala. Men and women tend to use different neural pathways to encode stimuli into memory. While highly emotional pictures were remembered best compared to emotionally neutral images by all participants in one study, women remembered the pictures better than men.

8C: Social interactions (CC8C) Social Behavior (PSY) Biological explanations of social behavior in animals (PSY, BIO) Altruism

Altruism consists of behaviors that are disadvantageous to the individual acting, but confer benefits to other members of its social group.

8C: Social interactions (CC8C) Social Behavior (PSY) Attachment

An individual's concerns about others' reluctance to get close to them is more representative of an anxious-ambivalent attachment style. A desire to merge completely with others is more representative of an anxious-ambivalent attachment style.

8C: Social interactions (CC8C) Self-presentation and Interacting with Others (PSY, SOC) Animal signals and communication (PSY, BIO)

Animals communicate signals, which can be chemical (pheromones), aural (sound), visual (courtship displays), or tactile (touch). Animals need to communicate with one another in order to successfully mate, which usually involves one animal signaling another; the energy-intensive behaviors or displays associated with mating are called mating rituals. Animal signaling is not the same as the communication we associate with language, which has been observed only in humans, but may also occur in some non-human primates and cetaceans. Animal communication by stimuli known as signals may be instinctual, learned, or a combination of both. Pheromone: a chemical secreted by an animal that affects the development or behavior of other members of the same species, functioning often as a means of attracting a member of the opposite sex. Blueprint Exam #4 Question: Zoologists discover a new species of lizard with a low degree of sexual dimorphism. Which of the following behaviors would the researchers most expect to find exhibited by members of this species? Answer: Repetitive mating between monogamous pairs of lizards Explanation: Sexual dimorphism refers to the degree to which males and females resemble each other. A species with low sexual dimorphism contains males and females that look mostly identical. High sexual dimorphism signals intense competition for mates, while animals from species with low sexual dimorphism typically form pair bonds and mate for life.

8A: Self-identity (CC8A)

Blueprint Exam #4 Question: When a person's gender identity does not match his or her physical sex, the person would most likely experience which of the following? Answer: Gender dysphoria Explanation: Gender dysphoria is the feeling of stress or discomfort in which one's sense of one's gender does not align with the gender assigned at birth (overwhelmingly the physiological sex of the person as determined by primary sex characteristics). In the older nomenclature, this was termed gender identity disorder, but (much like homosexuality before it), this condition has since been removed from the DSM as a "disorder" and come to simply be understood as one point on the wide spectrum of human sexual and gender characteristics. AAMC Exam 5 Question: Considering the stage that the participants are in according to Kohlberg's theory of moral development, what changes to the study design are most likely to result in decreased aggression? Answer: The addition of a segment to the violent video that portrays the actors being put in prison for their illegal violent behaviors Explanation: The participants (pre-adolescents) are in Kohlberg's preconventional stage of moral development. In this stage, moral reasoning is determined by what is rewarded and what is punished.

8C: Social interactions (CC8C) Elements of Social Interaction (PSY, SOC) Bureaucracy

Bureaucracy: one type of formal organization, has a particular focus on efficiency and effectiveness to accomplish the goals of the organization. Max Weber identified several characteristics of an ideal bureaucracy, all of which are aimed at increasing efficiency. An ideal bureaucracy is specialized and organized in a clear hierarchy. There are written rules and regulations with thorough record-keeping. To prevent distraction from the organization's goals an ideal bureaucracy is impersonal and impartial. Blueprint Exam #2 Question: Which of the following steps could an organization take to make itself into a more ideal bureaucracy? Answer: Documenting policies and procedures in a company handbook Explanation: Ideal bureaucracies have explicit rules that are often written down.

8C: Social interactions (CC8C) Elements of Social Interaction (PSY, SOC) Groups Group size (e.g., dyads, triads) (SOC)

Dyads and triads are the smallest social groups. Social interaction in a dyad is typically more intense than in larger groups because neither member shares the other's attention with anyone else. A triad is more stable than a dyad because one member can act as mediator should the relationship between the other two become strained.

8B: Social thinking (CC8B) Prejudice and Bias (PSY, SOC) Processes that contribute to prejudice The role of emotion in prejudice (PSY)

Emotion and cognition also contribute to prejudice through the development of schemas. A schema is an organizing pattern of thought that is used to categorize and interpret information, thus shaping individual attitudes and perspectives. Schemas are knowledge structures that determine one's expectations in different contexts, including social interactions. AAMC MCAT Exam 2 Question: Which psychological concept best explains observed response times during the IAT? Answer: Schemas Explanation: Schematic processing is relevant to explaining response times during the IAT because the speed with which memory schemas (organized clusters of knowledge) are activated and processed is presumed to indicate the participant's implicit attitude. AAMC Question Bank: According to the passage, one of the reasons Black men have medical mistrust is because seeking help violates their: gender schema Explanation: According to the passage, seeking help is viewed as incompatible with the male identity. The cognitions regarding what constitutes the male identity are an example of schemas. Prejudice is an attitude. Therefore, emotion and cognition both plays roles in contributing to prejudice. Emotions can play a role in feeding prejudices. At the core of prejudice is often fear frustration.

8A: Self-identity (CC8A) Self-Concept, Self-identity, and Social Identity (PSY, SOC) Formation of Identity (PSY, SOC) Theories of identity development (e.g., gender, moral, psychosexual, social)

Erik Erikson According to Psychosocial theory, we experience eight stages of development over our lifespan, from infancy through late adulthood. Trust vs mistrust: from brith to 12 months of age, infants must learn that adults can be trusted. Age: 1 year Crisis: trust vs mistrust Virtue: Hope Outcome: Fear, Suspicion. Autonomy vs Shame/Doubt: As toddlers (age 1-3 years begin to explore their world, they learn that they can control their actions and act on their environment to get results. Age: 2 years Crisis: Autonomy vs Doubt Virtue: Will Outcome: Shame Initiative vs Guilt: once children reach the preschool stage (3-6 years), they are capable of initiating activities and asserting control over their world through social interactions and play. Age: 3 to 5 Years Crisis: Initiative v Guilt Virtue: Purpose Outcome: Inedaquecy Industry vs Inferiority: during the elementary school stage (ages 6-12), children face the task of industry vs inferiority. Children begin to compare themselves with their peers to see how they measure up. They either develop a sense of pride and accomplishment in their schoolwork, sports, social activities and family life, or they feel inferior and inadequate because they feel they do not measure up. Age: 6-12 Years Crisis: Industry vs Interiority Virtue: Competence Outcome: Inferiority Identity vs Role Confusion: In adolescence (ages 12-18), children face the task of identity vs role confusion. According to Erikson, and adolescent's main task is developing a sense of self. Adolescents struggle with questions such as "Who am I"? Age: 12 - 18 Crisis: Identity vs Role Confusion Virtue: Fidelity Outcome: Rebellion

8B: Social thinking (CC8B) Prejudice and Bias (PSY, SOC) Ethnocentrism (SOC) Ethnocentrism vs. cultural relativism

Ethnocentrism is the tendency to judge other cultures by the standards of our own, often leading to a belief that one's race or ethnic group is superior to others. Ethnocentrism is the idea that your own culture is better than someone else's; the researcher tried to decrease ethnocentrism with the curriculum. Blueprint Exam 4 Question: A Western European policymaker is studying factors that contribute to the spread of HIV in different regions of the world. They find that gender inequality is a contributor and suggest that Western European gender roles (with more gender equality) be directly imposed on African countries in order to reduce HIV transmission. This proposal is most likely to be criticized for being an example of: Answer: ethnocentrism Cultural Relativism: Cultural relativism is the principle that a person's beliefs and health behaviors should be understood in the context of their own culture. The researcher tried to increase cultural relativism with the curriculum. The opposite of Ethnocentrism is Cultural Relativism. AAMC Question Bank: Which statement best distinguishes ethnocentrism and cultural relativism? Answer: Ethnocentrism assumes universal norms, whereas cultural relativism describes awareness of diversity. AAMC Question Bank: The passage's description of delivering culturally competent care advocates for: Answer: Cultural relativism rather than ethnocentrism. Explanation: The passage describes delivering culturally competent care as being aware of one's own cultural standards and biases while understanding that others may have different cultural standards and biases. This idea is best represented by the contrast in option B. Blueprint Exam #2 Question: Which of the following types of bias is most likely to affect research on cultural relativism and ethnocentrism?

AAMC Content Exam 1 8C: Social interactions (CC8C) Research findings indicate higher levels of patient trust and physician attention in race-concordant physician-patient relationships because: both the physician and patient belong to the same in-group.

Members of in-groups tend to share common backgrounds and similar social group identities, which generally result in high levels of trust among in-group members. Racial/ethnic identity can be an important characteristic of an in-group, resting in a shared culture, language, or community. Thus, the higher levels of patient trust and physician attention in race-concordant physician-patient relationships can be explained by in-group affinity.

8B: Social thinking (CC8B) Prejudice and Bias (PSY, SOC) Stigma (SOC)

Example Problem of Stigma - MCAT Official Prep Practice Exam Question: Some medical conditions, such as HIV/AIDS, are met with shame and disapproval by segments of society. Public health interventions, such as HIV testing campaigns, are often conceived as efforts to counteract the negative attitudes associated with those conditions. Based on this description, such interventions are specifically targeting: Answer: the social stigma associated with conditions such as HIV/AIDS. AAMC Question Bank: Social stigma is most commonly associated with: Answer: an attribute that is devalued, social stigma is derived from the symbolic interactionist perspective in sociology and calls attention to how certain individuals or groups face social disapproval. AAMC Question Bank: The researchers' conclusion in Study 2 is most consistent with which public health strategy in SB states? Answer: targeting the formation of health behaviors in social networks. Explaining: The correct answer is option A. Based on the Study 2 findings, the researchers concluded that the significance of adolescence may be related to establishing social norms that will affect stroke risk in adulthood. This conclusion suggests targeting the formation of norms during adolescence. Relationships and interactions in adolescents' social networks will establish norms related to health that may become long-standing. Targeting the formation of health behaviors could involve the norms in adolescents' peer networks, family networks, and community networks.

8C: Social interactions (CC8C) Social Behavior (PSY) Attachment

Example Question: As infants, what type of parent-infant interaction most likely occurred for the participants? Answer: An insecure infant-parent bond that is characterized by little separation anxiety and a tendency for the infant to resist contact with the parent Explanation: Avoidant attachment is associated with little separation anxiety and a tendency to resist contact with the parent.

8B: Social thinking (CC8B) Prejudice and Bias (PSY, SOC) Stereotypes

First impressions are often based on stereotypes. For example, we many have different expectations of strangers depending on their race, gender, age, sexual orientation, and ability. Prejudice often begins in the form of a stereotype - that is, a specific belief or assumption about individuals based solely on their membership in a group, regardless of their individual characteristics. Stereotypes become overgeneralize and applied to all members of a group. Stereotype: a conventional, formulaic, and oversimplified conception, opinion, or image of a group of people or things. Prejudice: a positive or negative evaluation of another person based on their perceived group membership (e.g., race, class or gender).

8C: Social interactions (CC8C) Self-presentation and Interacting with Others (PSY, SOC) Presentation of self Front stage vs. back stage self (Dramaturgical approach) (SOC)

Front Stage Self: When on the front stage, the actor is behaving in front of audience members with the goal of winning their approval. AAMC Question Bank: A researcher following the dramaturgical approach to social interaction is most likely to make which prediction? Answer: An individual will modify his or her front stage self in response to the perceived audience. Back Stage Self: the back stage exists when the audience is not present, allowing the actor to step out of character. The back stage is not a venue for the rehearsal of audience-pleasing behaviors.

8B: Social thinking (CC8B) Attributing Behavior to Persons or Situations (PSY) Attributional processes (e.g., fundamental attribution error, role of culture in attributions)

Fundamental Attribution Error: we attribute the behavior of others to internal factors about that person as opposed to considering the complex situational external factors that a person may face. We over-attribute behaviors to these internal causes. Blueprint Exam #1 Question: What best describes the relationship between attribution theory and fundamental attribution error? Answer: Attribution theory relates to the ways in which people attempt to explain various behaviors and events. Fundamental attribution error occurs when a person assigns too much weight to internal causes rather than external factors when trying to explain the cause of another person's behavior. Actor-Observer Bias: where an actors tends to explain his or her behavior by situational factors while an observer tends to explain the actor's behavior based on stable internal states. Self-Serving Bias: a way of protecting and enhancing our self-esteem, and this bias is much more common in individualistic cultures. If we succeed, it is down to our internal personal qualities, but if we fail, we do not have a hit on our self-esteem because it is more likely to do with things outside of our control. Cultural Factors: affect how people make attributions. Individualist cultures value personal goals and independence. Collectivist cultures see individuals as members of a group and tend to value conformity, mutual support, and interdependence. People from individualist cultures are more inclined to make the fundamental attribution error and demonstrate self-serving bias than people from collectivist cultures. This is thought to be because individualists tend to attribute behavior to internal factors (the individual), while collectivists tend to attribute behavior to eternal factors (the group and the world).

8A: Self-identity (CC8A) Self-Concept, Self-identity, and Social Identity (PSY, SOC) Formation of Identity (PSY, SOC) Influence of culture and socialization on identity formation MCAT Official Prep (AAMC) 1. Sample Test P/S Section Passage 3 Question 10 2. Sample Test P/S Section Passage 5 Question 24 3. Practice Exam 2 P/S Section Passage 2 Question 5 4. Practice Exam 4 P/S Section Passage 7 Question 33

Humans are social beings, and social interaction is essential to normal human development. Social deprivation occurs when an individual is deprived of culturally normal interaction with the rest of society. Certain groups of people are more likely to experience social deprivation. For example, social deprivation often occurs along with a broad network of correlated factors that all contribute to social exclusion; these factors include mental illness, poverty, poor education, and low socioeconomic status.

8C: Social interactions (CC8C) MCAT Official Prep Free Practice Exam People tend to form social and romantic relationships with individuals that they see frequently. Which construct is most likely to explain this tendency? Mere exposure effect

Mere exposure effect refers to the preference for familiar stimuli over novel stimuli. When individuals develop a romantic attraction to people they see frequently, this may be due to the mere exposure effect.

8A: Self-identity (CC8A) Self-Concept, Self-identity, and Social Identity (PSY, SOC) Formation of Identity (PSY, SOC) Influence of social factors on identity formation Influence of individuals (e.g., imitation, looking-glass self, role-taking)

Imitation: when you copy specific behavior of a person or a character from the media. Identification is when you copy many behaviors of such an individual with the goal of being just like them. Looking-Glass Self: a person's sense of self develops from interpersonal interactions with others in society and the perceptions of others, we never stop modifying it unless human interaction ceases. AAMC Question Bank: Which concept describes the self-concept as a product of social interaction, emerging out of the way an individual perceives others to view him or her? Answer: The looking-glass self AAMC Question Bank: Based on the concept of the looking-glass self, which reaction is most likely for a person who acquires a stigmatized illness? Answer: the person will internalize the perceived stigmatization against him or her. Explanation: The correct answer is option B. The looking-glass self suggests that the self-concept is influenced by how we perceive that others are viewing us. Based on the looking-glass self, a person who acquires a stigmatized illness is likely to internalize the stigmatization directed against him or her.

8C: Social interactions (CC8C) Self-presentation and Interacting with Others (PSY, SOC) Presentation of self Impression management

Impression Management: control how others see us. It means to present ourselves to others as we hope to be perceived. AAMC Question Bank: As described in the passage, a medical student's sense of self-efficacy and confidence regarding patient interactions is most likely to manifest via which phenomenon? Answer: Impression Management Explanation: Impression management in the only concept listed that addresses how individuals actively manifest their sense of self in social interactions. Role performance: how a person expresses his or her role.

8C: Social interactions (CC8C) Elements of Social Interaction (PSY, SOC) Groups In-group vs. out-group

In group are social groups to which an individual feels he or she belongs to and identifies with. Out-group: a group that one does not belong to or identify with. AAMC Exam 4 Question: How would the pattern of attributions found in the study most likely be predicted to change during times of intense group conflict between managers and assistants? Answer: The conflict would increase the effects of the in-group and out-group bias. Explanation: Intense group conflict increases the effects of the in-group and out-group bias and would most likely have the same effects on the attributions made by the different groups. For example, a delay in responding by management caused by some computer malfunction would be much more likely to be attributed to an internal factor ("they are not trustworthy") compared to a situational factor ("computer malfunction").

8C: Social interactions (CC8C) Social Behavior (PSY) Biological explanations of social behavior in animals (PSY, BIO) Inclusive fitness (BIO)

Inclusive fitness describes overall fitness (an individual's level of success at passing on its genes) by considering not only the individual's own progeny but also the offspring of its close relatives. When the concept of fitness is expanded to include the offspring of relatives, the evolutionary benefits of altruism becomes apparent.

8C: Social interactions (CC8C) Discrimination (PSY, SOC) Individual vs. institutional discrimination (SOC)

Institutional Discrimination targets specific, easily stereotyped, and generalizable attributes of individuals (such as race and gender) and can exist within governments and social institutions such as religion, educational groups, police, etc. Examples of institutional discrimination UWORLD Question: In a surgical residency program that does not allow maternity leave, a female resident becomes pregnant and takes three weeks off to have her baby. A male resident misses a similar amount of time due to an accident. Later, only the female resident is required to make up the time missed. Is this an example of institutional discrimination? Answer: Yes, because the policy disadvantages females but does not apply to males in similar situations. Explanation: Discrimination involves actions that negatively affect certain social groups (eg, a certain race or gender). Individual discrimination involves person-to-person interactions that involve unfair treatment (eg, male manager refusing to hire females). Institutional discrimination involves policies at the organizational, rather than individual, level that result in the unfair treatment of certain people based on group membership.

8A: Self-identity (CC8A) Self-Concept, Self-identity, and Social Identity (PSY, SOC) Formation of Identity (PSY, SOC) Theories of identity development (e.g., gender, moral, psychosexual, social)

Intimacy vs Isolation: people in early adulthood (20s through early 40s). They enter the time known as middle adulthood, which tends to the mid-60s. The social task of middle adulthood is generatively vs stagnation. Generativity involves finding your life's work and contributing to the development of others through activities such as volunteering, mentoring and raising children. Age: 18 - 40 Crisis: Intimacy vs Isolation Virtue: Love Example Question: A 34-year-old man has had a series of brief relationships with several romantic partners, but has never established a close, intimate relationship with a partner. According to Erikson's theory of psychosocial development, which outcome best describes this example? Answer: Isolation; The man is in the Intimacy versus Isolation stage and given his lack of success in experiencing a close, intimate relationship, would be experiencing the outcome of isolation. Generativity vs Stagnation: when people reach their 40s, they enter the time known as middle adulthood, which extends to the mid-60s. The social task of middle adulthood is generativity vs stagnation. Generativity involves finding your life's work and contributing to the development of others through activities such as volunteering, mentoring and raising children. Age: 40 - 65 Crisis: Generativity vs Stagnation Virtue: Care Outcome: Unproductive Integrity vs Despair: from the mid-60s to the end of life, we are in the period of development known as late adulthood. Erikson's task at this stage is called integrity vs despair. Age: 65+ Crisis: Integrity vs Despair Virtue: Wisdom Outcome: Dissatisfaction Blueprint Exam #2 Question: According to Erikson's stages of development, which basic conflict would the individuals studied by the researchers experience? Answer: Integrity vs. despair

8C: Social interactions (CC8C) Elements of Social Interaction (PSY, SOC) Bureaucracy Perspectives on bureaucracy (e.g., iron law of oligarchy, McDonaldization)

Iron Law of Oligarchy: criticizes the hierarchal nature of bureaucracy, stating that people at the top of the hierarchy will inevitably come to value their power over the purpose of the organization. As a result, leadership will focus more staying in power than achieving the bureaucracy's goals. McDonaldization: a phenomenon that occurs when society, its institutions, and its organizations are adapted to have the same characteristics that are found in fast-food chains. These include efficiency, calculability, predictability and standardization, and control. AAMC Question Bank: Which scenario is NOT an accurate representation of the McDonaldization of society? Answer: A doctor seeing a patient at his or her residence rather than at a medical facility. Explanation: It does not represent the elements of McDonaldization which include efficiency (option A), calculability, uniformity (option D), and technological control (option C). A. Efficiency: the optimal method for accomplishing a task. Efficiency in McDonaldization means that every aspect of the organization is geared toward the minimization of time. B. Calculability: refers to the quantifiable objectives of fast-food chains. McDonaldization developed the notion that quality equals quality, and that a large amount of product delivered to the customer in a short amount of time is the same as a high quality product. Workers in these organizations are judged by how fast they accomplish tasks instead of the quality of work they do. C. Predictability: The idea that no matter where a person goes, they will receive the same services and receive the same product every time they interact with the McDonaldized organization. This also applies to the workers in those organizations. Their tasks are highly repetitive, highly routine and predictable.

8C: Social interactions (CC8C) Social Behavior (PSY) Attachment

John Bowlby conceived of four stages of attachment that being during infancy A. Pre Attachment: birth to 6 weeks, built in signals, such as crying and cooing, bring a newborn baby into close proximity with their caregiver. Babies recognize a caretaker's smell and voice and are comforted by these things. When the caretaker picks up the baby or smiles at her, the beginnings of attachment are forming. However, complete attachment has not yet occurred, so the baby is still comfortable being left with an unfamiliar person. B. Attachment in the making: (6 weeks to 8 months): attachment is getting stronger during this stage, and infants respond differently to familiar people than they do to strangers. For example, a 5 month old baby will be more "talkative" with his mother rather than with an uncle he sees only once a month. He will also be calmed more quickly by the mother's presence than by the uncle's. Separation anxiety (becoming upset when a trusted caregiver leaves has not set in yet but will be seen in the next stage. Parents continue to build attachment by meeting the baby' basic needs for food, shelter, and comfort. C. Clear Cut Attachment: attachment to trusted caregivers continues to strengthen in this stage, and separation anxiety is likely in a caregiver's absence. Toddlers generally want to be with their preferred caregiver at all times, and they will follow the caretaker, climb on them, or otherwise do things to keep the caregiver's attention. Parents and other important adults in the child's life continue to strengthen attachment by begin receptive to the child's needs for attention, meeting basic needs, and playing with the child. D. Formation of reciprocal attachment: (18 months to 2 years): Rapiid language growth facilities the understanding of new concepts, and children begin to understand a

8B: Social thinking (CC8B) Processes Related to Stereotypes (PSY) Self-fulfilling prophecy

Labeling Theory: concerns itself not with the normal roles that define our lives, but with those very special roles that society provides for deviant behavior called deviant roles, stigmatic roles, or social stigma. AAMC Question Bank: Which prediction related to adolescent behavior is most consistent with labeling theory? Answer: Adolescents will be stigmatized regardless of their individual behaviors. Deviant Roles: a negative role in society Social Role: a set of expectations we have about a behavior. Self-fulfilling Prophecy: the tendency for people to behave as they are expected to behave. a belief that leads to its own fulfillment. Question: Which of the following is an example of a self-fulfilling prophecy? Suzie believes that all people from New York are rude, and she avoids interacting with her New Yorker coworker because of this. The coworker notices Suzie's avoidance and starts to act rudely toward her. Answer: In a self-fulfilling prophecy, an attitude or prediction leads to itself becoming true. Here, Suzie's perception of New Yorkers changes her behavior in such a way that reinforces her belief. In other words, Suzie believes that New Yorkers are rude, and this indirectly causes a person from New York to be impolite to her. AAMC MCAT Exam 3 Question: The cycle of worrying described in the passage is an example of: Answer: a self-fulfilling prophecy Explanation: The passage states, "One goal of the CT might be to help the patient break the cycle of worrying about sleeplessness, which leads to more sleeplessness and hence more worry." A self-fulfilling prophecy is a belief that leads to its own fulfillment, which is what is described by the cycle of worrying.

8A: Self-identity (CC8A) Self-Concept, Self-identity, and Social Identity (PSY, SOC) Formation of Identity (PSY, SOC) Theories of identity development (e.g., gender, moral, psychosexual, social) Kohlberg's stages of moral development

Level 1: Pre-conventional Morality - this level, a child's sense of morality is externally controlled. Blueprint Exam #4 Question: Steve is instructed by his boss to forge a document. Steve knows that this action is against company policy and possibly against the law, but he is afraid he may lose his job if he doesn't comply. In Kohlberg's stages of moral development, what stage is Steve most likely in if he decides to forge the document? Answer: Preconventional Explanation: The preconventional stage in Kohlberg's stages of moral development is characterized by more concern for rewards and punishments than social rules and laws. Stage 1: Obedience vs Punishment: behavior driven by avoiding punishment. Stage 2: Individual Interest: behavior driven by self-interest and rewards. Level 2: Conventional Morality - throughout this level, a child's sense of morality is tied to personal and societal relationships. Children continue to accept the rules of authority figures, but this is now due to their belief that this is necessary to ensure positive relationships and societal order. Stage 3: Interpersonal: behavior driven by social approval Stage 4: Authority: behavior driven by obeying authority and conforming to social order. Level 3: Post-conventional Morality - throughout the post-conventional level, a person's sense of morality is defined in terms of more abstract principles and values. People now believe that some laws are unjust and should be changed or eliminated. This level is marked by a growing realization that individuals are separate entities from society and that individuals may disobey rules inconsistent with their principles. A. Social Contract: behavior driven by balance of social order and individual rights. B. Universal, Ethics: Behavior driven by internal moral principles.

8A: Self-identity (CC8A) Self-Concept, Self-identity, and Social Identity (PSY, SOC) The role of self-esteem, self-efficacy, and locus of control in self-concept and self-identity (PSY) External Locus of Control

Locus of control refers to the types of attributions individuals make to explain their outcomes. Individuals with an external locus of control believe that forces outside of their control primarily contribute to their outcomes. Question: A student sommelier who correctly describes a wine explains his or her success by saying "I just got lucky." Which factor best explains the student's attribution? Answer: External locus of control - blames outside forces for everything, they attribute events to environmental traits or causes.

8A: Self-identity (CC8A) Self-Concept, Self-identity, and Social Identity (PSY, SOC) Formation of Identity (PSY, SOC) Theories of identity development (e.g., gender, moral, psychosexual, social)

MCAT Exam 2 Question: Participants in the studies are in which stage of Erikson's psychosocial development? Answer: Trust versus mistrust Explanation: Infants in the studies were 3 to 4 months old and 6 to 7 months old. According to Erikson, the trust versus mistrust stage spans from birth to approximately 18 months of age.

8B: Social thinking (CC8B) Attributing Behavior to Persons or Situations (PSY)

MCAT Exam 2 Question: The provider attitudes study referenced at the end of the passage suggests that healthcare providers sometimes fail to consider which type of explanation of behavior? Answer: Situational Explanation: Situational explanations of behavior emphasize environmental factors which surround the individual. Discrimination and poverty are both examples of situational explanations for behavior as they are environmental factors. AAMC Exam 4 Question: Based on the findings in the study, what is the most likely prediction when people make attributions for their own behavior? Answer: People attribute positive outcomes to dispositional factors and negative outcomes to situational factors. Explanation: People have a self-serving bias, wherein people tend to attribute their own successes to internal factors and attribute their own failures to external factors. In addition, people will match their attributions about their own behavior to the attributions they make for their in-groups, because the in-group is treated as an extension of the self. If the in-group looks good, then the self looks good.

8B: Social thinking (CC8B) Prejudice and Bias (PSY, SOC)

MCAT Question 2 Question: Which concept best explains the comparison made in the passage regarding Internet responses, face-to-face interviews, and telephone surveys (paragraph 2)? Answer: Social desirability Explanation: Social desirability is the tendency for participants to give responses which they think are more socially acceptable, instead of choosing responses which are reflective of their true feelings. For socially sensitive topics such as weight, participants may be more likely to provide socially acceptable answers during interviews or phone surveys. Internet responses do not elicit the same level of social desirability as responses are not being given directly to another person. - Selection bias occurs when proper randomization for a participant sample is not achieved. - Attribution error is when behavior is mistakenly attributed to an incorrect source (for example, attributing a person's behavior to their personality when there were environmental factors influencing it). - Stereotype threat is apprehension about confirming negative stereotypes related to a person's own group.

8C: Social interactions (CC8C) Social Behavior (PSY) Biological explanations of social behavior in animals (PSY, BIO) Applying game theory (BIO)

Many scientists apply game theory to understand and mode the decision making processes that govern competition, altruism, and other social behaviors. Interactions between organisms can be modeled as a multiplayer game in which each player carries out competitive or cooperative strategies that maximize evolutionary success (example; fitness). The success of an individual depends no only on his or her own strategy but also on the strategies and decisions of the other "players."

8C: Social interactions (CC8C) Social Behavior (PSY) Attachment

Mary Ainsworth Secure: children with this form of attachment use the caregiver as a secure base from which to explore the room. They are comforted by the parent and show a clear preference for the caregiver (for example, by protesting or avoiding the unfamiliar person). Avoidant: these children avoid contact with the caregiver and show little interest in play. They do not seems to mind when the caregiver leaves, and they treat the stranger in a similar fashion to the caregiver. The child may act in a rebellious manner and have lower self-esteem as they get older. The children of parents who do not meet their basic needs or are inattentive may form avoidant attachment. Resistant and Ambivalent: children with this form of attachment are unable to use the caregiver as a secure base, and they seek out the caregiver before separation. They are both distressed by the caregiver's departure and angry when the caregiver returns. The caregiver or the stranger does not easily calm them, and they feel anxiety with the caregiver due to inconsistent attachment patterns. Disorganized Attachment: children with these attachment patterns engaged in stereotypical behavior such as freezing or rocking. They act strangely with the caregiver and do not appear to know how to attach, doing such things as approaching with their back turned or hugging the stranger upon their entry to the room. Disorganized attachment generally results from the child being maltreated or neglected in some way.

8A: Self-identity (CC8A) Self-Concept, Self-identity, and Social Identity (PSY, SOC) Formation of Identity (PSY, SOC) Theories of identity development (e.g., gender, moral, psychosexual, social)

Oral (0-1 years of age): during this stage, the mouth is the pleasure center for development. Freud believed this is why infants are born with a sucking reflex and desire their mother;s breast. AAMC MCAT Exam 2 Question: According to Freud, participants in studies 1 and 2 are in which stage of development? Answer: Oral stage Explanation: According to Freud, infants in the first year of life, as were included in the study samples, are in the oral stage of development. Anal (1-3 years of age): During this stage, toddlers and preschool-aged children begin to experiment with urine and feces. The control they learn to exert over their bodily functions is manifested in toilet-training. Phallic (3-6 years of age): During this stage, preschoolers take pleasure in their genitals and according to Freud, begin to struggle with sexual desires towards the opposite sex parent. (boys to mothers and girls to fathers). Latency (6-12 years of age): During this stage, sexual instincts subside, and children begin to further develop the conscience. Genital (12+ years of age): During this stage, sexual impulses reemerge. If other stages have been successfully met, adolescents engage in appropriate sexual behavior, which may lead to marriage and childbirth.

8C: Social interactions (CC8C) MCAT Official Prep Free Practice Exam

People tend to form social and romantic relationships with individuals that they see frequently. Which construct is most likely to explain this tendency? Social facilitation - Social facilitation occurs when the presence of an audience improves performance on a well-practiced task.

8B: Social thinking (CC8B) Attributing Behavior to Persons or Situations (PSY) How perceptions of the environment shape our perceptions of others

Perceptions of one's surrounding can affect perceptions and beliefs about others. Perceptions of the environment can influence conscious or unconscious stereotype activation. Stereotypes: categories of objects or people that help to simplify and systematize information so the information is easier to be identified, recalled, predicted, and reacted to.

8B: Social thinking (CC8B) Prejudice and Bias (PSY, SOC) Processes that contribute to prejudice Power, prestige, and class (SOC)

Power, prestige, and class contribute to the effect that prejudice has on the lives and opportunities of individuals as well as the structure of social institutions.

8C: Social interactions (CC8C) Discrimination (PSY, SOC) The relationship between prejudice and discrimination

Prejudice is a negative attitude and feeling toward an individual based solely on one's membership in a particular social group and is formed from stereotypes which is an assumption about individuals based solely on their membership in a group. Prejudice often begins in the form of a stereotype - that is, a negative belief about individuals based solely on their membership in a group, regardless of their individual characteristics. Discrimination evolves from prejudice where thoughts turn into actions. Discrimination is the differential treatment of an individual or group based on prejudicial thoughts. Blueprint Exam #1 Question: When professors meet with individual students during office hours, they often exhibit communication styles that vary widely based on the person they're talking to. A study found that professors speaking with minority female students were much more likely to use shorter sentences with more instructions and to ask questions that revealed an assumption of lack of academic skill. These professors were demonstrating: Answer: discrimination Explanation: The professors demonstrated changes in their behavior - speaking and questions - based on race and gender. Such behavioral changes are discrimination.

8C: Social interactions (CC8C) Discrimination (PSY, SOC) How power, prestige, and class facilitate discrimination (SOC)

Prejudice is an unjustified or incorrect attitude (usually negative) towards an individual based solely on the individual's membership of a social group while discrimination is the behavior or actions, usually negative, towards an individual or group of people. Discrimination is facilitated in society by power, prestige and social class. All are vehicles to enable individuals to discriminate against groups of individuals based on social class, race or gender. Discrimination can be based on power relationships between a dominant group and subordinate (or marginalized) group. An individual in a powerful social position can generally inflict more damage on the quality of life and opportunities available to a person in a less powerful position. Social class can facilitate inequality through prejudice and class discrimination. Also known as classism, it includes individual attitudes, behaviors, systems of policies, and practices that are set up to benefit the upper class at the expense of the lower class including healthcare inequities, disparities in the judicial system, lack of social mobility. Prestige can facilitate discrimination as access to prestige can vary depending on social status; those who enjoy a higher social status and greater privilege may have the means to pursue high prestige opportunities while those who have low SES will not.

8B: Social thinking (CC8B) Prejudice and Bias (PSY, SOC) MCAT Official Prep Free Practice Exam Content

Prejudice is based on preconceived negative judgements about certain individuals and groups due to their social background. Labeling Theory: concerns itself not with the normal roles that define our lives, but with those very special roles that society provides for deviant behavior called deviant roles, stigmatic roles, or social stigma. AAMC MCAT Exam 4 Question: A researcher applying the sociological perspective of labeling theory to the passage is likely to suggest that social skills training will have the greatest impact on: Answer: social stigma applied to some students. Explanation: Labeling theory suggests that people are often placed into social categories, one of which could be a stigmatized category. Thus, labeling theory is most closely associated with social stigma. As related to the passage, labeling theory would suggest that social skills training could potentially prevent or counteract the stigmatization of some students in schools.

8A: Self-identity (CC8A) Self-Concept, Self-identity, and Social Identity (PSY, SOC) The role of self-esteem, self-efficacy, and locus of control in self-concept and self-identity (PSY)

Social facilitation occurs when the presence of an audience improves performance. AAMC Exam 3 Question: Pairs of research participants interacted for 10 min. They rated themselves and their partners on personality traits and then rated the accuracy of their partners' ratings of them. The partners' ratings were rated as more accurate if they were close to participants' own self-ratings. This finding illustrates: Answer: self-verification Explanation: Self-verification refers to the tendency to seek out (and agree with) information that is consistent with one's self-concept. This is what is illustrated by the study finding.

8C: Social interactions (CC8C) Elements of Social Interaction (PSY, SOC) Groups Primary and secondary groups (SOC)

Primary Group: typically a small social group whose members share close, personal, enduring relationships. these groups are marked by a concern for one another, shared activities and cultures, and long periods of time spent together. The goal of primary groups is actually the relationships themselves rather than achieving some other purpose. Families and close friends are examples of primary groups. AAMC Question Bank: Which independent variable is most relevant for a study that investigates the possible impact of primary groups on the outcome measure discussed in the passage? Answer: Family Structure Explanation: Primary groups include the family. Thus, a variable measuring family structure would be most relevant to assessing the impact of primary groups. Secondary Groups: are large groups whose relationships are impersonal and goal-oriented; their relationships are temporary. Unlike first groups, secondary groups are large groups whose relationships are impersonal and goal-oriented. People in a secondary group interact on a less personal level than in a primary group, and their relationships are generally temporary rather than long-lasting.

8B: Social thinking (CC8B) Prejudice and Bias (PSY, SOC) MCAT Official Prep Free Practice Exam Content

Question: A woman's manufacturing job is unexpectedly outsourced to a factory in Country A. She responds with hostility and anger towards all people from Country A and accuses them of taking her job. Which concept best describes her response? Answer: Scapegoating Explanation: Scapegoating refers to erroneously assigning blame to an identifiable source, often when the real cause is abstract, such as globalization. Scapegoating captures the assignment of blame to a group that is not responsible for the situation of the individual described in the question.

AAMC Content Exam 1 8C: Social interactions (CC8C) Elements of Social Interaction (PSY, SOC) Role Role conflict and role strain (SOC)

Question: Because cultural liaisons work closely with physicians and are advocates for patients, which phenomenon are cultural liaisons most likely to experience? Answer: Role strain because of their collegiality with physicians and their responsibility to patients Explanation: Role strain is the tension that results from competing demands within the context of a single social role. Individuals in the social role of cultural liaison will likely have to manage different expectations when working with physicians compared to when they are advocating for patients. AAMC Exam 3 Question: The passage suggests that family caregivers of patients with dementia are likely to experience: Answer: role conflict. Explanation: The end of the dementia section states that support for family caregivers of dementia patients is also essential to help caregivers balance the demands of caregiving with their other social responsibilities. Balancing the demands of one role (caregiving) with other roles (other social responsibilities) defines role conflict (tensions stemming from multiple social roles).

Question on Fundamental Attribution Error

Question: Which conclusion demonstrates a fundamental attribution error when interpreting the results of the study? Answer: Dispositional attributions of others' behavior are stronger when attitude ratings are influenced by the presence of others than when alone. Explanation: Fundamental attribution error refers to the tendency to attribute people's behavior to dispositional traits, even when situational explanations are available. A strong tendency for making dispositional attributions in one of the study conditions demonstrates the fundamental attribution error. MCAT Exam 2 Question: Which hypothetical result from the online questionnaire would provide evidence of the fundamental attribution error? Answer: Some participants rank personality factors above environmental factors. Explanation: The fundamental attribution error refers to the tendency to attribute other people's behavior to internal, stable traits, rather than situational factors. Ranking personality factors (which are internal and stable) above environmental factors (which are situational) is an example of making the fundamental attribution error. AAMC MCAT Exam 3 Question: If the researchers wanted to study the impact of emotions on cardiac mortality during the holidays, which concept are they LEAST likely to address? Answer: Fundamental attribution error Explanation: The fundamental attribution error involves making dispositional attributions for others' behavior while ignoring potential situational influences. This is not relevant to a study of the impact of emotions on cardiac mortality during the holidays.

8B: Social thinking (CC8B) Processes Related to Stereotypes (PSY) Stereotype threat

Question: Which conclusion is supported by Figure 1? Answer: Priming a negative stereotype interferes with performance. Explanation: The figure indicates that participants performed worse after being reminded of their gender identity. This reminder may serve to prime the negative stereotype about performance in the math task.

8C: Social interactions (CC8C) Social Behavior (PSY) Attachment

Question: Which is a plausible reason why participants with the attachment style investigated are less likely to seek support from others in times of stress? Answer: Participants find it difficult to trust and depend on others. Explanation: Difficulties in trusting and depending on others is one of the primary characteristics of an avoidant attachment style, and is a plausible explanation for why avoidantly attached individuals are less likely to seek support from others in times of stress.

8C: Social interactions (CC8C) Elements of Social Interaction (PSY, SOC)

Question: Which major developmental milestone best explains the difference between the results seen for the 6- versus 9-month olds in Study 1? Answer: Stranger Anxiety Explanation: The answer to this question is A because stranger anxiety is the fear of strangers (or other-race faces in the case of this passage) that infants commonly begin to express around 8 months of age.

8A: Self-identity (CC8A) Self-Concept, Self-identity, and Social Identity (PSY, SOC) The role of self-esteem, self-efficacy, and locus of control in self-concept and self-identity (PSY)

Social inhibition occurs when the presence of an audience hinders performance.

AAMC Content Exam 1 8C: Social interactions (CC8C) Elements of Social Interaction (PSY, SOC) Networks (SOC)

Social network analysis: Used in some epidemiological studies, social network analysis is the method described in the question. Network analysis involves mapping the social relationships that exist among a set of individuals.

AAMC Content Exam 1 8A: Self-identity (CC8A) Self-Concept, Self-identity, and Social Identity (PSY, SOC)

Reference Group: Individuals often emulate the attitudes and behaviors of groups that they would like to join. Sociologists refer to these groups as reference groups, which are important for self-evaluation and identity formation. The scenario in the question suggests that the teen constructs an identity, through modifying behaviors (dressing, speaking, acting), to match that of teens from the dominant culture. In the context of the specific information provided in the question, the dominant culture is closest to a reference group for the teen. AAMC Question Bank: In helping to explain the results of the study, which other concept would be most similar to a homophilous social network? Answer: Reference Group Explanation: A reference group is defined as "any group that individuals use as a standard for evaluating themselves and their own behavior," and is similar to the mechanism behind the effect of the "homophilous" group in the study. Blueprint Exam #4 Question: If participants in this study view the high-competence, low-warmth group with envy due to direct comparisons between themselves and members of the group, what do the high-competence, low-warmth group represent? Answer: Reference group Explanation: A reference group is a group that a person compares themself to. This example states that participants directly compare themselves to the high-competence, low-warmth group, which is a cue that the group is a reference group.

8C: Social interactions (CC8C) Elements of Social Interaction (PSY, SOC) Role Role conflict and role strain (SOC)

Role Conflict: describes the conflict between or among the roles corresponding to two or more statuses held by one individual. Question: When caring for a family member with advanced cancer, caregivers are often faced with the demands of completing many tasks for the patient while maintaining employment and other personal responsibilities. This situation describes which role dynamic? Answer: Role conflict AAMC Question: Role conflict is best illustrated in which of the following scenarios? After caring for a sick child at home, an employee falls behind with responsibilities at work. Role Strain: The demands of a single role become overwhelming. A boss may have many responsibilities to juggle, including management, innovation and organizing events. Blueprint Exam #2 Question: A student has never been very good at math and is struggling to keep up with the amount of work in his algebra course; additionally, this student is pressured by his parents to work more hours at a job rather than do homework. What issues does the student experience? Answer: Role strain about keeping up in algebra and role conflict about working more hours Explanation: Role strain involves stress from too many demands within a single role, such as the student's problem with keeping up in his algebra course. Role conflict involves two roles coming into conflict, such as when the student experiences conflict as a student and worker.

8C: Social interactions (CC8C) Elements of Social Interaction (PSY, SOC) Role Role exit (SOC)

Role Exit: where an an individual stops identifying with a particular role. For example, a boss may become so frustrated with all her responsibilities that she quits her job.

8C: Social interactions (CC8C) Elements of Social Interaction (PSY, SOC) Role MCAT Official Prep Free Practice Exam Content

Role adjustment - Role adjustment refers to the process of an individual taking up a new social role.

8C: Social interactions (CC8C) Elements of Social Interaction (PSY, SOC) Role MCAT Official Prep Free Practice Exam Content

Role engulfment - Role engulfment would have occurred if the care role was a dominant sense of identity.

8A: Self-identity (CC8A) Self-Concept, Self-identity, and Social Identity (PSY, SOC) The role of self-esteem, self-efficacy, and locus of control in self-concept and self-identity (PSY)

Self Esteem - respect one has for self. AAMC Exam 2 Question: Which statement is accurate regarding the research design of the study? Answer: Measures of state self-esteem allowed participants to act as their own controls. Explanation: Participants answered state self-esteem items before and after peer evaluations. Thus, participants acted as their own controls. Self-Efficacy: belief in one's capability to perform a specific task or reach a specific goal. Locus of Control in self concept and self-identity: a person's tendency to perceive the control of rewards as internal to the self or external in the environment. AAMC Question Bank: A patient diagnosed with depression blames all professional failure on personal incompetence. The therapist tries to change the patient's thinking by suggesting that the perceived failures may be due to a lack of effort. The therapist is most likely attempting to change the patient's: Answer: Locus of Control Internal Control: when a person believes he or she can influence events and their outcomes. They attribute the results to their own trait. External Control: blames outside forces for everything, they attribute events to environmental traits or causes. Individuals with a high internal locus of control believe that events come primarily from their actions. People with an internal locus of control feel that they control their destiny, rather than their fate being largely determined by external forces. They tend to be happier, less depressed, and less stressed. AAMC Exam 5 Question: Based on the hypothesis stated in the last paragraph of the passage, which comment is likely to be attributed to a subject like Alice? Answer: I am successful because I am a responsible person. This is the only comment that is compatible with an internal locus of control.

8A: Self-identity (CC8A) Self-Concept, Self-identity, and Social Identity (PSY, SOC) Different types of identities (e.g., race/ethnicity, gender, age, sexual orientation, class)

Social Identity is the perception of oneself as a member of certain social groups. AAMC MCAT Exam 3 Question: The predictive models described in the final paragraph of the passage are most likely based on which assumption? Answer: Exposure to some psychosocial stressors will be attributed to social identity. Explanation: The passage describes the predictions of theoretical models, which suggest that the stressors of prejudice and discrimination will contribute to elevated levels of alcohol consumption among certain racial/ethnic group members. The question asks for an assumption that underlies this prediction. The link between prejudice, discrimination, and health rests, at least partly, on the assumption that individuals will attribute stressful experiences to their status as members of a racial/ethnic group. Therefore, stressors are expected to be linked to their social identity. The aspects of identity can all contribute to the development of different types of identities, such as race/ethnicity, gender, age, sexual orientation, and class. In addition to being demographics, these characteristics are used by researchers to understand society as a whole.

8C: Social interactions (CC8C) MCAT Official Prep Free Practice Exam

Social comparison - Social comparison occurs when individuals compare themselves (favorably or unfavorably) to their social contacts.

8A: Self-identity (CC8A) Self-Concept, Self-identity, and Social Identity (PSY, SOC) Formation of Identity (PSY, SOC) Influence of culture and socialization on identity formation MCAT Official Prep (AAMC) 1. Sample Test P/S Section Passage 3 Question 10 2. Sample Test P/S Section Passage 5 Question 24 3. Practice Exam 2 P/S Section Passage 2 Question 5 4. Practice Exam 4 P/S Section Passage 7 Question 33

Socialization: the process of learning one's culture and how to live within it. Gender Socialization: the specific process of learning the cultural norms associated with gender roles. Attachment Theory: may explain why social deprivation has such dire effects for children. According to attachment theory, an infant needs to develop a relationship with at least one primary caregiver for social and emotional development to occur normally. Key Note: Through socialization, people learn to identify what is important and valued within a particular culture. The term "socialization: refers to a general process, but socialization always takes place in specific contexts. Socialization is culturally specific: people in different cultures are socialized differently, to hold different beliefs and values, and to behave in different ways.

8C: Social interactions (CC8C) Social Behavior (PSY) Attachment

Some separation anxiety and seeking contact with the parent is representative of secure attachment, not avoidant attachment.

8C: Social interactions (CC8C) Social Behavior (PSY) Attachment

Strong separation anxiety, coupled with a tendency to resist contact with the parent, is more characteristic of anxious-ambivalent attachment than avoidant attachment.

8C: Social interactions (CC8C) Social Behavior (PSY) Attraction

a major area in the study of people's relations to each other is interpersonal attraction. This refers to all of the forces that lead people to like each other, establish relationships, and in some cases, fall in love. Passionate Love: is an emotional love that is mostly expressed in a physical manner; it is a love that is shared between people who are intensely enamored with each other. Passionate love is both exciting and intense, and can be defined as a state of intense longing for union with another. Romantic Love: Passion + Intimacy Companionate Love: Intimacy and Commitment, on the other hand, it is defined as passionate love that has settled to a wam enduring love between partners in a relationship; in Sternberg's terms, it is comprised of intimacy and commitment. Often found in long-term relationships, the companionate love shared between partners consists of fewer ups and downs than does passionate love. It is more stable and involves a deeper respect and affectionate attachment between partners. While the passion may have died down over time, a deep affection and commitment for the other person still remains. Consummate Love: Intimacy, Passion and Commitment Infatuation Love: Passion Fatuous Love: Passion + Commitment, but lacks the stability that intimacy brings to relationships. It is termed fatuous love because the commitment is made on the basis of passion alone. Empty Love: Commitment Sternberg's triangular theory of love: According to Sternberg, love consists of three components: passion (infatuation), commitment (companionship), and intimacy (liking). Having all three of these components is referred to as consummate love.

8C: Social interactions (CC8C) Elements of Social Interaction (PSY, SOC) Networks (SOC)

a social network is a social structure between actors, connecting them through various social familiarities. A social network is a social structure between actors, either individuals or organizations. It indicates the ways in which they are connected through various social familiarities, ranging from casual acquaintance to close familial bonds. The study of social networks is called both "social network analysis: and "social network theory". AAMC Question Bank: Based on the passage, the shift in participants' musical preferences over time is best explained by changes in their: social network Explanation: The passage states that participants' memories shifted from listening to music chosen by their parents to music chosen by themselves and peers. This finding is best explained by changes in social network ties over time, as peer group ties become more significant in adolescents' social networks than parental or familial ties. Social network theory views social relationships in terms of nodes and ties. Nodes are the individual actors within the networks, and ties are the relationships between the actors. There can be many kinds of ties between the nodes. In its most simple form, a social network is a map of all of the relevant ties between the bodes being studied. AAMC Question Bank: Which concept is most relevant for explaining the relationship between social resources and birth-weight outcomes that was found in the first study in the passage? Answer: Social networks Explanation: Reciprocal exchange, as it is described as a social resource with the first study in the passage, is best identified as a social network process.

8C: Social interactions (CC8C) Elements of Social Interaction (PSY, SOC) Bureaucracy Characteristics of an ideal bureaucracy

an ideal bureaucracy is specialized and organized in a clear hierarchy. There are written rules and regulations with thorough record-keeping. To prevent distraction from the organization's goals, and ideal bureaucracy is impersonal and impartial. Example Question: Weber's characteristics of an ideal bureaucracy suggest that most formal organizations will: Answer: select employees based on technical qualifications. Explanation: Employment in a formal organization is based on technical qualifications; therefore, this option is consistent with the characteristics of an ideal bureaucracy. UWORLD Question: Which of the following is LEAST likely to occur when the administration and delivery of health care is organized as a bureaucracy? Answer: Healthcare providers treat each patient as unique and administer personalized patient care. Explanation: Ideal bureaucracies use division of labor, hierarchical structure, standardization, and impersonality to maximize rationality and efficiency. Actual bureaucracies often have some, but not necessarily all, of the characteristics of an ideal bureaucracy.

8A: Self-identity (CC8A) Self-Concept, Self-identity, and Social Identity (PSY, SOC) Formation of Identity (PSY, SOC) Influence of social factors on identity formation Influence of groups (e.g., reference group)

people refer or make references in evaluating themselves. The references groups are at some level of aspiration. Shelby is a pre-med student at the local university. A well-known medical practice allows her to shadow them a few days a week. Shelby notices many characteristics while shadowing the group of physicians including the way they dress and interact with others. Shelby now knows how a professional physician should act after spending a few weeks visiting the medical practice. The medical practice is an example of: Reference Group AAMC Question: A member of a youth sports league evaluates his or her own behaviors by comparing them to those of professional athletes. For this young athlete, professional athletes represent a(n): Answer: Reference Group UWORLD Question: "Suicide clusters" are greater-than-average rates of suicide occurring within a short time frame. After a well-publicized initial suicide, suicide rates tend to rise, particularly among teenagers and young adults. This phenomenon can also be described as: Answer: imitation of a reference group Explanation: Reference groups are groups to which individuals compare themselves. Individuals are more likely to adjust their attitudes and behaviors to align with those of a reference group. AAMC Exam 4 Question: The ranking of attributes and the bogus group consensus are best described as making participants feel as though their group is: Answer: a reference group, so that participants will evaluate themselves against the group. Explanation: The group is assumed to be a reference group because participants will evaluate themselves based on thoughts about the group. The ranking of attributes and bogus group consensus are part of the design to make participants evaluate themselves against the group.

8C: Social interactions (CC8C) Social Behavior (PSY) Social support (PSY, SOC)

social support can be thought of as the soothing impact of friends, family, and acquaintances. The need to form and maintain healthy, stable relationships with others is a powerful, pervasive, and fundamental human motive. Building strong interpersonal relationships with others helps us establish a network of close, caring individuals who can provide social support in times of distress, sorrow and fear. Social support can be thought of as the soothing impact of friends, family, and acquaintances. AAMC Question Bank: A researcher designs a study that involves interviewing cancer survivors about their experiences with support groups, along with other forms of social support, during treatment. In order for the study to be considered ethical, the researcher needs to: Answer: allow the participants to withdraw from the study at any time.

8C: Social interactions (CC8C) Self-presentation and Interacting with Others (PSY, SOC) Expressing and detecting emotion The role of culture in the expression and detection of emotion

the culture in which we live provides structure, guidelines, expectations, and rules to help us understand, interpret, and express various emotions. A "cultural display rule" is a culturally specific standard that governs the types and frequencies of emotional displays considered acceptable by a given culture. Cultural contexts also act as cues when people are trying to interpret facial expressions. This means that different cultures may interpret the same social context in very different ways.

8B: Social thinking (CC8B) Attributing Behavior to Persons or Situations (PSY) How self-perceptions shape our perceptions of others

the influence of our self-perceptions affects our attributions and perceptions of people. One of the most salient examples of the importance of self-perception is the influence of group identity. Reference Groups: provide their members with a set of values and beliefs. The ideas imparted by a reference group can include particular viewpoints on other people and groups. In Group: a social group to which an individual feels they belong as a member. Blueprint Question #4: How are the individuals in the group judged to be high in warmth and competence likely viewed by participants in relation to themselves? Answer: As an ingroup Explanation: An ingroup is a group for which a person has personal pride in and affinity, both of which are characteristics of this group. Out Group: A social group with which an individual does not identify. Blueprint Exam #1 Question: In later interviews with study participants, researchers found that White participants often spoke about White individuals as "us" and described them as having similar beliefs. On the other hand, White participants spoke about Black individuals as "them" and described them as having different beliefs. Which concepts describe these views? Answer: In-groups and out-groups Explanation: In-groups are categories that a person feels they belong to, and out-groups are groups that a person does not belong to and may feel animosity or superiority toward. In this example, using inclusive language such as "us" represents an in-group, signifying belonging. Language like "them" represents an out-group, signifying distance and distinction.

8B: Social thinking (CC8B) Prejudice and Bias (PSY, SOC) Stigma (SOC)

the societal disapproval and judgement of a person or group of people because they do not fit their community's social norms. Key Points A. What is considered "normal" changes with changing societal standards. B. In very crude terms, society generally sees normality as good and abnormality as bad. Being labeled as "normal" or "abnormal" can have profound ramifications for an individual, such as exclusion or stigmatization by society. C. Stigma and discrimination can add to the suffering of those seen as "abnormal". Blueprint Exam #1 Question: After the study, a male participant with a low perceived vulnerability contracts HIV. While the man is applying for a job, an employer discovers his HIV status. After failing to receive a job offer, the man concludes that he was not hired because of his condition. If true, the action of not hiring the man would best be considered an example of: Answer: discrimination on the part of the employer. Explanation: Discrimination is the unfair treatment and harmful actions against others based on their membership in a specific social group. The above example is discrimination because there was an action attached to the employer's negative attitude. D. Stigma, ostracism, and other forms of escalated social punishment are societal tools use to keep members within the confines of acceptable behavior. E. Stigma can have negative effects.