Gen. Psych. Exam 2

What are the 4 stages of sleep?

1. Non-Rem Stage 1 2. Non-Rem Stage 2 3. Non-Rem Stage 3 4. Rem Sleep

What is the capacity of short term memory?

7 plus or minus 2

Why do we dream IDEA 1

Freud

REM sleep

Rapid eye movement rapid brain waves motor cortex active but messages blocked genitals become aroused when dreaming occurs

Both brains and computers have the ability to store memories, with one critical difference. What is this difference? a. A computer stores exact copies of data, whereas a brain stores bits of data that are reconstructed later for use. b. A brain stores exact copies of data, whereas a computer stores bits of data that are reconstructed later for use. c. A brain's stored information is always retrievable, whereas a computer's stored information is occasionally irretrievable. d. A computer's stored information is always retrievable, whereas a brain's stored information is frequently irretrievable.

a. A computer stores exact copies of data, whereas a brain stores bits of data that are reconstructed later for use.

What type of stimulus elicits a response without prior experience—that is, without learning having taken place? a. Unconditioned b. Conditioned c. Classical d. Habitual

a. Unconditioned

After a grueling day of classes, Edith returns to her apartment and plops down in a comfortable recliner; she closes her eyes and immediately begins to relax. Edith's brain is likely to show an increase in ____ wave activity. a. alpha b. beta c. delta d. theta

a. alpha

The reinforcement of a desired behavior on some occasions but not others is called ____ reinforcement. a. partial b. incomplete c. fractional d. fragmented

a. partial

punishment

an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows

context effects

associations or situations that help you retrieve information

Which of the following is an example of a conditioned reinforcer? a. Food b. Money c. Sleep d. Water

b. Money

New mom Lin was up most of the night with her infant daughter. To give Lin a chance to sleep, her husband takes the baby to his parents' house for a few hours. As soon as they leave, Lin falls fast asleep. What stage of sleep does Lin likely enter to compensate for her lack of sleep? a. Stage 1 N-REM b. REM sleep c. Stage 3 or 4 N-REM d. Stage 2 N-REM

b. REM sleep

Which of the following techniques would be most helpful to Jane while studying for her Women's American Literature exam? a. Reading her notes quickly and repetitively b. Taking practice tests c. Pulling an all-nighter d. Massed practice

b. Taking practice tests

Which of the following most accurately describes eyewitness testimony in the courtroom setting? a. Preliminary testimony is considered unreliable; therefore, follow-up questioning is essential. b. It is considered to be uniformly precise and reliable. c. It can be affected by the words attorneys use when framing questions. d. Errors in testimony are usually due to the witness's premeditated intent.

c. It can be affected by the words attorneys use when framing questions.

An environmental cue or event whose significance is learned is referred to as a(n) ____. a. characteristic stimulus b. unconditioned stimulus c. conditioned stimulus d. uncharacteristic stimulus

c. conditioned stimulus

A schedule of partial reinforcement in which the first response after a specified period of time will be reinforced is called a ____ schedule. a. fixed ratio b. concrete ratio c. fixed interval d. concrete interval

c. fixed interval

An implicit memory is also known as a(n) ____. a. autobiographical memory b. declarative memory c. nondeclarative memory d. episodic memory

c. nondeclarative memory

The process of associating a behavior with its consequences is known as ____. a. classical conditioning b. habituative learning c. operant conditioning d. nonassociative learning

c. operant conditioning

Which process below is defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience? a. Variable action pattern b. Fixed action pattern c. Reflex d. Learning

d. Learning

Approximately an hour after falling asleep, Daisy's roommate repeatedly shakes her shoulder and asks Daisy to move her car out of the driveway. Daisy takes several minutes to respond to her roommate and then opens the refrigerator to find her keys. Daisy was most likely in ____. a. REM sleep b. Stage 2 N-REM c. Stage 1 N-REM d. Stage 3 or 4 N-REM

d. Stage 3 or 4 N-REM

Vanessa crams for her anatomy and physiology final by staying up the entire night before the exam. What is a likely consequence of Vanessa's actions? a. Vanessa will need to rest her eyes periodically during the exam or risk temporary vision impairment. b. Vanessa will need to have at least two nights of normal sleep before experiencing normal mental functioning. c. Vanessa will experience a brief surge of energy during the test followed by a prolonged "crash" phase. d. Vanessa will likely perform significantly below her fullest potential because she decreased her capacity to remember the material.

d. Vanessa will likely perform significantly below her fullest potential because she decreased her capacity to remember the material.

mood-congruent memory

A memory process that selectively retrieves memories that match one's mood.

recall test

A test in which participants are presented with stimuli and then, after a delay, are asked to remember as many of the stimuli as possible.

What is Freud's theory of why we dream?

Claims we are consciously aware of only a small portion of our true motivations and feelings The id: unconscious source of our basic motivations in waking life Dreams fulfill our unconscious wishes and desires Use Manifest content and Latent content to interpret dreams

Why do we dream IDEA 3

Dreams are interpretations of random activity originating in the brainstem AKA the "Activation Synthesis" theory

Why do we dream IDEA 4

Dreams help us integrate complex information

Why do we dream IDEA 2

Dreams reflect current conscious concerns

Non-Rem Stage 2

Lasts about 20 min occasional bursts of rapid brain activity breathing & pulse slow muscles relax

Non-Rem Stages 3&4

Lasts about 30-60 min brain emits slower delta waves often where sleep walking occurs hard to arouse most release of human growth hormone

implicit memory

Memories we don't deliberately remember or reflect on consciously; non declarative; (procedural memory-HOW TO DO THINGS) (classical and operant conditioning)

counter conditioning (desensitization something)

a behavior therapy procedure that conditions new responses to stimuli that trigger unwanted behaviors; based on classical conditioning; common treatment for phobias; goal is extinction

reinforcer

a reward for positive behavior

unconditined stimuli

a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers an emotional or physiological response (ex: food)

unconditioned response

a stimulus that triggers a response after association with an unconditioned stimulus (ex: bell)

What type of reinforcement schedule depends on the number of times a behavior occurs? a. A ratio schedule of partial reinforcement b. An interval schedule of partial reinforcement c. A fixed schedule of partial reinforcement d. A variable schedule of partial reinforcement

a. A ratio schedule of partial reinforcement

According to the levels of processing theory, who will be able to remember the most definitions of the vocabulary words in a given chapter? a. Lillian, who takes turns with her roommate defining and explaining each term b. Angelica, who repeats each term and its definition multiple times out loud c. Chuckie, who memorizes the definitions by chunking d. Tommy, who reads through each term and its definition

a. Lillian, who takes turns with her roommate defining and explaining each term

Jake, a 24-year-old Caucasian man, was caught in a stolen car and taken into the police station for identification. Which of the following lineups would be the fairest for Jake? a. The witness is shown six photos of suspects sequentially. b. In a physical lineup, the police officer asks the witness "Is that the guy?" while pointing to Jake. c. Jake is the only Caucasian man in a physical lineup. d. The witness is shown six photos of suspects simultaneously.

a. The witness is shown six photos of suspects sequentially.

In a study by Loftus and Palmer, participants viewed a short video of an automobile accident. One group was asked "How fast was the white sports car going while traveling along the country road?" A second group was asked, "How fast was the white sports car going when it passed the barn while traveling along the country road?" One week later, both groups were asked if they recalled seeing a barn (there was no barn in the video). Which of the following statements is true? a. Those who heard barn were almost 15% more likely than those who did not hear barn to report seeing a barn. b. Those who did not hear barn were almost three times more likely than those who heard barn to report seeing a barn. c. There was no difference in responses among those who heard barn, and the control group. d. Those who heard barn were about as likely as the control group to report seeing a barn.

a. Those who heard barn were almost 15% more likely than those who did not hear barn to report seeing a barn.

Azul studies for her upcoming molecular biology midterm. She starts by making an outline of her textbook chapters and then begins studying her lecture notes. Azul's brain is likely to show ____ wave activity. a. beta b. alpha c. theta d. delta

a. beta

The formation of associations between two stimuli, which occur sequentially in time, is referred to as ____. a. classical conditioning b. operant conditioning c. associative conditioning d. observational conditioning

a. classical conditioning

A reinforcer that gains value from being associated with other things that are valued is called a(n) ____ reinforcer. a. conditioned b. associative c. unconditioned d. primary

a. conditioned

Dinesh takes a look through his office desk and makes a mental note of the supplies he needs to replenish. On the way to the supply room, he realizes that he can remember only the first three supply items he needs to replenish in his office desk. This illustrates the ____. a. primacy effect b. maintenance model c. spreading activation model d. recency effect

a. primacy effect

Fred is studying vocabulary for his biomedical class while sitting in a busy coffee shop. Fred's recall of the material will likely be best while ____. a. seated with background noise b. lying down in a silent setting c. outdoors in fresh air and sunshine d. seated at a desk in a quiet room

a. seated with background noise

The hippocampus plays an essential role in ____. a. the formation of new memories b. assessing analytical situations c. assessing emotional situations d. the consolidation of procedural memories

a. the formation of new memories

A reaction to a given stimulus that requires no previous experience is referred to as a(n) ____. a. unconditioned response b. characteristic response c. conditioned response d. uncharacteristic response

a. unconditioned response

A schedule of partial reinforcement in which reinforcement occurs after a fluctuating number of behaviors is called a(n) ____ schedule. a. variable ratio b. arbitrary ratio c. arbitrary interval d. variable interval

a. variable ratio

Tao wakes up his roommate Don so that he doesn't miss his morning classes again. Don tells Tao, "I wish you hadn't woken me up, I was about to land on Mars after winning a fierce battle against flying jellyfish." Don was most likely in ____. a. REM sleep b. Stage 3 or 4 N-REM c. Stage 2 N-REM d. Stage 1 N-REM Hide Feedback

a. REM sleep

Duke is exhausted and plops down on the couch. Fifteen minutes after falling asleep, Duke is not awakened by the refrigerator cycling on. He is, however, awakened by his roommate opening the refrigerator door. Duke is most likely in ____. a. Stage 2 N-REM b. Stage 1 N-REM c. REM sleep d. Stage 3 or 4 N-REM

a. Stage 2 N-REM

manifest content

according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream

latent content

according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream

short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly before the information is stored or forgotten; a "mental scratchpad"; lasts only about 20-30 seconds

intermittent reinforcement

an operant conditioning principle in which only some of the responses made are followed by reinforcement

Shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

What is the correct ordering of the processes of memory? a. Storage, encoding, and retrieval b. Encoding, storage, and retrieval c. Encoding, retrieval, and storage d. Retrieval, storage, and encoding

b. Encoding, storage, and retrieval

What is a typical REM and N-REM cycling in humans? a. First half of sleep: only N-REM occurs; second half of sleep: only REM occurs. b. First half of sleep: N-REM dominates; second half of sleep: REM dominates. c. First half of sleep: REM dominates; second half of sleep: N-REM dominates. d. First half of sleep: only REM occurs; second half of sleep: only N-REM occurs.

b. First half of sleep: N-REM dominates; second half of sleep: REM dominates.

What is the evidence to suggest that sleep plays an important role in repairing the body? a. Melatonin is manufactured during REM sleep. b. Human growth hormone is released during Stages 3 and 4 of N-REM sleep. c. Levels of the wound-healing chemical, prothrombin, are depleted during consciousness. d. The immune cells phagocytes and lymphocytes mature during Stage 1 N-REM sleep.

b. Human growth hormone is released during Stages 3 and 4 of N-REM sleep.

What is true of operant conditioning? a. It involves either voluntary or involuntary behaviors depending on the stimulus. b. It generally involves voluntary behaviors. c. It generally involves involuntary behaviors. d. It involves either voluntary or involuntary behaviors depending on the response state.

b. It generally involves voluntary behaviors.

From an evolutionary perspective, why is the conscious awareness of ongoing sensations advantageous for animals? a. It allows animals to respond instinctively to oncoming threats. b. It provides the opportunity to choose responses rather than to respond instinctively. c. It facilitates the development of complex motor and sensory control. d. It enables animals to have a sense of mortality and a strong will to pass on their genes. Hide Feedback

b. It provides the opportunity to choose responses rather than to respond instinctively

What is the basis for the effectiveness of the method of loci? a. Explaining material to someone else points out our gaps in understanding. b. We form excellent representations of visual images in memory. c. Distributing practice over time consolidates memories. d. The method provides mnemonics to store memories.

b. We form excellent representations of visual images in memory.

A reaction to a given stimulus that is learned or acquired over time is referred to as a(n) ____. a. unconditioned response b. conditioned response c. characteristic response d. uncharacteristic response

b. conditioned response

An implicit memory for how to carry out a motor skill or action is called ____. a. eidetic memory b. procedural memory c. retrograde memory d. declarative memory

b. procedural memory

Counterconditioning in which people relax while being exposed to stimuli that elicit fear is referred to as ____. a. habituation b. systematic desensitization c. higher order conditioning d. latent inhibition

b. systematic desensitization

Approximately an hour after falling asleep, Daisy's roommate repeatedly shakes her shoulder and asks Daisy to move her car out of the driveway. Daisy takes several minutes to respond to her roommate and then opens the refrigerator to find her keys. What type of brain waveforms did Daisy display right before being awakened? a. Theta waves with sleep spindles and K-complexes b. Delta waves c. Theta waves d. Beta waves

b. Delta waves

Check My Work What is a key distinction between classical conditioning and operant conditioning? a. In contrast to operant conditioning, classical conditioning leads to a relatively permanent behavioral change. b. In contrast to classical conditioning, operant conditioning leads to a relatively permanent behavioral change. c. Classical conditioning makes associations between two stimuli; operant conditioning associates a behavior with its consequence. d. Operant conditioning makes associations between two stimuli; classical conditioning associates a behavior with its consequence. Hide Feedback

c. Classical conditioning makes associations between two stimuli; operant conditioning associates a behavior with its consequence.

Ashley is studying a list of vocabulary words for her psychology exam. Which of the following would be most effective for recalling definitions during the exam? a. Cues provided by the textbook b. Cues suggested by her study partner c. Cues based on her own experiences d. Cues recommended by her professor

c. Cues based on her own experiences

Aurora talks to her therapist about a recurring dream in which she encounters a ferocious lion that has just escaped from local zoo. She works with her therapist to learn how to form a conscious awareness of the dream and to control the dream by turning the lion into a kitten. What technique is Aurora utilizing? a. Directive dreaming b. Autonomous dreaming c. Lucid dreaming d. Cogent dreaming

c. Lucid dreaming

As Ronnie hears a song on the radio, she feels stressed: her heart races, her hands become clammy, and her breathing becomes rapid. The song is familiar because it was very popular at a time when her parents were going through a divorce that caused Ronnie intense anxiety. In this scenario, identify the following in the same respective order: the conditioned stimulus, the unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned response, and the unconditioned response. a. Parents fighting; song; anxiety toward parents fighting; anxiety toward song b. Song; anxiety toward song; parents fighting; anxiety toward parents fighting c. Song; parents fighting; anxiety toward song; anxiety toward parents fighting d. Parents fighting; anxiety toward parents fighting; song; anxiety toward song

c. Song; parents fighting; anxiety toward song; anxiety toward parents fighting

Dan, startled by the sound of a loud thump in the middle of the night, catches a glimpse of his roommate Yi wandering around their dorm room. The next morning Dan asks about the loud thump and Yi replies, "I think I was asleep the entire night . . . but I have been known to sleepwalk from time-to-time." What stage of sleep was Yi likely experiencing while sleepwalking? a. Stage 1 N-REM b. Stage 2 N-REM c. Stage 3 or 4 N-REM d. REM sleep

c. Stage 3 or 4 N-REM

Patti finds her husband Derek asleep in his recliner. She gently touches his shoulder and says, "Derek, wake-up; the dog needs to go out." Derek abruptly responds, "Patti, I am awake!" What type of brain waveforms did Derek display right before being awakened? a. Alpha waves with sleep spindles and K-complexes b. Delta waves c. Theta waves d. Beta waves

c. Theta waves

Sara allows her dog, Isabel, to run freely at a local park. When a truck drives by and its engine backfires loudly, Isabel quickly jumps up on her hind legs and barks loudly. Isabel's response illustrates ____. a. sensitization b. an instinct c. a reflex d. operant conditioning

c. a reflex

A cue is ____. a. the process of grouping similar or meaningful information together b. the transformation of information from one form to another c. any stimulus that helps you access target information d. a memory aid that links new information to well-known information

c. any stimulus that helps you access target information

The tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to an original conditioned stimulus is called ____. a. aggregation b. habituation c. generalization d. sensitization

c. generalization

After class, Anita and Bev make plans to study for their psychology exam together but cannot decide on a time or location. In addition, Anita realizes that she left her phone in her apartment. Anita and Bev agree that it is easiest to meet at Bev's dorm. Bev gives Anita her room number and passcode. Anita likely will be able to retain this information in short-term memory, without additional processing, for ____. a. about 2 minutes b. a second or less c. no more than 30 seconds d. a maximum of 5 minutes

c. no more than 30 seconds

The hippocampus ____. a. serves as a storage location for long-term memories b. plays a role in procedural memory c. participates in the consolidation of semantic and location information into long-term memory d. is unrelated to the formation of spatial memories

c. participates in the consolidation of semantic and location information into long-term memory

Patti finds her husband Derek asleep in his recliner. She gently touches his shoulder and says, "Derek, wake-up; the dog needs to go out." Derek abruptly responds, "Patti, I am awake!" Derek was most likely in ____. a. REM sleep b. Stage 2 N-REM c. Stage 1 N-REM d. Stage 3 or 4 N-REM

c. Stage 1 N-REM

In one of Elizabeth Loftus's research experiments, she superimposed real family photos of her study participants onto a picture of a hot air balloon. What was the result? a. Most of the participants were confused as to whether they had taken a balloon ride. b. Almost all of the participants remembered the details of the day including their age at the time. c. Very few participants thought they had taken a balloon ride. d. 50% of participants falsely remembered having taken the balloon ride in childhood.

d. 50% of participants falsely remembered having taken the balloon ride in childhood.

Dr. Graham exposes rats to a vanilla scent prior to receiving a food pellet in the left corner of their cage, but provides no food after exposure to a lemon scent. After several trials, upon smelling a vanilla scent, the rats wait at the far left corner of the cage regardless of whether a food pellet is present. However, they do not wait in the far left corner when exposed to the lemon scent. What is the unconditioned stimulus in the experiment? a. Left corner of cage b. Lemon scent c. Vanilla scent d. Food pellet

d. Food pellet

Which of the following is an example of a variable interval schedule of partial reinforcement? a. Sam earns extra money by shoveling his neighbor's driveways and sidewalks in the winter. He charges $20 per job but only shovels for snow falls of 1 inch or more. b. In hopes of winning a big jackpot, Penny plays the slot machines at a nearby casino. c. Jaime has a paper due once a month in his sociology course. His productivity is low at the beginning of the month and high as the deadline approaches. d. Marcus takes his daughter Rebekah fishing, and explains that you never know how long you have to leave your line in the water before a fish will bite.

d. Marcus takes his daughter Rebekah fishing, and explains that you never know how long you have to leave your line in the water before a fish will bite.

Which of the following is an example of a fixed ratio schedule of partial reinforcement? a. Jaime has a paper due once a month in his sociology course. His productivity is low at the beginning of the month and high as the deadline approaches. b. Hoping to catch a message from her boyfriend, Wendy checks her e-mail again and again throughout the day. c. In hopes of winning a big jackpot, Penny plays the slot machines at a nearby casino. d. Sam earns extra money by driving a shuttle bus from the airport to the hotel. He is paid $20 per trip, but Uber drivers and taxis sometimes pick up all the passengers going to the same hotel and Sam has to wait for the next flight to arrive.

d. Sam earns extra money by driving a shuttle bus from the airport to the hotel. He is paid $20 per trip, but Uber drivers and taxis sometimes pick up all the passengers going to the same hotel and Sam has to wait for the next flight to arrive.

Former members of a Girl Scout troop have gotten back in touch on Facebook. Verda reminds the others of their camping trip, where it rained for 3 days. Others share their memories of that weekend as well. What is most likely to happen to Verda's memories? a. They remain essentially the same. b. They are stored in a separate section of long-term memory from the memories of others. c. They are overwritten by the memories shared by others. d. They interact with others' memories and are re-encoded as new long-term memories.

d. They interact with others' memories and are re-encoded as new long-term memories.

A graph of the serial position effect, where the likelihood of recall of an item is plotted as a function of the item's position in a list during presentation, takes the shape of a(n) ____. a. line that begins at a high level and slopes downward to the right b. J-shaped curve c. line that begins at a low level and slopes upward to the right d. U-shaped curve

d. U-shaped curve

The "magic number 7 plus or minus 2" refers to the ____. a. duration of short-term memory b. capacity of semantic memory c. duration of semantic memory d. capacity of short-term memory

d. capacity of short-term memory

Tom often smokes while studying in his apartment. Of course, he cannot smoke during his exams. This may make retrieval of the material more difficult because of ____. a. episodic memory b. context-dependent memory c. short-term memory d. encoding specificity

d. encoding specificity

A schedule of reinforcement in which reinforcement occurs after a set number of behaviors is called a ____ schedule. a. concrete interval b. fixed interval c. concrete ratio d. fixed ratio

d. fixed ratio

Eli is afraid of bees, and has been ever since he was nearly stung by one a few months ago. Lately, his father has been very distressed to see that Eli is now afraid of any flying insect, even tiny ones like gnats. The fact that Eli gets terribly afraid and runs to another room whenever he sees a flying "bug" demonstrates _____. a. acquisition b. inhibition c. discrimination d. generalization

d. generalization

Study participants who were selectively deprived of Stages 3 and 4 N-REM sleep reported ____. a. sore throat and itchy eyes b. headache and nausea c. blurred vision d. muscle and joint pain

d. muscle and joint pain

Our physiological state during REM sleep consists of ____. a. slow and relaxed heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing; and twitching of postural muscles b. slow and relaxed heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing; and paralysis of postural muscles c. rapid or irregular heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing; and twitching of postural muscles d. rapid or irregular heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing; and paralysis of postural muscles

d. rapid or irregular heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing; and paralysis of postural muscles

When Gina was 10, she swam in the ocean for the first time. She remembers the feeling of kicking her feet, slicing her arms through the water, tasting the tangy salt water, floating her on her back, and learning from her father that salt water is more dense than fresh water, which makes floating easier. Which element is a semantic memory? a. the familiar feel of kicking her feet and slicing her arms through the water b. how tangy the salt water was c. the feeling of floating on her back d. that salt water is more dense than fresh water

d. that salt water is more dense than fresh water

Tao wakes up his roommate Don so that he doesn't miss his morning classes again. Don tells Tao, "I wish you hadn't woken me up, I was about to land on Mars after winning a fierce battle against flying jellyfish." What type of brain waveforms did Don display right before being awakened? a. Theta waves with sleep spindles and K-complex activity b. Theta wave c. Delta wave d. Beta wave

d. Beta wave

The existence of varying states of awareness benefits animals by facilitating ____. a. reproduction and energy conservation b. body repair and immune function c. reproduction and immune function d. body repair and energy conservation

d. body repair and energy conservation

availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common

Which schedule of reinforcement leads to the slowest acquisition?

fixed-interval schedule

Extinction

if the unconditioned stimulus doesn't follow the conditioned stimulus, the conditioned response weakens (ex: if the food stops following the bell, the dogs with eventually stop drooling after the bell)

variable-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

fixed-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

fixed-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed; reward comes after an unpredicted number of responses

misinformation effect

incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

REM rebound

increased amounts of REM sleep after being deprived of REM sleep on earlier nights

recency effect

last items sometimes easier to remember; only true if a test immediately follows a list; last items most likely to stay in short term memory

Non-REM Stage 1

lasts about 5 min senses shut down brain emits slow alpha and theta waves

observational learning

learning by observing other people's behaviors and not from direct reinforcements and punishments

delta waves

long, slow waves that indicate the deepest stage of sleep appears in NREM 3&4

explicit memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"; (semantic memory- facts, figures, and lyrics) (episodic memory-events and experiences)

belief bias

our beliefs distort our logical thinking; people are more likely to accept logical conclusions if they are consistent with one's beliefs

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

continuous reinforcement

reinforcing/receiving a reward for the desired response every time it occurs

overjustification effect

rewarding someone for something they already enjoy doing will lead them to enjoy it less

Generalization

stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus and elicit the conditioned response; the greater the similarities the greater the conditioned response

recognition test

test in which retention is measured by the ability to pick out previously learned items from a list that also contains unfamiliar items

Primacy effect

the 1st items always easier to remember because the items presented earlier can be repeated longer and rehearsing the first item interferes with later items

rehearsal

the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage; maintenance and elaborative rehearsal depending on the repetitiveness (can you create false memories)

Findings from Alberts Bandura's Bobo Doll Study

the four necessary cognitive processes (attention, retain, reproduce, motivation)

conditioned response

the learned response to the conditioned stimulus (ex: drooling after the bell)

Retrieval

the process of bringing to mind information that has been previously encoded and stored; bringing memories out of memory storage

Storage

the process of maintaining information in memory over time; memories in the brain can last anywhere from fractions of a second to several seconds to indefinitely

Encoding

the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning; short term memory is limited; remember info by doing things your brain is good at like simplifying, visualizing, relating things to your own experience, and working with sounds

alpha waves

the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state appears in NREM1

framing effect

the tendency for people's choices to be affected by how a choice is presented, or framed, such as whether it is worded in terms of potential losses or gains; people more likely to be RISKY when something is framed as a loss

What is associated with classical conditioning?

unconditioned stimulus unconditioned response conditioned stimulus conditioned response generalization extinction

Which schedule of reinforcement leads to the fastest acquisition?

variable-ratio schedule

classical conditioning

we associate 2 stimuli that tend to occur together allows us to anticipate uncontrollable events

operant conditioning

we associate our behavior with a consequence allows us to repeat rewarding acts and avoid repeating punishable acts

representative heuristic

we judge the likelihood of something belonging to one category/group based on how well it matches the stereotype of said category/group; discovered by Kahneman and Tversky

Conditioned stimuli

whatever the natural response to the unconditioned stimuli is (ex: drool)