geo 105 final exam, not cumulative.

fluvial erosion

begins when rain falls

know coastal depositional features

· Beaches: exposed deposit of loose sediment adjacent to a body of water · Spits: mouth of a bay, sediment reaches deeper waters, slows, and is deposited, building land; linear deposit of sediment that is attached to land o If spit extends across the mouth of a bay it becomes a Baymouth bar and creates a lagoon · Barrier Islands: long narrow land built up in shallow offshore waters parallel to shore · Lagoon: no opening, completely isolated by Baymouth bar · Tombolo: connects to a nearshore island by deposited sediment

What is a drainage basin?

· Drainage basins/watershed: all areas that contribute overland flow, streamflow, and groundwater to a stream or river

Characteristics of desert landscape surfaces

· Loess: wind-deposited, fine-grained silt · Erg: large area covered with loose sand in some wind-formed dune formation

stream competence vs. capacity

· Stream competence (measure of the largest particle size a stream can move or transport) vs. capacity (measure of the amount of solid material a stream has the potential to transport) o Controlled by speed § Fast: high competence - transport effectively; slow/change in slope à deposits load

stream orders

· Stream orders: the arrangement and organization of streams within a watershed First-order: smallest with NO tributaries join to form second order third order, etc

valleys and interfluves

· Valleys (the portion of the terrain where drainage system is clearly established) and interfluves (higher land above the valley walls that separates adjacent valleys)

effects of climate change on Glaciers

· When continents covered with ice, less water available to drain from continents into oceans, causing lowering of sea level worldwide · When glaciers retreats, sea level would rise it again

what are the weathering agents involved in physical weathering activities?

(physical disintegration of rock without any change to its composition): temperature changes à frost wedging/shattering (freeze-thaw action of water), salt wedging (salts crystallize from evaporating solution) - Exfoliation: curved layers peel off of bedrock (exfoliation dome) - Roots of plants grow into cracks and crevices, burrowing animals cause rock disintegration

what are the weathering agents involved in chemical weathering activities?

(the decomposition of rock by chemical alteration of its minerals): water, (oxygen, carbon dioxide, water vapor à most important in rock weathering) - Oxidation: oxygen dissolves in water, contact with metallic elements in minerals. Iron oxide produces rusting - Hydration: water is added to a compound and becomes part of its composition without breaking it up; increase the volume of the mineral. Hydrates: minerals that have incorporated water into its structure. Hydrolysis. Spheroidal weathering: swells minerals and weakens the rock surface. - Carbonation: carbon dioxide is dissolved in water, carbonic acid is formed. Happens in limestone.

explaining hotspots

- mantle plume model proposes that mid-plate volcanic activity develops over narrow plumes of heated material rising from the mantle- forms hot spot volcanoes or hydrothermal features on surface, after initial outpouring of lava known as flood basalt

Tsunamis effects

- rarely arrive onshore as towering breaking waves, mostly a rapidly advancing surge of water - before a tsunami, often water withdraws away from coast before the rapid surge crest comes onshore - often occurs as series of surges and withdraws, largest not often first

what is the significance and types of weathering and rock openings

- whenever bedrock is exposed, it weathers, openings in bedrock surface allow weathering to transfer deeper. weathering agents like water, air, and plant roots penetrate through rock openings. Types: microscopic openings, joints, faults, lava vesicles, and solution cavities

Drumlins

-A low, elongated hill formed by ice-sheet deposition and erosion -smaller than moraine, composed of similarly unsorted till. shape os parallel to the direction of the ice movement

caverns and related features

-Dissolution along joints and bedding plants in limestone beneath the surface crease large open areas called caverns - Speleothems: cave deposits -Stalactite: water drips from the roof --> grows downward -stalagmite: water drips hit the floor --> grows upward - Column: when above two features extend until they meet

glacier formation

-Glaciers are open systems with inputs and outputs -Glaciers develop with net-year-to-year accumulation of snow -Every glacier divided into two portions (upper portion is called accumulation zone & lower portion is called ablation zone)

glacier flow vs. movement

-Glaciers usually move very slowly -flow is often erratic with irregular pulsations and surges over short spans of time. all glaciers do not move at the same rate - flow: as long as a glacier exists, ice is flowing either downward or outward . outer margin of a glacier only advances when accumulation outweighs ablation

important terms associated with mountain glaciers as advised in class

-In few high-mountain areas, ice accumulates in an unconfined sheets called highland icefields that overlie all topography except protruding pinnacles called nunataks -icesheet outlets as valley glaciers travel down mountain valleys, at the leading edge a piedmont glacier forms as the ice escapes confines of the valley walls, reaches a flat area -an alpine glacier develops separately; very small glaciers confined to its originating basin are cirque glaciers

fluvial deposition

-Materials transported by stream will eventually be released when speed of the stream decreases -almost all streams are ephemeral and effective agents of erosion, transportation, and deposition; depositional features are common

Volcanic Hazards- what are they?

-Volcanic Gases, lava flows, eruption column and ash fall, pyroclastic flows

tides

-tides rise and fall in nearly 12 hour cycle, producing 2 high and 2 low tides a day on most coasts -topographic effects of tides are generally small

what are the different types of glaciers

1) mountain glaciers: high-mountain areas ice accumulates in confined sheets, 2) continental ice sheets (non-mountainous areas of continents) · Valley glaciers: travel down mountain valleys · Piedmont glacier: ice reaches a flat area (fan-shaped) · Cirque glaciers: very small glaciers confined to their originating basin, accumulates and held in a depression · Only two continental ice sheets in existence Antarctica and Greenland

important shoreline shaping processes as advised in class

1. Ice push: bodies of water freeze in winter, ice expansion and contraction along water's edge as ice push contributes to shoreline erosion 2. Organic secretions: some aquatic animals or plants produce rocklike materials as calcium carbonate 3. Stream outflow: streams are source of most sediment deposited on shorelines 4. global warming 5. changes in sea and lake levels

types of load carried by streams

1. dissolved load - some minerals, mostly salts, are carried in water, in solution. 2. suspended load - very fine particles of clay and silt carried by water without ever touching the stream bed 3. bedload - sand, gravel, and larger rock fragments.

the internal structure of the Earth consists of __________ basic layers, each defined by differences in composition

3. crust, mantle, and core

moraines

A general term for glacier deposited landforms composed largely or entirely or till

who proposed the theory of plate tectonics

Alfred Wegener

accreted terranes

Along some continental margins, different rocks types are found• A terrane is a small-to-medium mass of lithosphere- bounded on all sides by faults- may get carried long distances by a moving plate, eventually collides and fuses (accretes)with another plate- too buoyant to be subducted- oceanic lithosphere can accrete in terranes, can form an accretionary wedge or old island arcs fuse with continent margin Animation Terrane

factors influencing mass wasting

Angle of repose, Impact of water on lubrication of rock material. Clay water mixture very slick and mobile substance. Permafrost, Subarctic high latitude areas, mass wasting is initiated by heaving action of frozen groundwater. surface layer thaws in the summer.

dissolution and precipitation

Dissolution (removal of bedrock through the chemical weathering action of water/weak carbonic acid à particularly sedimentary rocks like limestone) and Precipitation (solution back to solid; precipitates)

what factors determine the difference between transportation vs. deposition

Erosion is followed by deposition- transported material is set down as flow speed or water volume decreases. (Material is set down as flow speed or water volume decreases). Alluvium: stream deposited sediments (fine soil)

effects of glaciers

Erosion: amount of erosion proportional to thickness of ice and flow rate Glacial Plucking: rock fragments are grasped as meltwater refreezes in bedrock joints and fractures, first wedging further loosens rock, particles are plucked and dragged along Glacial abrasion: bedrock is worn down by rock debris being dragged along in moving ice Subglacial meltwater erosion: streams flowing below a glacier can also carve smooth grooves and channels into bedrock meltwater streams: in warmer months, melt streams flow alongside moving ice

what are the different types of mass wasting and how are they formed?

Fall: falling pieces of rock downslope. Slide/landslide: instantaneous collapse of a slope, movement along generally flat sliding plane. Slump: slope failure where rock or regolith moves downward, while it rotates outward along curved slide plane (rotational slide). Flow/earthflow: portion of a water-saturated slope moves a limited distance downhill. Mudflow: originates in drainage basins when heavy rain follows a long dry spell, producing runoff too great to be absorbed by soil. Creep: gradual downhill movement of regolith. Solifluction: active layer of permafrost thaws in summer, top soil sags and slowly moves downslope.

coral reefs and types

Fringing reefs: coral accumulates on submerged side of volcano, forming an attached reef called a fringing reef Barrier Reefs: as the volcano stops building, it will begin to sink. Coral continues to accumulate on top of old layers of coral as entire volcano and old fringing reef sink Atolls: Corals continue to accumulate upward and volcano eventually sinks. eventually a reef is left surrounding landless lagoon, forming an atoll

what is the study of the landforms called?

Geomorphology.

hydrothermal features

Hot springs: water in contact with heated rocks or magma underground, forced upward by pressure of heating into cracks or fissures Geysers: special form of intermittent hot spring Fumaroles: surface crack directly connected to a deep-seated heat source

igneous intrusions

Magma solidifying below surface produces plutonic igneous rocks forming structures

oceanic crust vs. continental crust

Oceanic crust is thinner yet made of denser rocks. Continental crust is thinker yet made of less dense rocks.

how is streamflow erosion accomplished?

Once surface flow is channeled, ability to erode and transport material increases with volume and velocity of water. • Erosion by direct hydraulic power of moving water along bottom and sides of the channel• Erosion also increased by abrasive debris transported in streamflow. • Some chemical weathering also helps erode the channel through corrosion • Erosion rates and effectiveness vary by speed, turbulence of streamflow, and resistance of bedrock

what is denudation and what are the 3 processes involved?

Overall effect of the disintegration, wearing away, and removal of rock material. It is accomplished by the Interaction of three types of activities. weathering, mass wasting, and erosion

stream types

Perennial (year round streamflow) vs. intermittent/seasonal (flow part of the year), ephemeral streams (flow during/just after rains)

indirect effects of Pleistocene glaciation

Periglacial processes: beyond outermost extent of ice advance is the periglacial zone, never touched by glacial ice but was indirectly influenced by the ice Sea-level changes: when continents covered with ice, less water is available to drain from continents into oceans, causing a lowering of sea level worldwide

Hotspots and Mantle Plumes

Places on Earth where magma rises from mantle to surface, not near a plate boundary- as many as 50 hotspots have been identified

playas and saline lakes

Playas: prevalence of basins of interior drainage means dry lake beds are relatively common. heavy concentration of salts are in the lake-bed sediments Saline: many permanent desert lakes are saline lakes. high rate of evaporation relative to inflow leads to accumulation of dissolved salts.

streams and stream systems

Streams and Stream Systems · Drainage basins/watershed: all areas that contribute overland flow, streamflow, and groundwater to a stream or river · Valleys (the portion of the terrain where drainage system is clearly established) and interfluves (higher land above the valley walls that separates adjacent valleys) · Stream orders: the arrangement and organization of streams within a watershed o First-order: smallest with NO tributaries join to form second order third order, etc.

pacific ring of fire

The Pacific Ocean basin is surrounded by plate boundaries ▪ primarily subduction zones, along with segments of transform and divergent boundaries - along these plate boundaries, many earthquakes and volcanoes occur in the Pacific Ring of Fire - active or potentially active volcanoes and major fault systems are near some of the world's largest metropolitan regions

spreading vs. subduction

The theory of seafloor spreading - states that midocean ridges are formed by currents of magma rising up from the mantle, and volcanic eruptions create new basaltic ocean floor, which spreads away laterally from the ridge. (contain the newest crust formed on the planet) At other locations in ocean basins, like oceanic trenches, older lithosphere descends into asthenosphere in subduction - where it is ultimately" recycled. The amount of new seafloor created at midocean ridges is compensated for the amount lost at trenches subduction zones

transportation and deposition of effects of glaciers

Transportation by glaciers: Glaciers have a high competence to carry all sizes of rock debris Deposition by Glaciers: Glacier's role in landscape change is to pick up rock, move it, leave it fragmented and changed. the general term for all material moved by glaciers is drift. Direct deposition by glacier ice: rock debris deposition directly by moving or melting ice, with no meltwater redeposition involved, is called till Secondary deposition by meltwater: Peculiarities of glacial stream runoff

terms associated with wave motion

Waves of Oscillation: as a wave passes a point on water's surface, the water at that location only makes a small circular or oscillatory movement, with very little forward motion Waves of Translation: as the wave reaches shallow water it becomes a wave of translation, with significant horizontal movement of surface water Wave Refraction: waves often change direction as they approach the shore. the line of waves approach the shore at an angle Wave Erosion: speed of breaking waves and with sheer mass of water in hydraulic pounding responsible for most coastal erosion Tsunami: If sudden disruption of ocean floor occurs, may trigger major oceanic wave system called a tsunami or seismic sea waves

weathering and mass wasting

Weathering is the breaking-down of rock into smaller pieces by atmospheric and biotic actions. mass wasting involves the relatively short distance down slope movement of broken rock material under the influence of gravity.

what are the conditions that make a desert unique?

Weathering: mechanical weathering is dominant (especially salt wedging), slower rates of weathering produce more angular particles Soil and regolith: thin or absent, bedrock is exposed directly to weathering and erosion, soil creep is rare, lack or smoothing accounts for angularity of slopes Impermeable surfaces: resistant bedrock and hardened subsurface soil that do not readily absorb water, lead to high runoff sand: help infiltration and reduce runoff, easily moved by rain, and can be transported and redeposited by winds rainfall: limited overall, yet falls in intense stormed with high, rapid runoff, so fluvial erosion and deposition are remarkably effective Basins of interior drainage: underdeveloped drainage networks that end in inland basins or valleys with no outlet Vegetation: lacking; little protection from weathering and erosive forces that loosen and transport sediment - less vegetation and greater weathering

faulting (what are faults?)

When a rock structure is broken and one side is forcibly displaced relative to other, the action is -categorized into four types based on direction of stress and angle of movement

the effects of wind

Wind generates waves and ocean currents

volcanism

also known as igneous processes. Refers to all phenomena related to origin and movement of molten rock

metamorphic rock

any preexisting rock can be altered by heat, pressure or chemically active fluid and becomes this. -foliated, gneiss, slate schist, marble quartzite,

Karst Topography

applies to areas where the dissolution of soluble rock leaves a distinctive landform assemblage at the surface and underground

core

beneath mantle is the molten outer core and the innermost portion, inner core is solid, very dense. source of energy driving convection process as slow movement of hot rock as it rises in mantle toward surface - earth's magnetic field: generated in the outer core which induces geodynamic or Earth's magnetic field

what are the weathering agents involved in biological weathering activities?

burrowing of animals, growth of plant roots. Penetration of growing plant roots, lichens draw minerals from surface as well as expand and contract, burrowing animals.

the theory of plate tectonics

came to be accepted by 1968. Lithosphere is mosaic of rigid plates floating over plastic asthenosphere. the mechanisms for it are: thermal convection currents in earth's mantle. Slow movement of plates over asthenosphere. Plates pushed away at midocean ridges, pulled at subduction zones down into asthenosphere.

mantle

composed of high-density rocks. By far the largest of the four layers by volume. - upper mantle - asthenosphere - lower mantle (Uppermost mantle layer with oceanic or continental crust is lithosphere)

drainage patterns

dendritic, radial, centripetal, trellis

plate boundaries types

divergent, convergent, transform

crust

earth's outermost shell/layer. consists of a mix of rock types.

types of desert streams

ephemeral streams: carry water only after a rainstorm; brief periods of stream flow are marked by intense erosion, transportation, and deposition

rock types

every layer of the Earth has its own kind of rocks. -igneous rocks, plutonic (intrusive) rocks, volcanic (extrusive) rocks, sedimentary rocks, metamorphic rocks,

felsic vs. mafic magmas (differences?)

extrusive/basalt

sedimentary rocks

form from compaction and cementation -"weathering" produces fragment mineral material "sediment" - strata - can be classified into 3 categories: detrital, chemical, or organic

volcanic (extrusive) rocks

form on surface of Earth from either cooling lava or accrual of pyroclastic material. Most common is the black or dark grey, fine-grained rock called basalt - also volcanic rocks: obsidian, pumice, tuff

the work of the wind

frequent strong winds are characteristic of many deserts, and can create sand and dust storms. motion of air passing over the ground is similar to that of water flowing over a stream bed - wind speed increases with distance above the ground surface -turbulance develops between layers of different wind speed as shear, or the warming of air at the surface causes it to expand and rise

earthquake hazards

ground shaking, liquefaction, landslides, tsunami, seiches

the internal structure of the earth layers

inner most layer -1A. solid inner core -1B. liquid outer core -2. mantle -3. crust outermost layer

kettles

large holes left from the melting of huge chunks of glacial ice lodged in till or outwash -form when a large block of ice is left by a retreating glacier, gets surrounded or covered by glacial drift

continental ice sheets

large ice sheet covering a portion of a continental area

divergent boundaries

magma from asthenosphere rises up between two plates. represented by midocean ridges. spreading centers associated with shallow-focus earthquakes

principal weathering categories

mechanical, chemical, and biological

plutonic (intrusive) rocks

originally buried, then pushed upward or exposed by erosion. Most common is granite a course-grained texture, made of light-dark-colored minerals

internal processes

originate from within the Earth; tend to increase relief of land surface

floodplain features

oxbow lakes, natural levees. low-lying, nearly flat alluvial valley floors that are periodically inundated with floodwaters

convergent boundaries

plates collide, sometimes called "destructive boundaries" -responsible for most massive spectacular of Earth's landforms -three types of convergent boundaries 1. Oceanic-Continental Convergence 2. Oceanic-Oceanic Convergence 3. Continental-Continental Convergence

plutonic vs. volcanic activity

plutonic rocks or intrusive igneous rocks form cooling of magma below th surface. Volcanic rocks or extrusive igneous rocks form from cooling of lava or bonding of pyroclastic materials on surface.

Intrusive igneous features (ex; batholiths, laccoliths, and dikes)

plutons- intrusive igneous bodies of nearly any size batholiths- largest intrusion, may be made of dozens of plutons. when uplifted and exposed from the core of many mountains ranges volcanic necks- remnants of the pipe of old volcanoes filled with solidified lava. laccoliths- develop when viscous magma is forced between horizontal layers of preexisting rock, forming a mushroom-shaped mass that domes overlying strata. sills- long, thin, and intrusive body forms when magma cools between strata, resulting in horizontal igneous sheets between sedimentary layers dikes- a widespread form, dikes form from the intrusion of vertical and near-vertical sheets of magma in preexisting rock- very narrow and usually quite resistant to erosion- a special dike complex of sheeted dikes is a sequence of vertical dikes next to each other, found below layers of lava on ocean floor veins- least prominent, but widespread are thin veins of igneous rocks- commonly form when hydrothermal fluids are forced into small fractures in preexisting rocks.

fluvial processes

process involving running water

pyroclasts

produce steep slopes, and lava flows solidify all together. ash and cinders; features related to eruption

residual surfaces and its features

scattered in arid and semiarid lands are isolated landforms left by differential weathering and removal of rock rather than by deposition -Inselbergs: occurring steep-sided mountains or ridges -Bernhardt: composed of highly resistant rock and has a rounded form

earthquakes and important terms

the abrupt shaking of the crust. Is vibration of shock waves in crust from sudden displacement and hazards -seismic waves, focus of fault motion, epicenter, focus, wave fronts, fault scarp, seismograph, surface waves, primary waves, secondary waves · Ground shaking (most damage) · Liquefaction: results in subsidence fracturing and horizontal sliding · Triggers landslides and tsunamis

why do continental drifts happen and what is the theory behind them?

theory proposes continents were originally connected as one or two large landmasses that broke up and drifted apart over the last several hundred million years

stream transport and deposition

transportation: Any water moving downslope can transport material - overland flow carries a smaller load • Eventually overland flow reaches streams and transfers its load as stream load deposition: Erosion is followed by deposition. - transported material is set down as flow speed or water volume decreases - often results from change in gradient, when a channel widens or changes direction. - deposits happen along the way, eventually a stream's load is deposited along its path, or into another body of water

transform boundaries

two plates slip past laterally.

igneous

type of rock that are formed by the cooling and solidification of molten rock -magma

folding (anticlines and synclines)

when crustal rocks subject to stress can be bent in process of folding (anticlines: symmetrical upfold and synclines: simple downfold)

types of erosion

· Types of load carried o Dissolved load: some minerals (salts) carried in water, in solution o Suspended load: very fine particles of clay and silt carried by water without ever touching the stream bed o Bedload: sand, gravel, and larger rock fragments § Saltation: smaller particles transported in series of jumps or bounces § Traction: coarser pieces moved as they roll or slide on the streambed · Stream competence (measure of the largest particle size a stream can move or transport) vs. capacity (measure of the amount of solid material a stream has the potential to transport) o Controlled by speed § Fast: high competence - transport effectively; slow/change in slope deposits load · Transportation vs. deposition (material is set down as flow speed or water volume decreases) o Alluvium: stream deposited sediments (fine soil)

running water, transportation and deposition in waterless regions

· exotic streams: sustained by water originating outside the desert from an adjacent wetter area or higher elevation area