GEOL 1350 Final Exam

When was the Medieval Warm Period (MWP)? What was special about its weather?

"The Long Summer" Remarkable climate stability. European agriculture thrived. European population soared.

How do hurricanes form?

'Easterly wave'; anything can trigger it (dust devil) creates a system of turbulent eddies which go on to develop a cluster of thunderstorms- travel west across Africa and encounter warm tropical waters of Atlantic- storms begins to rotate around each other, speed and winds rapidly increase- feeds off warm moist air coming off the ocean Winds power the storm

What was the nature of Viking civilization? Where did the expand to and very roughly when?

-The Vikings were farmers -They raided for spoil, Hence, they went looking for LAND. -Vikings settled in the British Isles, parts of Europe, Iceland, and Greenland. 874 AD- 985 AD

How does a tornado form

1.Warm, humid air collides with a cold front 2.As warm air rises within the storm clouds, cooler air rushes in from the sides 3.A whirling wind is created that draws surrounding air toward its center 4.As rotation becomes stronger, a funnel develops

What was the Little Ice Age (LIA)?

1215-1350 AD: Glaciers in Europe began advance 1300 AD: Northern vineyards decline. 1315 AD: famine. 1340s AD: Ice shuts sea route from Iceland to Greenland. 1350s AD: Norse settlement of Greenland abandoned. Those who stayed died of starvation.

How widespread is the poisoning? Very roughly how many people are affected by it?

30 out of 32 districts had arsenicosis patients out of 210 villages: 83.15% of hair samples above toxicity limit and 93.77% of nail samples above toxicity limit

How strong was Katrina compared to other historic storms? How strong was Hurricane Sandy by comparison? What was its category when it came ashore in Louisiana and Mississippi?

6th strongest in intensity: 902 millibars and maximunsustained winds of 175 mph; strongest was 882 mbars Sandy- 943 milibars Made landfall as a category 3 with winds near the eyewall at 125 mph

Why is New Orleans so vulnerable

7 feet below sea level Mississippi Rive, Lake Pontchartrain at borders Exposure to hurricanes from Gulf Coast Aging infrastructure Delayed maintenance High incidence of poverty left people with few resources to escape ahead of storm

Hurricane

A powerful and destructive tropical cyclonic storm forming forming over warm water near the equator winds of at least 74 mph Found in Atlantic Ocean and Eastern Pacific

What were drillers seeking?

A thick limestone that often contains oil or gas

1. What are millibars and how are they related to storm strengths?

Air pressure of storm measured in 'milibars' Avg seal level pressure is 1013 milibars Lower pressure= greater storm intensity

What produces asteroid families?

An asteroid family is a population of asteroids that share similar proper orbital elements, such as semimajor axis, eccentricity, and orbital inclination. The members of the families are thought to be fragments of past asteroid collisions.

Why was Abu Hureya so vulnerable to climate change?

Arid landscape had been deforested during population growth Loss of native trees and forests meant soil drier and drought more likely

Why were ostracods used in the climate study?

As ostracods die, they accumulate on lake bottom and thus "record" 18O/16O values in the lake. Allow this to happen over centuries and you get a history of 18O/16O, but those values also tell us about wet periods and droughts

What are the properties of asteroids?

Asteroids are projectiles from space, chunks of dwarf planets broken up in collisions.

How do the velocities of asteroids and comets differ? Very roughly how fast do they move?

Asteroids have slower speeds but higher mass.Comets have lower mass but higher speeds. Comets travel up 60-70 km/s (43 miles per second), making impacts catastrophic. An asteroid has a speed of about 55,923 miles per hour on average.

When did Katrina happen? What areas were affected? How many people died? How expensive was it?

Aug 23, 2005 Made landfall on Aug 29, 2005 Killed 1,836 people Killed people in- Alabama, Florida, Kentucky, Georgia, Ohio, Louisiana, Mississippi Affected 49/50 states $128 billion in economic losses 300,000 homes destroyed

What are some common reasons why people do not invest in mitigation for their properties?

Behavioral: Myopia; hyperbolic discounting (making excuses or believing it will be someone else's problem) Misperception of risk: 1/1000 chance rather than 1/100 chance of hurricane- $10,000 reduction in loss rather than $27,500 Institutional Realities: budget constraints- cant afford $1,500 investment; "insurer may not give me discount next year or cancel policy"; "move in 2-3 years. Value of house does not appreciate by investment in mitigation so cant recoup cost of mitigation

Lines of craters on moons

Caused by a fragmented space body

When did the Akkadian Empire collapse?

Collapse of Akkadian Empire marked by layer of windblown dust from Gulf of Oman. 2100 BC

What are the properties of comets?

Comets consist of ice and some rock commonly referred to as dirty snowballs. They are a few kilometers across, and appear to mostly be composed of water, carbon dioxide, ammonia, and methane ices, with dust mixed in.The come from Oort cloud - vast spherical region extending more than 100,000 times Earth's distance from sun which contains billions of comets.

Why was the Akkadian Empire vulnerable to climate change?

Cooling in North Atlantic Ocean halved rainfall in north by changing airflow patterns and moisture in air.

What are the economic barriers to switching away from fossil fuels?

Cost of energy drives usage Coal, natural gas: 5 cents per kilowatt-hour Coal would be 6.3 cents if hidden costs from health effects of air pollution were included Wind: 6 cents per kilowatt-hour Giant turbines are noisy, unsightly, kill birds Nuclear energy: 6.5 cents per kilowatt-hour Solar panels: 22 cents per kilowatt-hour!

Basic geology of volcano site

Drillers reach their target: a thick limestone that often contains oil or gas .Limestone aquifer is naturally "overpressurized" Drillers begin to pull out drill "stem" Mud bypasses cased drill hole and forces its way up through overlying rocks Water mixes with mud and sand to form hot slurry. Pressure release allows mud to force its way up hole. Process accelerates as mud rises higher and water vapor expands Mud burst out of the ground to form a mud volcano

Paired Craters

Due to multiple impacts

How did the UN (UNESCO) inadvertently cause the mass poisoning?

During the 1970's, tube-wells were installed all over the country by UNESCO and donor nation A solution to contaminated surface water that was causing cholera and typhoid Tube-wells became the main source for drinking/cooking water

When did Abu Hureya grow and collapse? How many times did it collapse?

Early growth between 15,000 and 12,900 years ago -collapse at 12,900 followed by renewed occupation around 11,000 years ago. Second collapse may have begun 8,200 years ago

Where is the mud Java Volcano?

Eastern Java- Sidoarjo, Indonesia

Why does a small increase in velocity mean a large increase in impact energies?

Energy of moving object equals its mass times the square of its velocity. So the faster something is moving, the greater the force it is capable of exerting and the greater energy it possesses. Thus a modest increase in speed can cause a large increase in kinetic energy.

What were some of the human-related failures that worsened the Katrina disaster?

Engineers, including the U.S. Corps of Engineers, pleaded for 30 years for the money needed to strengthen the levees. The money was spent on casinos. Side note: Afterwards, everyone blamed the Corps for "poor" construction and maintenance of the levees

Where along the Gulf Coast did Katrina's eye come ashore?

Eye passed East of New Orleans

Global Conveyor Belt

Flood of freshwater into ocean to begin Younger Dryas. Freshwater cap halted conveyor. Triggered sudden plunge into cold. Global climate system broke down. Droughts throughout world. Like being thrown back into an Ice Age

What three states have the three highest total coastal insured values? How many trillions in exposure does the #1 state have?

Florida, NY, Texas $2.46 trillion

How were Maya-era climates reconstructed using lake sediments?

Fossil pollen preserved in lake sediments are often used to reconstruct vegetation changes and climates

Typhoon

Found in Western Pacific Ocean

What are greenhouse gases (GG)?

Greenhouse gases trap heat in atmosphere by greenhouse effect - allow light to shine through but prevent heat from escaping Vast majority of scientists attribute most of recent rise in atmospheric temperature to increases in atmospheric greenhouse gases

Why not use surface water (rivers) instead of the groundwater

Highly contaminated by nearby oceans

Roughly how often do we expect impacts that release energies similar to the Hiroshima nuclear bomb? Tunguska? Global catastrophe? K-T?

Hiroshima- Yearly Tunguska- Century Global Catastrophe- Million years K-T- 100 million years

Retention

How much water remains; how much we cannot get out of an aquifer

What event types are responsible for the ten most expensive catastrophes, as measured by insured losses?

Hurricanes, 9/11, and earthquakes Katrina #1 at $41.10 billion Sandy #2 at $15 to $20 billion

How are Bangladeshis being exposed to arsenic

In 1992, the British Geological Survey (BGS) analyzed ~150 wells to test water purity. Did not test for arsenic. In 1997, Indian scientists re-tested the wells for arsenic and found major contamination. The government had the safe wells painted green and the contaminated wells painted red until a solution was found. Many wells, when retested years later, were found to be marked the wrong color. Poor testing kits

why are Catastrophes becoming more common

Insurance companies partly blame Climate Change, but also blame increasing people and valuables being placed in vulnerable locations. EX: houses being built along the coast of Jersey and NY that were hit by Sandy

What caused New Orleans (NO) levees to fail?

Lack of sea gates allowed water to flow far inland and into channels beside and within the city Water and winds exerted massive pressures on levees and channels Protective flood walls broke where canals pass through the New Orleans. Elsewhere, levees were overtopped and flooding commenced

How are meteorites related to differentiation of dwarf planets and how do they "escape" those objects?

Largest asteroids (Dwarf planets) became "differentiated" or divided into layers, as is the Earth. The layers like meteorites share a similar composition stony-iron, Worldlets collided to form planets, but some dwarf planets escaped coalescence to become asteroids and comets.

What is the basic premise behind the global warming theory (GW)?

Levels of greenhouse gases in atmosphere have been rising in recent year.

What climate changes led to Vikings leaving the high latitudes?

Little ice change

What has happened to New Orleans protection by barrier islands and coastal wetlands?

Low lying wetlands (swamps and marshes) with large streams- always sinking, but kept above sea level by periodic floods "dumping" sediment into wetlands Wetland loss about 60 square kilometers per year over the last 50 years

Where do the different meteorite classes originate?

Meteorites are typically divided into three overall classes based on whether they are dominantly composed of rocky material (stony meteorites), metallic material (iron meteorites), or mixtures (stony-iron meteorites).

Why is NO below sea level? Why do delta surfaces sink?

NO is located between levees of Lake Pontchartrain and Mississippi River Drainage of former swamp areas led to ground subsidence as muds compacted and settled "bowl" effect Upriver dams have reduced river sediment levels by up to 67%. Remaining sediment is largely flushed into Gulf of Mexico because levees confine river and prevent sediment from reaching floodplains. Land sinks, but no sediment replaces it. So, the sea replaces it. Storm surges get worse.

1. How do present CO2 concentrations compare to those of the last million years?

Natural cycles in atmospheric CO2 have varied from less than 200 to almost 300 ppm in last 650,000 years

Iridium layers

Nickel, iridium, platinum and other metals that are abundant in iron meteorites. A concentrated layer present only in the K-T boundary rocks would indicate a single large event, such as a meteorite strike. Forms: Iridium is rare on earth and although it can occur naturally in a normal seafloor large areas indicate a meteorite strike.

Where did the Maya live?

Occupied present-day Chiapas, Guatemala, Belize, Southern Mexico and Western Honduras

Who were the Maya and what was notable about their achievements?

Originated around 2600 BC Yucatan peninsula Rose to a cultural and geographical prominence in the classic period (250-900 A.D.) Developed calendar system and concept of zero. Developed written language (hieroglyphics). Skilled farmers, potters, and weavers trading and distributing goods with distant peoples

Overpressure

Overpressured rocks experience pressures higher than lithostatic pressure. So, the pressure is above and beyond what we would expect given the thickness of rocks above. Overpressure is common and caused by many factors, such as plate tectonics forces and gases and fluids expanding. However, it must be dealt with during drilling. Usually there are no problems, but...

How does drilling proceed? (Volcano)

Petroleum copany drills 7,000 feet deep well Drill passes through interbedded mud and sand Drillers case well to >2000 foot depth

Unsaturated

Pores filled with air and water

1. How much has CO2 in the atmosphere increased since the onset of the Industrial Revolution?

Pre-industrial value of 280 ppm skyrocketed to 380 ppm in 2005 ¥ Current increase of 2 ppm per year

Kick? What mistake might have been made RE the mud volcano?

Pressure causes water to surge up the drill hole. A sudden surge in pressure is called a "kick". These are controlled using a blowout preventer at the top of a well. The fluids surging up the well must travel up pipe and within casing, but the blowout preventer caps the well and prevents kick from literally blowing pipes out of the ground Pressure causes water to surge up the drill hole. Allegedly, the drillers responded incorrectly to the kick and began withdrawing the drill stem too soon or too fast. This is based on instrument records taken at the time. Again, allegedly, the frustrated fluids bypassed the casing and began rising toward surface

What rationales are there for alternative insurance strategies and policies?

Principle 1- Premiums effecting Risk: Insurance premiums should be based on risk in order to provide signals to individuals as to the hazards they face, and to encourage them to engage in cost-effective mitigation measures to reduce their vulnerability to catastrophes. Principle 2- Dealing with Equity and Affordability: Any special treatment given to homeowners currently residing in hazard-prone areas (low income uninsured homeowners) should come from general public funding and no through insurance premium subsidies.

What triggered the climate changes that so badly hurt Abu Hureya?

Rising temperature melted polar ice sheets. Lake Agassiz grew, dammed by ridges of sediment. Ridges collapsed or were overtopped and ice dam burst. Flood of freshwater into ocean

What was the nature of agriculture in the Akkadian Empire?

River sources in mountains Akkade and other cities along rivers, but in an arid or semi-arid setting.

What climate change doomed the Akkadian Empire?

Rivers shrank and Akkade was in an arid setting. So, they could not fall back on rain. With no way to water enough crops the city-states necessarily failed.

Cyclone

Rotating storm All "hurricanes" in Indian Ocean and Australia are called "cyclones"

What are some likely consequences of GW? How are things likely to be in 2100?

Sea level rise will eventually cause flooding of coastal areas (NYC, Tokyo, Mumbai) Current rate about +30 cm per century Rise of 30-50 cm expected over next century 2100 projections: 200-500 mm

How was the Maya Collapse related to Climate change

Some scientists theorized natural climatic variability could have included a period of intense drought leading to Classic Maya Collapse

1. What is the #1 danger associated with hurricanes? Why is it #1?

Storm Surges Cause 70-90% deaths and damages

How much warning did the Gulf have before Katrina hit?

Storm rapidly intensified after entering the Gulf, growing from category 3 into a category 5 in only 9 hours

1. What were the physical causes of the Katrina disaster?

Storm surge Failure of flood protection structures

What are the various other pieces of evidence used to infer impacts in the geological record?

Study of the rock strata, sediment layers, composition of the sediment layers and topography /satellite images of the areas which all indicate a significant event.

How has groundwater withdrawal areas such as shown in the picture of a man standing by a telephone pole?

Subsidence: Ground sinks when water is pumped from wells faster than natural recharge processes can replace it Problem areas: San Joanquin Valley of Cali, Houston TX, Los Angeles, CA; Mexico City

How do GG cause warming?

Sunlight is short-wave radiation, passes easily through atmosphere, heats up Earth's surface. Some of the infrared radiation passes through the atmosphere but most is absorbed and re-emitted in all directions by greenhouse gas molecules and clouds. This warms the earths surface and the lower atmosphere.

Where are tornadoes most common? In the USA?

Texas has highest annual average (124)

Why was Katrina an unnatural disaster?

The actual hurricane was natural, and beyond human control The flood is the consequence of human action/ inaction A collapse of intergovernmental communication, coordination, and civility before, during, and after the storm. Lack of coherent planning and response meant survivors and first responders were largely on their own Knowing the severity of the threat, but not preparing for a hurricane of this strength.

What immediate effects do impacts cause and why are they problematic?

The immediate effects of impact are: Fireball or ejecta from impact would ignite fires within hundreds of kilometers of impact site. Plume of smoke would linger in atmosphere for years. Large portion of ozone layer would be destroyed. Heat and energy would cause widespread reaction to form nitric acid and acid rain. Dust in stratosphere would block sunlight and cause cooling, wiping out agriculture.

Where is the largest crater on earth?

The largest and oldest crater is Vredefort Crater in South Africa. Roughly 190 miles across and 2 billion years old.

What added strength to Katrina as it approached the Gulf Coast? How was eddy involved

The rapid intensification was due to the storm's movement over the "unusually warm" waters of the Loop Current, which increased wind speeds. Loop current brings warm water from Caribbean into Gulf. Current spins off eddies, which move westward and can strengthen hurricanes

Porosity

The sum of specific yield and specific retention; volume of holes

Why were the Maya vulnerable to drought?

There are almost no streams or lakes in the Yucatan. Porous limestone and caves mean all water enters ground quickly and goes to water table

Why are tornadoes so common in the American Midwest? What is unique about the air currents in the Midwest and where does the moisture come from?

Tornado Valley Cold, dry air comes in from the west, and warm, moist air comes in from the south, the combination causes the air to rotate in the mid-levels, and turn from a horizontal direction to a vertical direction

Lithostatic pressure

Underground rocks are compressed ("squeezed") by weight of surrounding rocks. The stress is directly related to thickness of rocks above. As a result, this "lithostatic pressure" increases with depth - pressure gets higher and higher as you go deeper.

What are the warning signs of a tornado?

Warning signs: strong persistent rotation in the cloud base, low-hanging (wall) cloud, swirling dust or debris without a funnel, hail or heavy rain followed by a dead calm or a fast intense wind shift (many are wrapped in heavy precipitation and cannot be seen), loud continuous roar/rumble (sound of freight train), at night; small bright blue-green to white flashes at ground level near a thunderstorm, persistent lowering from the cloud base, illuminated or silhouetted by lighting

practical problems associated with switching away from fossil fuels

Waste disposal Methane product, ecological damages Kill birds and bats

What GG has the greatest overall effect?

Water vapor at 60%

Why is Louisiana losing land to the ocean?

When they land sinks, no sediment replaces it, so the sea replaces it

floating junk pile

a giant pile of rubble weakly held together by gravity. The interior has large openings/voids between blocks. They are the result of many collisions pulverizing asteroid.

What is differential pricing of premiums and why might they be a good idea?

a mix of encouraging mitigation through economic incentives and placing the greatest expenses on people who chose to live in the most vulnerable locations insurance companies believe differential costs will cause people to make wiser choices

What are some common human-associated sources of GG?

a. Burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas) b. Land-use changes c. By-product of cement production

What are some common natural sources of GG?

a. Carbon dioxide, methane emitted by erupting volcanoes, animals and decaying vegetation b. NO2 generated by oxidation of nitrogen in atmosphere during lightning storms c. No natural sources can explain increase in recent years.

alternative energy sources to fossil fuels

a. Nuclear b. Hydroelectric c. Wind turbines d. Solar energy e. Geothermal power f. Tidal energy

How might we geoengineer our way out of GW

a. Reduce energy generation from burning of fossil fuels (very hard) b. Capture and sequestration of greenhouse gases (hard) c. Use alternative sources such as wind, sun, and nuclear power (hard) d. Increase conservation ('standby' energy is ~20% of use)(easy) e. Improve efficiency of power production and use (easy) f. Geoengineering (very hard, potentially dangerous)

some common effects of arsenic poisoning

a. Various cancers: skin, lung, bladder, kidney, liver b. Heart attacks and strokes c. Melanosis: spotting of the skin, blemishes, etc. d. Keratosis: hardening of palms and soles, ulcers e. Hepatomegaly: liver enlargement f. Splenomegaly: spleen enlargement g. Ascitis: abdominal fluid h. Death i. Victims are rejected from society

What myths are associated with tornadoes?

an underpass is a safe place to be (wind speeds accelerate under bridges, flying debris can be blasted into spaces, bridge may collapse), open all windows to equalize pressure (may be injured by flying glass, waste of time and dangerous), mobile homes attract tornadoes (more likely because they are blown off their foundations), outrunning a tornado (paths and speeds are unpredictable, traffic could affect your speed), hail always comes before a tornado (may happen, not always)

Meteorite

any fragment of an asteroid or comet that lands on Earth

Meteor

asteroid or comet racing through Earth's atmosphere form light streak in sky most come fro asteroid belt Large meteors become incandescent on outside (fireball) but cores remain cool

Saturated

every opening is filled with water/ pores totally filled with water- no air- cannot absorb anymore water, if more water added water table will rise toward surface (totally soaked sand)

5 most common gases

i. Carbon dioxide (CO2) ii. Methane (CH4) iii. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) iv. Ozone (O3) v. Nitrous oxide (NO2)

Glass spherules

melted droplets of rock thrown outward during impact form glass spherules

Casing

prevents pressure from collapsing drill hole and prevents unwanted water and mud from rising in a drill hole

Overdraft

results when an aquifer is pumped at rates that exceed the sustained yield Sustained yield: amount of water an aquifer can produce on a day to day basis without being depleted Effects: Water table will fall

What is shocked quartz?

rocks that contain extremely high pressure silica mineral coesite, associated with meteorites and found in the K-T Boundary.

Tropical Depressions

sustained winds 38 mph or less

What evidence supports an impact as the cause of the K-T disaster? Where did the impact occur?

the Chicxulub crater 80-110 km in diameter formed from the impact as discovered through the analysis of sediment in this area. Geologist mapped the boundary of the impact through analysis of mineral coesite and rock layers containing glass spherules in the area associated with meteorites. K-T Extinction 65 million years ago resulted from an Asteroid 10-15 km (6-9 miles) in diameter which struck the Yucatan peninsula of eastern Mexico.

Tornado Warning

tornado has been spotted, or that Doppler radar indicates a thunderstorm rotation which can spawn a tornado

Tornado Watch

weather conditions exist where tornadoes are possible

Specific Yield

what percentage of water we can get out of an aquifer

Tropical Storm

wind speeds from 39-73 mph