German unification

Did joint occupation of Denmark in 1864 mean war between Austria and Prussia was inevitable?

Presence of Austrian forced in Holstein not something Prussia could have tolerated. But Austria offered to withdraw in return for compensation in Silesia. Agreement reached Aug 1865 in Convention of Gastein for joint sovereignty, however, 1866 Big B made it clear to Prussian Council that its mission was to lead Germany and that Austria stood in the way. Little doubt B was preparing for war when Prussian troops were mobilised in April. Less clear if Bismarck wanted a short war- little indication Austria was economically weak. Key element was Austrian inferior leadership and organisation.

Bundesrat and Prussia

Prussia had 17/43 seats. Emperor was Prussian, so Riechstag biased in its voting system. Foreign policy was Prussian, imbalance undermined the federal system, and Prussian dominance undermined the liberalism of the new Germany.

Views of Blackbourn on Bismarck

Prussia was always likely to come out on top. Austria not only had chronic financial problems . and non-German distractions; it also lagged behind Prussia in economic development. Austria was isolated, as failure to enter Crimean war alienated Britain and France. Suffered defeats in Italy in 1859.

View of military historians on Bismarck

Prussia's military developments were a huge advantage, and had little to do with Bismarck, although he encouraged army reforms. Had little to do with developments in weaponry, railway and organisation and would have ensured Prussian victory sooner or later anyway.

Outcomes of Denmark

Prussian forces defeated Danes at the Battle of Düppel In April 1864, Austria occupied Holstein and Prussia occupied Schleswig. Duke of Augustenberg gained nothing. Prussia now appeared the champion of German nationalism. Demonstration of success for Prussia's new army, and weakened opposition in the Prussian Parliament to army reforms. Showed other European powers, Britain and Russia, were not going to interfere in German affairs.

Prussian reforms

Result of wars with France. Modernising nobles led by Heinrich von Stein and Karl August Von Hardenbug Serfdom abolished in 1807- reduced class restrictions army reforms- non-nobles could become officers limited parliamentary government- assembly dominated by nobles educational reforms Brought greater unity, different political structure, new legal systems and French style of government, Prussian legal codes introduced equality under the law.

reasons for 1848 revolution- social factors

Rise in population, leading to poverty. Feudalism continued in some areas, causing resentment among peasantry. Traditional production methods under threat from industrialisation. New factories led to harsh working conditions, overcrowding, economic downturn 1847-8. Increase in nationalism. Growing middle class unhappy with Metternich's repressive system.

Prussia in 18th Century- military and economy

Rulers had effective administration and a large, powerful army. Military reputation suffered when defeated by Napoleon's army in 1806. Prussian reformers introduced series of military and administrative modernising reforms Eastern provinces not economically strong, Prussia's land not as fertile as Austria's, resources not as plentiful. strong Prussian tradition of service to the state, hard work and religious devotion, as well as respect for the army and monarch. Military had reputation of 'the parade ground of Europe'.

Bismarck's gambles before War with Austria

Russian and French neutrality. Britain's unwillingness to commit forces to support Austria. Speculated Austria had been weakened by defeats in Italy, and that Prussian military reforms would be strong enough to result in a swift Prussian victory. Gambled that war would be supported by Prussian Nationalists and that any internal opposition would disappear when Austria was defeated. Predicted Austrian defeat would allow Prussia to link its territories and establish dominance over North Germany.

reasons why Bismarck can be seen as main reason for unification:

Sheer will power and respect. Exploited diplomatic opportunities after the Crimean War and made critical decisions, such as going to war with Denmark in 1864. Prussian army instrument used by Bismarck, and could not have achieved major change independent of his decisions.

Bismarck in the 1848 revolutions

Ulta conservative. Prepared to raise a peasant army against the revolution, deeply opposed to revolution and wrote extreme monarchist articles for conservative newspapers. In 1848, king rejected suggestion that Bismarck serve in a new government in Prussia on grounds he was a 'red reactionary'. Bismarck had no interest in Frederick being anything more than King of Prussia, supported his decision not to accept the German crown. Did not believe in German nationalism. Concerned for Prussian interests. Loyalty to crown gave him post of Prussian ambassador to the Bund.

Into - Bismarck

Under his leadership, dreams of the nationalists for a united Nation fulfilled in a way that seemed impossible after the failure of 1848-49. New Germany grew into a military and economic strength. Creation of this new power significant for world history- fundamental to two massive world wars in the 20th century, and to the Cold War from 1945-89

Main events of 1848-- April

Aim of liberal governments was creation of united Germany. Eminent Germans who saw themselves as 'trusted' met in Frankfurt to discuss German nation- Pre-Parliament. Divisions.

Views of Palmer and Crankshaw - Bismarck

Bismarck was the centre of events, and unification was a result of his brilliant manipulation of circumstances.

What was Bismarck's North German State like?

Bismarck's North Germany was was predominantly Protestant State that could be controlled by strong Prussian Army and economy. Did not want a dictatorship or absolute monarchy, so applied Prussian parliamentary system to a wider area, which was incapable of opposing him, so provided image of modern parliamentary state without any of inconvenience of real liberal democracy. Smaller Germany offered less threat to neighbouring states and therefore a greater likelihood of being accepted as a fellow power in Europe.

Bismarcks' aims with the Bund

Determined to continue with his policies. Prevented Wilhelm I from attending an Austrian-backed conference to discuss changes to the Bund. Aim was to abolish the Bund, not reform it. Did not want to allow changes, as then would seem as if Prussia was merely a German state who followed Austria.

Dispute over Schleswig and Holstein

Dispute over Schleswig and Holstein showed weakness of new Germany. Danish King annexed Schleswig in March and sought control of neighbouring Holstein. Holstein asked Germans for help, and only armed forces were Prussians, who fought Danes, but then decided to make peace with Denmark on 26 Aug without consulting German parliament, out of fear of Russian and British retaliation. Parliament condemned peace, stirred nationalist feeling and mob violence in Frankfurt.

Zollverein interpretations

Helmut Böhme agrees with view of contemporary writers such as Engels that the Zollverein was the major step towards a politically united Germany. Tariff policies allowed economic expansion that made Prussia stronger than Austria and put it on the way to becoming the dominant power. Historians such as James Sheehan have questioned this- economic interests of other states to have internal free trade, but not the same as accepting Prussia's leadership. Economic co-operation does not mean political unity. When Prussia went to war with Austria in 1866, most of Zollverein partners sided with Austria, even tho it was not a member of the customs union.

Bismarck's policies were planned evidence

In his memoirs in 1890, reinforced idea that policies had been planned.

eLECTIONS mAY 1862

Liberals gained a substantial majority and rejected Roon's proposed military budget. Roon urged for Bismarck to return. Wilhelm reluctantly agreed to install a strongman to end the crisis. On Bismarck's return, Wilhelm appointed Bismarck minister President in September

Interpretations on growth of Germany after 1871- Brose

New German constitution allowed individual states the freedom to look after their own affairs, and that in the states outside Prussia, liberal and progressive forced flourished. Working parliamentary system was not strictly absolutist.

Bismarck as PM?- opinions

Not popular, not well known. Seen as extreme, undemocratic junker. Educated Prussians saw him as brutal, cynical, provincial amateur politician. King fearful that Bismarck would bring down the monarchy. Bismarck's allies saw him as a strong outsider who was worth taking a risk for.

War with Austria

Summer 1865, Bismarck, Wilhelm I and Prussian military chiefs were discussing war with Austria. Bismarck's diplomacy focused on determining the extent of French friendship and neutrality.

Interpretation that Prussia's war with Austria was not inevitable or planned?

Taylor- No reason to support that joint control of the duchies would necessarily lead to a quarrel.

View of Helmut Böhme on Bismarck

The Zollverein independently from Bismarck established the idea of unity under Prussian leadership, created conditions for prosperity. Economic growth more important.

Bismarck's diplomacy- Denmark

Two provinces of Schleswig and Holstein- disagreements over Denmark's claim to these provinces after the Death of King Frederick of Denmark, as Holstein was predominantly German speaking and part of the Confederation. German Duke of Augustenberg also claimed these duchies, and was enthusiastically supported by many German nationalists. States in Bund rallied in favour of Augustenburg, but Bismarck did not wish him to inherit, as that would add to the power of the Bund, which was dominated by Austria. Managed to persuade Austria not to support the Bund, and to join with Prussia and act against Denmark. Austria unwise to do this, but did not want to encourage German nationalism.

National Association.

best organised nationalist group after revolutions. Founded in Frankfurt 1859 by businessmen and professionals. Membership reached 25,000

conclusion to 1871

What emerged after 1871 was a distinctive German culture focused on economic and technological developments and military power, and which contained increasingly illiberal elements. Could have developed a more liberal parliamentary state, but it was some way away from being a full democracy.

The Luxembourg Crisis- events

When Bismarck told German public about Napoleon III's ambitions in 1867, resulted in a wave of national outrage and international concerns about French expansion. Bismarck could no longer support French claims on Luxembourg. Dutch King broke off negotiations with Napoleon, Prussia opposed France and would provide military support in event of French invasion. Threat of war if Napoleon acquired the Duchy. To resolve, international conference held in London to guarantee Luxembourg's independence.

1874 press law

authorised imprisonment of newspaper editors who published sensitive information. Marked start of political suppression.

Result of revolutions

constitution and Diet kept. Prussian prestige not lost, as it had been the choice to lead a new Germany. Zollverein remained as source of Prussian influence. German national feeling continued to develop- growth in creative work by musicians, artists and writers. Increase in all-German associations

cultural nationalism

greater awareness of German culture among broad middle classes- from independent craftsmen to academics and businessmen. Peasant masses not interested cultural renaissance- rediscovery of German folklore in brothers Grimm and literary following of Schiller. German music developed unique style- Weber wrote operas with German texts using national folk stories and history. Beethoven and Schubert German composers with international reputation German historians renowned for their scholarship Schinkel's architecture in Berlin introduced distinctive classical style. Friedrich's paintings celebrated romantic german forests, landscapes and seascapes Germany became a major cultural centre, which coincided with economic and social change, which encouraged nationalism.

reasons for 1848 revolution- liberal ideas

national and liberal ideas inspired hope for a more united, constitutional Germany. Improved communications raised awareness of nationalist ideas

evidence of modern liberal politics under Bismarck in 1871

national political parties, a Reichstag in which important policies were discussed, and voting by deputies on non-military elements of the federal budget. Bismarck saw the importance of gaining the Reichstag's support for the smooth running of the federal government. Demonstrated that government represented Germany.

Main events of 1848-49-- Summer

not much had changed. German parliament and government had little power. Old princes kept control of the armies.

The result of Prussian victory

the Peace of Prague signed in Aug 1866 gave Venetia to Italy as promised. Austria lost no territory, apart from Holstein, but lost control of Germany. Bund replaced by North German Confederation that was dominated by Prussia. No reparations or victory parades. Big B became hero of German Nationalism. Softened parliamentary opposition to him, so introduced Indemnity Bill that validated his prior collection of taxes without parliamentary consent.

Interpretations on growth of Germany after 1871- Geoffrey Barraclough

Constitution of 1871 was a 'veiled form of monarchical absolutism'. B not responsible to the Reichstag and Prussia had the right to veto in the Bundesrat.

Austria war with France

1859- Prussian army too weak to take advantage of this situation as Bismarck wanted, no political motivation among Prussia's rulers to act against Austria.

When did Bismarck become Chancellor of Prussia?

1862

how was the North German Confederation structured?

1. King Wilhelm I of Prussia overall ruler. 2. Bismarck ran the federal government as well as the Prussian government. 3. Bismarck gave every adult male right to vote. Thought Prussians were conservative and monarchist at heart. 4. Annexed some German states and allowed others to be part of the Confederation and run their own affairs, but Bismarck controlled army and foreign policy.

Successes that Bismarck sought and happened

1. sought neutrality of Russia- made no attempt to intervene in German affairs as it had previously done. 2. Austria was drawn into a war against Denmark in 1864- disagreements about the gains of this war led to war between Austria and Prussia in 1866. 3. Other European powers did not interfere and Prussia was allowed to defeat Austria and its German allies. Victory of 1866 silenced most liberal opposition. 4. Big B annexed some land in north Germany and set up Prussian dominated North German Confederation in 1867 in alliance with South German States. 5. 1870 provoked and won war against France, which was seen as a threat to new Germany. 6. Bismarck set up a German Empire in 1871, transforming central Europe and bringing Germany . under Prussian control

The Congress of Vienna outline

1814-1815 great powers of Europe met in 1814 and 1815 to redraw boundaries after Napoleonic era. Blamed French Revolution for instability an =d conflict since 1792. Hoped for lasting peace and return to old order. Aim to protect Europe against France and to maintain the old monarchies.

Zollverein

1818 Prussia introduced a tariff reform law which meant all raw material was to be free of duties and, within Prussian territories, all internal custom duties abolished. Union of states which allowed German states to trade freely with Russia, formalised in 1834. Incorporated 17 states and 26 million people, though Austria was never a member

Student nationalism and Austrian Repression

1819 nationalist student Karl Sand killed conservative playwright. Foreign Minister Metternich used this as an excuse to repress students in Germany. little suggestion of widespread nationalist movement, but Austrians alarmed by student activism and efforts of Bavaria, Baden to introduce constitutions forced Bund to pass decrees for censorship in 1820, controlling universities. Jahn arrested and imprisoned and nationalist professors hounded. student organisations split up, and nationalist publications were censored and banned.

barriers to developments Bismarck wanted?

1862 Prussia was deeply divided, new Minister President widely feared and disliked. Prussian armies had not fought a major war independently and successfully since the 18th century. Austria was still a powerful military force and had greater support in other parts of Germany than Prussia. Other European powers had no interest in seeing a strong power emerge in central Europe, and there was every expectation that they would interfere to prevent a massive change in European hierarchy of power.

Bismarck and diplomacy - Russia

1863 Polish revolt against Russian rule- Prussia co-operated with Russia, as Prussia also had Polish population and Bismarck had little sympathy with them. Alvensleben Convention signed Feb 1863 for joint Prussian and Russian action against the Poles. Other European powers opposed it, Bismarck merely agreed to be neutral in the end. Neutrality was welcomed in Russia, and was one of the reasons why Russia did not intervene in the wars of 1860s and stood by to allow Prussia to expand. Russia even threatened to mobilise against Austria in 1870 if it interfered in the war between France and Prussia.

Convention of Gastein

1865. Established a short-lived agreement between Austria and Prussia over the duchies. He demanded control over military forces in both duchies and announced plans for a military canal. Austrian administration in Holstein objected to this Prussian intervention, and relations with Austria grew worse.

First indication of tension between Napoleon III and Bismarck

1867 the Luxembourg Crisis

The Luxembourg Crisis- causes

1867. Given neutrality in 1866, he expected support for French acquisition of Luxembourg. Duchy of Luxembourg owned by Dutch king, garrisoned by Prussia. Not included in North German Confederation, and in 1867 Napoleon III was negotiating with the king to gain it for France, thought Bismarck would agree.

Spain's revolutionary government

1868 Queen Isabella II overthrown by revolutionary government in Madrid, candidate for new head of state was Prince Leopold, nephew to king of Prussia. Bismarck urged him to accept, July 1870 candidacy announced which cause uproar in France, as seemed France would be encircled by Prussia. French ambassador visited Wilhelm I to share view, who agreed to withdraw candidature. French sent him back to get a promise it would not happen again, which Wilhelm could not agree to. Big B edited the telegram from Wilhelm explaining the meeting to make refusal harsher, causing storms of outrage in Paris and France mobilised for war.

Events April 1849 - End of Revolution

29 German states accepted Frankfurt constitution and regency of Archduke Johann. Bavaria, Saxony and Hanover held back from the union. Austria and Prussia refused and ordered delegates to return home. Troops forced remains of Frankfurt Parliament to leave city. Prussian troops crushed Parliament of Saxony and moved into Baden. June- revolutions and hopes of new German state crushed

Beginning of War with Austria

9 June 1866- Prussian troops invaded Holstein. Austria got support of every member of the Bund except one in opposing Prussia, so Bismarck declared the Bund to be dissolved. A long German civil war may have resulted in French and Russian intervention- few in Europe saw Prussia as the stronger power.

What did Prussia need to overcome Austrian dominance?

A stronger army, as proposed by Roon - increasing to 23,000 men. But in 1860, Prussian parliament strongly objected, fearing use of army against parliament in future. Liberals feared this would lead to a militaristic state and undermine the constitution. After 1848, Wilhelm feared revolution if he supported increasing the army.

Blood Iron

A week into appointment as minister president, Bismarck made views known in blood and iron speech 1862. 'The great questions of the day were not settled by speeches and parliamentary majorities- that was the mistake of 1848- but by blood and iron'. Speech caused uproar, nearly sacked.

Reasons for Prussian economic and military power?

Acquisition of the Rhineland in 1815 gave Prussia important resources of coal and ore - large and growing industrial market Railway building in the Rhineland as early as 1832, Between 1841 and 1847 railway network grew from 375 km to 2325 km. Prussia owned 56% of all railways in Germany by 1847 Investment in metals and fuels doubled in the 1840s- deep shaft mining developed. Advances in technology and technical knowledge, money and backing to support these developments. Population rise provided labour and markets

subterranean nationalism

After 1832, nationalist activity took place in private meetings between enthusiasts in homes or universities. By 1847, 85,000 members german nationalism becoming more widespread- historical ceremonies etc and this national sentiment surface in 1848 revolutions Not until 1859 that a Nationalist Association formed - singing and hiking clubs lacked leader. No leading German figure. Nationalism took form of generalised patriotic sentiment, rather than an effective movement.

Alliance with Italy

April 1865 military alliance that was valid for 3 months. States that Italy would have Venetia in the event of a joint war against Austria.

Turning point for Bismarck wanting German Unification

April 1866- proposal of a new Bund parliament elected by all German males over 25 years. Sought public support for his was with Austria by proposing democratic voting system for Germany.

Impact of Napoleon Bonaparte

April 1972- France declared war on Austria because Austrian Emperor was supporting aristocratic exiles and this threatened France's revolution. Prussia joined war on Austria's side. Between 1805 and 1807, War of Third Coalition- France at war with with Austria and Prussia. Defeated. French conquest of much of German speaking central Europe- changes such as Holy Roman Empire abolished and new confederation of the Rhine established. Larger states allowed to take over smaller, independent territories. Napoleon's domination ended in 1812, when he tried to attack Russia but failed. Austria and Prussia seized opportunity to capitalise on French weakness, by 1814, defeated Napoleon. French rule resulted in small church states, free cities, consolidation of smaller states. Patriotic resistance emerged.

result of the Revolutions- weakness of leaders

Archduke Johann, the parliamentary leaders and Frederick Wilhelm IV were not able to harness national feeling or lead the movement for change. No inspirational figure that Italians had. Germans were not united enough to bring about a new state. Existing situation not secure either.

What was in the Zollverein

Assembly of members called the Zoll parliament Any changes made by unanimous consent Tariff uniform on all imported goods Proceeds divided between states according to population size Raw materials and semi-manufactured goods entered the union for free to help industry Also made economic treates- Holland 1831, GB in 1844 and Belgium in 1844

main effects of congress of vienna

Austria emerged as central power in Europe, and gained valuable land in Italy Prussia increased its land and gained valuable economic resources that provided the basis for its later growth. New Bund had little power and was controlled by Austria. Austrians opposed any signs of German nationalism that might create a strong german state Fewer small states created greater unity than during the 18th century, german nationalism doubtful at this stage.

Results of the war of 1866

Austria forced back on its homeland and created Austro-Hungarian empire in 1867. Joint rule called Ausgleich. North German Confederation created in 1867- established a federal north Germany with Prussia in charge. Liberals ended their opposition, National Liberals became his greatest supporters in the new parliament. Military budget out of parliament's control and prestige of army elevated.

reasons for 1848 revolution- AUSTRIA

Austria's repressive measures became more difficult to enforce with changes in German society and the economy. Growing trade and industry meant Germans were confident in their own strengths and reluctant to be ruled by Austria

Prussian military campaign against Austria

Austrians assembled large forces in Bohemia to invade Prussian Sicilia. Faced with opposition sooner than expected- rapid mobilisation of Prussian troops and use of railways meant that 3 Prussian armies invaded Bohemia. Superior needle gun- advantage. Armies clashed at Sadowa on 3 July 1866- Austria larger army, but failed to take advantage of it, rapid movement of Prussian troops meant 100,000 more Prussian troops joined the battle. Prussia had 221,000 men against 206,000. Heavy defeat for Austria. War ended 22 July, Austria ended control of Germany.

Franco-Prussian War- Resolution.

B wanted to negotiate quick peace, army did not- French resistance. Germans responded brutally by burning villages and executions. French war leader tried to raise another army, Germans narrowly avoided defeat at St Quentin in Jan 1871. Treaty of Frankfurt

Interpretations on growth of Germany after 1871- positive

B was man of 19th century, who disliked liberalism, but willing to work with it. Open to new ideas and enjoyed parliamentary debate, democratic in extending the right to vote and introducing social reforms later in his career.

factors contributing to unification- national feeling

Bismarck's policies could not have succeeded without national feeling. National Association of 1859 restricted membership and met with little public enthusiasm, spread idea of greater Germany. Improved railway system, better roads and cultural developments in German literature and music encouraged greater unity.

Development of separate German nation and the Zollverein?

British government 1940- Zollverein is the first step towards the Germanisation of the People Nearly all german states joined, except Austria, and accepted a common tariff policy and worked together in an annual assembly Initiative came from Prussia, suggests that Prussia was natural leader of a more united Germany Zollverein almost acted as a nation, making commercial treaties with other nations

Interpretations on Bismarck 'planning' war with France

Cark- exaggeration to say he planned for war, but he was not an advocate of preventative war, so war with France was an option. Taylor- Bismarck neither planned war, not even foreseen it, but he claimed it as his own once it became inevitable- attention had to be diverted away from carelessness in giving France opportunity to humiliate Russia. Robertson- France was lured into declaring war, as war could then be proclaimed a defensive one on behalf of German honour, security and independence, public opinion must be influenced. Seen by Ems Telegram, after Luxembourg crisis, impossible to have good relations.

interpretations on 1848 revolutions

Clarke- no return to conditions of pre-march era, revolutions were not a failure, Prussian upheavals of 1848 were a watershed between an old world and a new. Thompson- Parliamentary assemblies gained no credit in the events of 1848-50, whereas it was the armies that had won in the end. Governments in future would rely much more on organised military power to achieve their ends.

reasons for 1848 revolution- economic

Due to economic growth, more workers faced unemployment and poor conditions during the economic turndown 1847-1848 In Vienna, March 1848, workers and students clashed with troops, many cities had similar disturbances.

Interpretations on growth of Germany after 1871 - negative

Economic growth and militarism continued, but political developments lagged behind. Germany came to admire power more than democracy. Contempt for freedom and individual rights. Parliament was a meaningless pretence that eroded respect for genuine liberal values.

Response to 1848 demonstrations

Faced with large scale crowds, rulers reluctant to enforce control, as it could turn bloody, so made concessions or fled. When Metternich fled from Vienna, dissatisfied urban workers, nationalist students and local farm hands demonstrated in Berlin. In response, on 18 March 1848, Frederick Wilhelm IV announced a new constitution for Prussia

Main events of 1848-- April Georg Herweg

Following Friedrich Hecker and Gustav Von Struve, he led a group of radical émigrés and was defeated by soldiers from the new constitutional regime in Württemberg.

Association for the Preservation of the Victories of March

Formed by radical representatives in an attempt to protect the gains of the revolution. 500,000 members and 900 branches. Opinion divided between radical democrats, monarchists who wanted a new German Kingdom, supporters of the Kleindeutschland or Grossdeutschland solutions, and Protestants and Catholics. March 1848 agreement to offer throne of a Kleindeutschland to Wilhelm IV, but he refuses to accept.

Franco-Prussian War 1870-71 events

Germans brought three armies to frontier rapidly by train and over 300,000 troops stationed within days of war beginning on 28 July 1870. Heavy German losses at Worth on 5 August, and at Spicheren on 6 August. Germans had superior artillery. French withdrew to their fortifications and attempted to move from Metz to Verdun, but were attacked on the way. Heavy Prussian losses at Gravelotte on 18 August, and again, when they attacked prematurely. French marshal Bazaine failed to counter-attack so Germans contained French army at Metz. At Sedan, sept 1870, German Krupps artillery was too powerful, french lost 17,000 to German's 9,000 men and Napoleon III was taken prisoner. War continued, Bazaine did not surrender Metz for another 7 weeks and a new government of defence was formed in Paris. German armies surrounded French Capital on 19 Sept.

Terms of Congress of Vienna settlement detail

Germany reduced to 39 independent states and free cities organised in a Bund dominated by Austria Bund Austria strengthened by Vienna Settlement, gaining land in Italy, eastern Galicia and others Prussia strengthened by treaty, gaining land in west of Germany on both sides of the Rhine France allowed to keep Alsace and Lorraine, even tho Prussia wanted them

Interpretation on Big B

Grant Robertson- assume Bismarck had a distinct plan, and this remained the common view into the 1960s Fisher- he envisaged from the first the conditions of the German problem and allowed no scruple of conscience to interfere with the execution of his plans. Meinecke- saw Bismarck's plan leading to wars and dictatorship. Taylor- By January 1863 he came to realise that European politics could not be forced into a pattern by a man of ruthless will. He responded to circumstances. Another interpretation was that Bismarck had fall-back positions within a broad strategy. 'Strategy of alternatives'. Other interpretation- he was a political genius- the power he exercised came from him as a person, not from institutions or forces and factors.

Bismarck as PM?- judgement of liberal opposition

Liberals of 1862 were to him the failed revolutionaries of 1848-49, with neither conviction nor popular support to carry out revolution. Saw ideology as devoid of passion, and lacking personal dynamism to resist his realism. With backing of army and support of king, B held powerful position. Without support of urban masses, middle-class liberals could do little to resist him.

Who lost from events of 1866-67?

Liberals saw B as a cynic. Independent states lost land and independence. France- opportunity for France to be the main power in Europe were reduced. Prussian army dominant. Opinion in France increasingly anti-Prussian, unlikely to form alliance and Austria had been removed as an effective ally. Napoleon III increasingly isolated.

loss of support for new German nation- 1848

Many feared new Germany was getting out of control, loss of support. Countryside landowners urged action to restore royal authority. Other parts of Europe, rulers were re-asserting their authority and gradually the 'old' system was regaining control. In Berlin, Prussian king fearful of increasing street violence. Frederick Wilhelm IV of Prussia sent in army, 13,000 troops dispersed Diet and ended unrest.

Main events of 1848-- March

March when Austrian authority collapsed, Confederation's princes and cities brought opposition leaders into government. Lacked political experience. Tried to end rural unrest by agrarian reforms.

Austria in the 18th century

Mass of different nationalities- 1.5 million Czechs, 3.3 million Hungarians. official language and culture was German, but only 2 provinces had German speaking majority Austria rulers theoretical Kings of Germany, but meant little in practise. Austria was most powerful nation of the Holy Roman Empire

Handbach Castle

May 1832, 25,000 nationalists marched on Handbach Castle in Palatinate. 3/4 of demonstrators were students, academics or middle class professionals. King of Bavaria sent troops and ringleaders were arrested. Princes agreed to pass repressive 6 articles demanded by Austria, followed by 10 acts- prevented parliamentary assemblies reducing princely power and banned all political clubs, subversive literature and the national flag.

Germany before 1815

Most of the German speaking parts of central europe were part of the roman empire 'Germany' did not exist, instead more than 250 small states linked by language- all part of the Holy Roman Empire The people of 'Germany' owed personal allegiances to the rulers of their particular state, little nationalism 'germany' was not united by religion, South and West were mainly catholic, and north and east mainly protestant. Lutheran Church most important protestant Church. life organised around agriculture and small towns- few big cities, except Vienna Most people saw themselves as members of their area- their margravate, electorate, kingdown, county, or city. Many different dialects and languages. Eastern Prussia there were Slav languages, and in western borders there were dialects closer to Dutch.

How liberal was german empire under Bismarck-modern elements

New national currency, national weights and measures, and custom barriers were eliminated. Businesses were supported by a national railway network and German business laws. Specialist legislation freed businesses from states control. feeling new country had emerged from a period of modernisation. Investment in industry and trade. economic growth that liberals had hoped for with unification now occurred.

Meeting with Napoleon III

October 1865. B understood that Napoleon would be neutral if Prussia went to war with Austria, although Napoleon did not officially agree to this.

Did Bismarck plan the war with Austria?

Unlikely he was only interested in Schleswig and Holstein as a way of engineering war with Austria, as the area was on Prussian borders, which would have threatened Prussia. Also, to have acted alone by sending Prussian forces would have risked war with Austria, opposition from the Bund, and intervention of other European countries.

The Bund

Various changes in Germany since 1789, not possible to restore hundreds of small states. New Germany that replaced Holy Roman Empire was 39 states in a confederation. Representatives of these states met in an assembly. Organisation called the Bund and presided over by Austria Terms of Congress of Vienna- Bund had assembly- Diet with 17 members, met in Frankfurt and permanent president was the Austrian member. In theory, the Bund could make war, conduct diplomacy and raise armies, but in practise there was no effective Bund government.

Prussia in 18th Century - nobles and peasantry

acquired different lands in Germany from the 15th to late 18th centuries. Lands separated from each other and some small substantial homeland in Brandenburg- home of ruling family. Rulers supported by upper classes, known as junkers- who ruled over their land and peasants, but gave service to the state. Junkers were the landed gentry of eastern Prussia. Ruled directly over peasants, held their own courts. Influential in Prussian army and civil service.

Key elements of Prussian Victory over Austria

end of Austrian rule and strengthening of Prussia, which annexed territory and dominated a unified North German State. Kleinundeutchland solution to German weakness.

Evaluation of failures of 1848 revolutions

collapse of authority in march not exploited quickly enough. Insufficient agreement on the form of a new united Germany. Clear that new German nation could not raise own army, so dependent on Prussia's. No real confidence in new constitutional regimes and fears of continuing working class unrest grew among middle and upper classes. Peasants settles by agrarian reform and had little interest in constitutions or national unity. Old rulers remained, even if ministers driven out and called on army to restore order. No leaders. Austrian and Prussian army led by loyalists. Foreign power unlikely to have accepted Prussian rule of Germany in 1848 had Wilhelm IV lead.

Nature of the German Empire of 1871

constitution based in North German Confederation, but included south German States. 1. Federal constitution, power shared between central Reich and local government of states. 2. Emperor was Wilhelm I, king of Prussia. 3. Bismarck was imperial chancellor, who were chosen by chancellor. 4. Reichstag (imperial parliament) elected by all men over 35 years. 5. Also a Bundesrat- council representing the governments of the individual states. Prussia dominated. 6. Bundesrat and Reichstag could pass legislation for the whole of Germany, and there was a federal budget that had to be voted by the parliament. 7. Chancellor and Ministers addressed Reichstag but were not responsible to them- vote against chancellor did not mean resignation. Only King could dismiss government. 8. Foreign affairs responsibility of Chacellor.

Less liberal aspects of new German Nation in 1971

constitution- Reichstag's lack of control over military budget, B funded army reforms without consulting parliament. No elected body that had control of the army. In the war of 1870-71, Prussian generals unwilling to accept civilian control. In new empire, German army grew increasingly independent and military values became widespread. Riechstag did not have full financial control of government due to indirect taxes. Unable to bring down governments by voting against them, no government party. Bismarck only responsible to the king.

reasons for 1848 revolution- middle class reformers

demanded freedom of the press, responsible government and constitutions Authorities gave way and abolished the Carlsbad Decrees of 1820, which restricted universities and tightened censorship.

Prussia Military growth

economic growth provided basis for increased military power. Until military reforms of 1860s, Prussian army had little opportunity for expansion. Invention of the needle gun which was issued to Prussian forces in 1848- could fire 5 times faster than conventional rifles By 1870, weapon manufacturing firm Krupps making advances in artillery. Improvements in military planning, and setting up of general staff. Military used industrial power to produce superior artillery, and used efficient railway system to transport troops. Army had widespread support of the citizens

Main events of 1848-- May

elections for national assembly, met in Frankfurt on 18 May. Each German state chose own method of election and restricted voting to propertied classes. Middle class assembly of lawyers, professors, doctors, writers and other professionals. No decisive leader emerged.

reforms in Austria

emerged from french wars as major victorious power. Military performance improved significantly

economic growth after 1815

force for change European economic expansion after 1815 cities and populations grew new production techniques and factories, modern farming methods and new methods of transport, increased trade Prussia grew economically more than Austria, as Austria had mainly agricultural zones. Transport and economic links between German states improved ties

Treaty of Frankfurt

formalised Bismarck's terms to France of acquiring Strasbourg and Metz and Alsace and Lorraine. France to pay indemnity of 5 billion francs.

How liberal was german empire under Bismarck- constitution of 1871

had both liberal and absolutist elements. Constitution was federal, and the individual states had the right to determine their own affairs. Local liberal regimes.

was germany open to new ideas of liberalism and nationalism in 1815?

had rising population with more people in cities growing middle class well educated Economic growth was transforming germanic central europe as a whole and Prussia in particular so yes ;)

result of the Revolutions- influence of outside power

had strong influence on German affairs, Prussia's war with Denmark stopped because of fears of Russian and British hostility. Austrians defeats of revolutions outside Germany were effective, and Austria had support of Russia and its large armies.

reasons for 1848 revolution- weakness in Austria

hard to manage and co-ordinate. Poor harvests in 1840s and economy did not modernise. Large army expensive. Unrest in key areas, such as Vienna. Vienna had influx of people- population growth in poor districts. Revolution in France 1848 led to panic. Austrian system of government inefficient. Ferdinand in 1835 not a sound monarch- mentally deficient

Big B's 'gap theory'

if parliament failed to grant money to expand the Prussian army, he could take advantage of a legal gap that allowed government to collect taxes without parliament's approval. Knew he couldn't keep up dictator-like power for long, so needed to convince the monarchy, military and nation he was taking Prussia forward. Conscious that opportunities to take advantage of Austria's weaknesses in 1859 had been missed, swift successes vital.

setback for big B in 1858

illness and mental breakdown of King Frederick Wilhelm IV led to new regime under his brother- Prince Wilhelk I. Foreign minister and conservatives who previously supported Big B deserted him, replaced by liberal ministers. Big B sent to the embassy in Russia, not keeping his job :(

liberalism

inspired by french ideas of revolution after 1815 increased interest in liberal change people sought constitutional rule and rights of subjects to participate in government greater enthusiasm for new German nation and more unity between German peoples

Big B's rep

known as a determined diplomat and strong defender of the Prussian monarchy. Won admiration of Prussia's military leaders, particularly Roon

Overall summaries of Franco-Prussian war

longer than 1866 war. More costly- casualties high and aspects of German leadership were poor. Bismarck seemed to lose control of the military, and it was with difficulty that he negotiated peace terms. By taking Alsace and Lorraine, made good relations with France impossible. German Empire created by the Princes and offered as a gift to the German People in military ceremony in Versailles in 1871.

conflicts and diplomacy of the 18th century

not about who should control 'Germany', Austria and prussia had dynastic conflicts for territory, influence or glory. Leading powers were Austria and Prussia

3 forms German nationalism took

official organisations and supporters of greater unity. cultural elements that brought Germany closer together Economic factors that encouraged unification

Effect of French Revolution 1848

overthrow of French monarchy after street demonstrations in Paris peasant disturbances in southwest Germany - poor harvest and failure of regimes to enforce abolition of serfdom. Spread through Saxony to Austrian and Prussian regions

forces opposing change in 1815

prevent moves towards greater unity or liberalism any changes would require agreement of great powers, which was unlikely as rulers of Austria and Russia were absolute emperors and kings and princes of Germany wanted to prevent revolution Believed united Germany would weaken their independence. no support with conservative, traditional peasantry or small-town merchants as German confederation mainly agricultural local traditions, forces of conservatism, such as military tradition and respect for authority in Prussian and Brandenburg. Religious differences divided South and West from North . Linguistic differences and gap between outlook and culture of north germany and south national unity associated with French rule, which had been unpopular and resented. No consensus about what a German nation would entail. 2 models emerged: Grossdeutschland which would include Austria and the South, and Kleindeutschland, which would consist of an enlarged north germany. No agreements on form unity would take. difficulties strengthened reactionary elements in the Bund that wanted to avoid major change.

Main events of 1848-- April Friedrich Hecker and Gustav von struve

radical leaders of pre-parliament, tried to rally support for popular republic. Led revolt in Baden, but suppressed by Duke of Baden's soldiers on 20 April 1848.

result of the Revolutions- nationalism, liberalism and democracy

revealed weaknesses, quarrels in Frankfurt parliament and limited resistance offered to restoration of princely authority throughout Germany indicated revolution would not occur easily. Unification could not be brought by parliamentary means- maybe by military force and economic power as stated by Bismarck.

nationalism in napoleonic era

some growth Jahn leading figure- teacher and writer. Tried to raise troops in Free Corps in 1813- 30,000 volunteered, but were mainly loyal to Prussian crown. Johann Fichte- Berlin academic who sought creation of a German nation Ernst Moritz Arndt- popular nationalist writer. Urged opposition to France, reform of serfdom and creation of a united Germany literary nationalists often anti-semitic and opposed revolutionary ideas from France.

Student nationalism

students were most enthusiastic nationalists student movement 1815 1817 student movement assembled at Wartburg castle to urge German unity. 450 attended-start of nationalist reform movement

result of the Revolutions- Austria

successfully quashed internal revolution and not prepared to lose power and influence in the Bund. Proposal for new union to be led by Prussia in 1850, rejected by Austria. Elections on restricted voting system Jan 1850, representatives came to discuss constitution for new German union run by Princes. Under Austrian pressure, 14 out of 26 states rejected. Nov 1850- union abandoned and Austria took control of the Bund. Prussia dared not oppose Austrian rule. Seemed like Austrian power over German confederation had been strengthened. Bismarck became increasingly anti-Austrian.