Gilded Age Review Sheet

Plessy V. Ferguson

"Separate but Equal" lawsuit brought by Homer Plessy who was black and was denied a seat in a first-class railway car in Louisiana. The court ruled that separate but equal did not violate the 14th amendment.

Garfield Assassination

A disappointed and mentally deranged office seeker Guiteau shot Pres. Garfield in the back in a Washington railroad station. Garfield lingered on for 11 weeks and died on September 19, 1881. Garfield's death had one positive outcome, it shocked politicians into reforming the shameful soil system. VP Chester Arthur proved to be a reformer by prosecuting several fraud cases.

Booker T. Washington

A slave who started the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama in 1881. It was a normal school for black teachers and black hands-on trades. It promoted self respect and economic security. It avoided social equality. Compared to MLK.

Johnson's impeachment

Impeachment merely means having a president brought to trial, not kicking them out of office. Radical Republicans were tired of his vetoes. Ben Wade was supposed to be the next president. The Tenure Office Act says senate needs to approve anyone who is fired in the president's cabinet. He fires sec. of war Edward Stanton who was a spy for the Radical Republicans. He had no real reason to be impeached. House of Representatives voted to impeach him. The trial was held in the Senate. Johnson was saved by one vote. It occurred in May 1868. Congress was now very powerful. They needed a 2/3 vote to kick Johnson out.

People moved to the city

American population by 1900 had doubled from 40 million, taken in the census of 1870, but during the same period the population of American cities tripled. Four out of 10 Americans lived in cities. In 1860, no city had a population over 1 million. By 1890 was 3/cities. New York had 3.5 million, Chicago, then Philadelphia. Skyscrapers allowed more people to live in cities. The father the skyscraper was Lewis Sullivan. He built the first one in Chicago in 1885. Elisha Otis created the elevator in 1853.

Second American Revolution

Between 1860 and 1894, the US rose from the fourth largest manufacturing nation to the first for the following reasons: American ingenuity, or being able to invent, was high. Eli Whitney created interchangeable parts that made this possible. Many immigrants worked cheaply and long hours. We had natural resources. We have liquid capital to fund businesses, railroads, and factories

Thomas Nast

Boss Tweed was in charge of New York politics. He made fraud elections to keep himself in power. He stole $200 million from New York. The Irish voting population could not read or write and he took advantage of their votes. Nast showed the illiterate Irish that he was corrupt through political cartoons. Tweed was put in jail in 1861 and escaped to Spain where we was captured again.

Congress Reconstruction Plan

By 12/6/65, when southern states ratify the 13th amendment, Johnson declares reconstruction over. The VP of the Confederacy, Alexander Stephens, was elected to congress. The South began voting in politicians who were in before the war. Congress would take over reconstruction efforts and try to impeach Johnson.

Body 2

Consequently, industry was becoming America's primary economic focus during this era. By 1890, a combination of factors ranging from disunity and advancement in technology led to only half of Americans working as farmers. American society was changing as a direct result of big industry coming of age. On May 10, 1869, the Transcontinental Railroad was completed at Promontory, Utah. The direct effect of this completion was the creation of a unified national economy. From the West came materials. Then, the Mid West processed the new materials which would then be sent the East be sold to Westerners. Society was changing as farming was becoming less and less important to Americans. More Americans wanted the fast track industrial path to success. Millionaires and monopolies were both emerging in America. Cornelius Vanderbilt consolidated the railroads by 1877 in the Northeast and controlled 4500 miles of integrated railroads from New York to the Great Lakes regions. He controlled the entered market for railroads and thus held a major part of a national industry. Monopolies were ubiquitous and the evils of them were revealed as society eventually combatted them with unions. America grew when they became independent from these distrustful trusts. Thus, the first labor union was created by orders for these trusts called the National Labor Union in 1866. It only lasted six years but it supported 600,000 members which included both skilled and unskilled workers and even farmers. It created the idea of arbitration which was a settlement by a mediator of workers complaints. This was a positive effect of the introduction of bid industry and grew American society to greater, more independent heights. American society changed drastically due to industry during this era, some changes for good, others for bad.

National Labor Union

Created in 1866, it was the first labor union in the country. Only lasted six years. It had 600,000 members which included both skilled and unskilled workers and even farmers. Had some blacks and women but excluded Chinese. Came up with arbitration which was settlement by a mediator of workers complaints. They supported an eight hour workday. The panic of 1873 ruined this labor union

Knights of Labor

Created in 1869 and at first was secret and only for skilled workers. In 1881, it welcomes everyone. They only did not allow non-producers. They wanted the 8 hour workday and better safety and health in the workplace. The factory owners were not responsible for workplace injuries. They want to equal pay for women and men. Terrence Powderly was the leader and he got the 8 hour workday and lead a successful strike against Jay Gould's Wabash Railroad.

Charles Darwin

Darwin wrote The Origin of Species in 1859 which introduced evolution. Three main groups were created in the fundamentalists, liberal Christians, and Modernists. Fundamentalists believe strictly in the Bible. Liberal Christians say that God had a hand in evolution. Modernists rejected the Bible.

Credit Mobilier

During the building of the transcontinental railroad, the Union Pacific created this fake French company to get paid double for construction. This was during Grant's re-election bid in 1872. His VP, Colfax, was taking payments from Credit Mobilier. Grant was not involved but it hurt his name.

Education in the US

Free compulsory education was paid for by taxes but taxes only paid through eighth grade. By 1900, they were 6000 high schools in the US. Normal schools educated teachers. Chautauqua lectures were for those who couldn't afford college educations. 100,000 people participated in them in 1892.

Bloody Shirt

Grant was a Republican running in the 1868 election. Grant was a war hero without any political experience. He barely won the popular vote but one the electoral college. Democrats want to end military Reconstruction. Grant's slogan became "Let us have peace"

Inflationary Policies

Hard Times inflicted the worst punishment on debtors, who wanted inflationary policies to be pursued. Debtors wanted paper money (Greenbacks) printed to create inflation and make it easier to pay off debts. They reasoned that more money meant cheaper money and rising prices to make it easier to pay off debts. (This was called soft money or cheap money). Opponents would be the wealthy. Instead of paper money, they wanted Hard money. Grant vetoed a bill to print more money. Congress passed the Resumption Act of 1875 which removed paper money from the economy. Grant did not print anymore money. Eventually paper money would be gone.

Lincoln's 10% Plan

He came up with the 10% plan in 1863. This is how the southern states came back into the Union. A mere 10% of the voters from each Southern state had to swear loyalty to the US and support the Emancipation Proclamation. the South voted back in the politicians who were in power before.

Cleveland's Laissez Faire/Tariff

He had a hands off laissez fair capitalism mindset which made business folks very happy. Wealthy Republicans who owned businesses wanted a higher tariff. Southerners were Democrats and want to lower it. Cleveland wants to lower it. In 1881, the treasury had a surplus of $145 million. Congress could lower the tariff or spend it on needless things. Cleveland loses in 1888.

Johnson Clashes with Congress

He isn't liked by the north or congress. He tries to veto the Republican Freedmen's Bureau. He vetoes Civil Rights code. Congress was afraid that the Civil a Rights Act would be tossed out in the future. They want to pass the 14th Amendment.

W.E.B. Dubois

He was born in Massachusetts and was of mixed races. He was the first black to earn a doctorate from Harvard. He demanded complete equality for blacks socially and economically. He felt that Washington was wrong and called him and uncle Tom. He helped found the NAACP in 1910. Compared to Malcolm X

Johnson as President

He was the only congressman from the South that did not join the Confederacy. He was the governor of TN. He was for states rights and upholding the constitution. The South viewed him as a traitor. The North saw him still as a southerner. He had no friends.

Railroads Skyrocket/Transcontinental

In 1865, 35,000 miles of track were in the US and most of them were east of the Mississippi. By 1900 there was over 192,000 miles of track and more towards the West Coast. The government gave railroad companies land to build it. This was the campaign promise of Lincoln in 1860. In 1862, the Pacific Railroad act of 1862 allowed it to be built.

Seward's Ice Box

Johnson was a figurehead. Seward was his Secretary of State. A.k.a. "Seward's Folly". He buys Alaska from Russia for $7.2 million. People said it was too expensive. We found gold and oil there.

What railroads helped to do

It ended Indian Control of the West. The biggest impact on them was people shooting buffalo from train cars. The economies of the West and East were linked. From the west came materials and the mid west processed the new materials which would then be sent the East to be manufactured to sell to Westerners. You could travel faster and cheaper now. Roads were bad during the colonies some people live near the water. Now people don't have to live close to the sea and can live anywhere near the railroad. Time zones were created in 1883 and the 24 hour clock also.

14th Amendment

It gave blacks citizens rights. Passed by Congress in June of 1866, not ratified until 1868. If the South did not uphold it, they'd lose voting rights and get other consequences.

Jane Addams

She came from a rich Illinois family. She started the Hull house in Chicago in 1889. Women couldn't vote at this time. She was college educated. She would be considered a social worker today. The house was in a poor immigrant neighborhood and offered education, protection of children, and recreation. She was against poverty and war and won the Nobel Peace Prize.

Body 3

Lastly, America moved to the cities during the Gilded age. The mass migration to cities changed American society. By 1900, the population of American cities tripled as people moved to cities for more jobs, excitement, and opportunity. The city had electricity, indoor plumbing, and department stores; none of which existed in the farmlands. Immigrants also started flocking to America, specifically cities. Immigrants had trouble integrating their traditions with the assimilation into American culture. Catholics set up schools to keep their customs and newspapers were printed in different languages. American society was becoming a melting pot of several unique cultures. Also, churches faced a dilemma with the increased migration to cities. Specifically, the Protestant church declined as urbanization grew. Most new immigrants were Catholic or Jewish and not Protestant. New churches were created and rivaled the older ones. The Salvation Army was created in 1879 and the Christian Science Church was created by Mary Baker Edy. This created a more secular society in the cities. Lastly, education was a primary focus in the cities. Compulsory education was only until 8th grade but high schools were popping up all around the US, specifically in the cities. By 1900, there were 6000 high schools in the US. Also, normal schools began educating teachers to educate the future generations. The investment in education ensured future success for future generations. Society was being changed in almost every aspect at the hands of the mass migration to cities during the Gilded Age.

Gilded Age=Corruption

Mark Twain coined the term. Gilded means "covered in gold". It looks nice but underneath it's not so great. Society looks good on the outside, but is corrupt on the inside. "Get rich dishonestly if we can, honestly if we must" becomes popular. Presidents during this time were weak. They had funny names and were surrounded by corrupt people.

NAWSA=Women

More independent women in cities. Women pushed for suffrage. The ASA was started in 1890 by Elizabeth Cody Stanton and Susan B Anthony. They wanted women to vote because they were equal to men. They wrote a constitution at Seneca Falls in 1848. Carrie Chapman Catt said women deserve to vote because of "Republican Motherhood" which helped the movement because women were mothers of the future generations. The Wyoming territory gave women the right to vote in 1869.

Business of Amusement

Now that people want to work in cities, they had more time off. Farmers had no time. The Barnum and Bailey Circus began in 1891 and its slogan was the greatest show on earth. In 1882, the wild West show, Buffalo Bill Cody and Annie Oakley and Sitting Bull were introduced. Baseball was big because of newspapers. The first league was founded in the 70s and the Cincinnati red stockings were the first team. Football and bicycles gained popularity. Bicycles ruled America. Over 1 million people had them. They also played croquet. In 1891, basketball was created by James Naismith who was a YMCA instructor from Springfield Massachusetts. It was a winter sport and could be played inside

New/Old Immigrants

Old immigrants came between 1800 through 1880. More than 10 million came from Ireland, England and most of Western Europe. Most were WASPs and were educated and had money and came from governments with democratic roots. New immigrants came between 1890-1910. 12 million people came. In the early 1900s, 60% of the people in cities were foreign or had foreign parents. 70% came from eastern and southern Europe from Greece, Hungary, Italy, Poland, and Russia. Most were Catholic, Jewish, and Greek orthodox They were not Protestant. Most were poor and escaping persecution. In the late 1800s, two immigrant stations were set up at Ellis Island in New York and Angel Island in San Francisco.

Freedmen's Bureau

Passed by Congress in March of 1865. This was an early form of welfare for former slaves. It was headed by Union Gen. Oliver Howard. It was most successful in education. They educated 200,000 Blacks. They mostly wanted to read the bible. They were least successful in giving land back to the Blacks. It expired in 1872 after Johnson tried to get rid of it several times.

Radical Republicans

Proposed the Wades David Bill which wanted 50% loyalty from the states. They were happy that Lincoln was killed. They were afraid of the planter aristocrats.

Election and Compromise 1876

Rutherford B Hayes was known as "The great unknown". He was from Ohio and he was picked by the Republicans. Samuel Tilden was nominated by the Democrats from New York. Tilden got 184 electoral votes but needed 185 and he also won the popular vote. They were 4 disputed states: SC, Oregon, Florida, and Louisiana. The Electoral Count Act was made but had a majority of Republicans. The compromise had Hayes become president but the Democrats got the military to leave the south and end reconstruction. The white South regained its powers.

Backlash against Cleveland

The Depression of 1893 led to a loss of support. He was supposed to be a president for the people as a Democrat but he looks like he sells out to the rich with J.P. Morgan deal. Morgan loans the US $65 million in gold and he makes $7 million off it. This loan helps the government during the depression. He passes this new tariff.

Conclusion

The Gilded Age was a time of change for American society. Weak leadership in the White House, a strong focus on industry, and massive-scale urbanization served as the primary factors for promoting change, growth, and industrialization in American society. While it can be said that this era facilitated some negative change, the positive changes made cannot be ignored. Monopolies had the biggest effect on American society and still dawns on it today. Monopolies served as the evil that brought unity in countless labor unions across America.

Intro

The Gilded Age was a time of immense development and change for American Society. As coined by Mark Twain, the term "gilded" is defined as covered in gold. American society looked so gleamingly bright on the outside, but looks can be deceiving. On the inside of society during this time, Americans lived by the "Get rich dishonestly if we can, honestly if we must" mindset. Thus, society became very corrupt. Presidential cabinets were taking bribes from big industry and immigrants were getting hired in factories for half the wages of their American counterparts. But, Americans took notice and effectively established unions and other organizations to help the people's cause. Societal change in America was spearheaded by many factors.

Body 1

The Gilded Age was a time of ineffective leadership by many consecutive weak presidents. From taking bribes to selling out to the rich, these presidents were not met with the approval of their people. This left America without a strong leader for almost thirty years. For example, President Ulysses S. Grant, former war hero, won the 1868 election at the hands of the Bloody Shirt. He lacked any political experience in the slightest and yet was elected because he was a military leader. During the building of the Transcontinental Railroad that Lincoln had promised only a few short years prior, the Union Pacific, the contraction company, created a fake French company called Credit Mobilier in order to gain double the payout for the job. While this was occurring without the knowledge of Grant, the cabinet he surrounded himself with was poorly chosen through the spoils system as his vice president, Schuyler Colfax, was taking these payments under the table. This scheme hurt Grant's presidency and created backlash against him from the people against the spoils system. Also, the Hayes Tilden Standoff in the election of 1876 provided a clear insight into the leaderless America. Samuel Tilden received 184 out of the 185 electoral votes necessary to ensure victory. But, There were 4 disputed states: SC, Oregon, Florida, and Louisiana. The Republicans picked Rutherford B. Hayes out of Ohio. Now, a compromise had to be reached to elect a president. The Compromise of 1877 ended reconstruction in favor of the Democrats in exchange for Hayes to become President from the Republican side. This is considered corrupt because America did not choose Hayes, they chose Tilden. Instead, the corrupt government got their way in satisfying both parties at the hands of the helpless Americans. Lastly, in the 1888 election, Grover Cleveland met against the Republican Ben Harrison. Cleveland won the popular vote but lost the electoral vote due to the fact that Harrison spent $3 million buying up all the votes in the swing state of Indiana. This shows the corruption that was going on in the seat of presidential candidates every four years, trying to oust each others party at any expense. This era was one that lacked effective leadership and hence allowed corruption to occur even at the world's most powerful spot, the White House. It was no wonder that corruption was instilled in American society.

Colleges/Curr. Change

The federal government gave public lands to states to open up colleges. The main focus of universities was agriculture. More women attended college. Vaster was an all women school. In the Midwest, they were more coed colleges. Blacks have their own universities. Howard University was a black school. Not until the 1960s that they could go to mix schools. Wealthy people started Private colleges. Stanford, University of Chicago, Cornell were examples. The first top-rated grad school was John Hopkins. Places like Harvard opened up for training of priests. Now, students could choose courses "cafeteria" style. Science and medicine were popular choices. Life expectancy went up.

Reconstruction Act of 1867

The south was divided into 5 military districts run by military commanders with troops. Congress made rules for south to be re admitted. The 14th amendment must be accepted and black males be given the right to vote. Ruling class of the south was 15% and lost their vote until new state constitutions gave all adult males voting rights, blacks also. The south hated the military rule. The Supreme Court ruled in 1866 that military courts cannot try civilians.

Ku Klux Klan

There were many organizations like it. It was the most notorious. They were Southerners who were upset about blacks getting rights and reconstruction. AKA The Invisible Empire. Founded in TN in 1866 by 6 educated lawyers. They burned crosses in front yards and conducted lynchings of blacks. They wanted to keep Blacks in line. Nathan Bedford Forrest was the chief wizard. It ended in 1877 when reconstruction finished.

Thesis

Therefore, weak and somewhat illusive leadership, big industry coming of age, and the mass migration to cities contributed to the shift in societal focuses during the Gilded age from 1865-1896.

Black Codes

These were like the slave codes. Passed by southern states to return former slaves to the plantations. Whites say Blacks need proof of former work, which they don't have. They could not rent or own a place. They also were forced to sign contracts.

Carpet Baggers

These were people who came from the north to make money off of the south. To the southerners, both these groups were bad Yankees. They had the cheapest suitcases you could buy with carpet on them.

Scalawags

These were poor white farmers sympathetic to the north, but they lived in the South. They voted Republican. They felt their farms were destroyed by the planter class.

Problems with peace

They didn't know how the south would be rebuilt. They needed the South to adapt to no slavery. They don't know what to do with the slaves. How should the south come back into the union. What about the confederate leaders. Reconstruction was from 1863-1877 (Lincoln/Johnson 1863-65; Republican Congress 66-68; and Grant 69-77)

Life of a Freedman

This is what former slaves were being called. Blacks didn't know what to do. Some stayed on the plantation. Others went North. Some took their anger out on their master. Whites were in denial about the abolition. The US army had to enforce it

Pendleton Civil Service Act

This was enacted in 1833. It's called the Magna Carta of civil-service reform. This act classified approximately 15,000 federal jobs (10%) as civil-service positions. These were to be awarded only after passing an exam and the civil-service employees could not be fired for political reasons. This act did stopped the worst offenses of giving jobs to buddies and set the tone for civil service in the future.

Vanderbilt/Bessemer/Westinghouse

Vanderbilt was one of the first millionaires. The tracks in the Northeast all had different gauges (distance between the track). He consolidated the railroads by 1877 and controlled 4500 miles of integrated railroads in New York to the Great Lakes regions. This made it cheaper and faster to travel. Bessemer found a quicker and cheaper way to make steel in 1859. Steel was around since the Egyptians but it wasn't used on a large-scale. Because of this, skyscrapers were built and more people moved to the cities. Westinghouse creates the electric transformer.

John Rockefeller

in 1859, oil was discovered at Drakes Folly in Pennsylvania. It was used in kerosene lamps. Before this, they used whale oil. His company name was Standard Oil and he controlled 95% of the oil in the US. He had a monopoly by interlocking directories. He placed his men on competitors board of directors in order to stay ahead of the game. He said "Let us prey". He tried driving people out of business. Horizontal integration was buying out your competitors. He got the nickname "Reckafella".

Alexander G. Bell

in 1876, he invented the telephone. He lived in Boston at the time and was trying to help the deaf. He went to Western Union to sell it to them and they declined. He forms the Bell Company. In 1885, he created the first long-range provider called AT&T. It stands for The American Telephone and Telegraph Company. Many people shared party lines because they were expensive.

Women's Christian T.U.

Women were against alcohol in this union. Our new immigrants came from a culture surrounding alcohol. They said men didn't come home after work and went to the bar and when they did come home they beat their wives. There was a loss of finances to alcohol. Frances Willard led the women's Christian temperance union. She was also for planned parenthood. Carrie Nation was known as the Kansas cyclone because she destroyed bars with a hatchet after her husband died from alcoholism. Some states start banning alcohol. The 18th amendment was passed in the 1919 banning alcohol. The 21st amendment brought it back in 1933. Most of the sentiments were anti-German

Impact of the Industrial Revolution, Gibson Girl

increased health of the US. Americans's better fed. Higher standard of living (best in world at time. Farmers becoming factory workers. Hamilton's ideas start to win out for industry. Women had new vision as Gibson girl. This was the new woman of America. Illustration by Charles Dana Gibson was attractive, stylish, athletic, outside home, hour glass figure.

Clash/Chinese Immigration Law

as well as the ending of the reconstruction, 1877 was a year of other conflicts. The 4 largest railroads got together and decided to cut employee wages by 10% and the workers went on strike. This railroad shutdown crippled nation with work stoppages in cities like Baltimore and St. Louis and Pres. Hayes called on federal troops to stop the unrest amongst the striking workers. 100 people died over several weeks. The failure of the great railroad strike showed the weakness of the labor movement. Ethnic clashes were common between the Chinese and the Irish especially. Both competed for low-paying jobs. Most Chinese were young, poor men who immigrated to California. There were about 75,000 living there which made up about 9% of the population. They got jobs building the railroad and after that they got odd jobs. Irishman Dennis Kearney fired up the Irish against the Chinese in San Francisco. The beef eating Irish had no chance against the rice eating Chinese in the struggle for jobs and wages. The Irish murdered and cut off pigtails. Congress finally passed the Chinese exclusion act in 1882 and this would prevent all further immigration from China until 1943. This was the first immigrant restriction America had passed. Hayes was able to send US troops in to protect the US mail on the train.

Gospel of Wealth

by 1900, more than 4000 US millionaire's had a couple different views on wealth. Carnegie created the Gospel of wealth which said that the rich should give money away to needy causes. By death he gave most of his wealth away to create many public libraries in all small towns pretty much. Social Darwinism theory was preached by Russel Canwell. His sermon "acres of diamonds a thousand homes" showed the shortcomings that made men poor. Rockefeller supported this position and felt God placed him in his position.

J.P. Morgan

gave loan to help economy and depression. He was a Wall Street banker who financed railroads, insurance companies, and banks. He had a reputation for being honest and had integrity. This is why we went to him. Morgan and Carnegie collide. Morgan controlled a steel piping business and Carnegie was threatening to invaded and break Morgan. Secretly Carnegie wants Morgan to buy US Steel for $400 million. Morgan makes US Steel 1st billion dollar company in US history.

Andrew Carnegie

he switched from the railroad to steel industry. He started US steel. He picked Pittsburgh as the main town. He bought all the companies to produce steel through vertical integration. The main purpose was to lower costs and lose the middle man and create a monopoly.

Thomas Edison

the main inventor of this time. His invention factory was in Menlo Park, New Jersey. He invented the lightbulb in 1879 and by 1882, the lightbulb company was in New York City. It was used to run machinery. He also invents the phonograph which was the first record player. He also invented the movie camera. He came up with a diagram and gave it to other inventors to create the product. He was deaf.

Gilded Age Political Seesaw

the main parties saw eye to eye on tariff and civil-service reform. There was not much difference between their economic goals. Voter turnout during the Gilded Age was highest ever at 80%. The Republicans were more Puritan in cultural beliefs. Republicans were mainly in the Midwest and Northeast. The G.A.R. (Grand Army of the Republic) comprised of union veteran and supported the Republicans. Democrats were supported by Lutherans and Catholics and were less strict with morals. Democrats were still big in the south and in industrial Northern cities. People wanted jobs through the spoils system in return for their votes.

Jim Crow Laws

the military is gone and reconstruction was over. A group of white southerners called Redeemers took control of the southern states in 1877. They took control of the blacks by standing for states rights, white power, reduce taxes and social programs. Blacks were basically pushed back into slavery. The Jim Crow laws were laws passed by all southern states by the late 1800s that enforced segregation.

Populist Platform

these were angry farmders. This is a third-party that formed in 1892 and was known as the People's party. They wanted change in drought, debt, depressions. All of which burdened farmers in the 1870s and 80s. This is one of the first third parties to break into the electoral college. The main votes were from the west and Midwest. They got 1 million popular votes. They did not get any votes from the south because they supported black rights.

American Fed. of Labor

this was more successful. He started in the cigar industry. This was only for skilled white males. People would join their local union and become affiliated with the national union. He used strikes and boycotts to get what he wanted. By 1914 about 2 million people join the AF of L. It believed in collective bargaining where the unions had the right to represent wooers as a whole.