gov exam 3

What are the two main political bodies of the UN? How can they confer legitimacy? Which states have the most power within these political bodies?

- Important global political functions: peacekeeping, monitoring of nuclear weapons facilities and weapon programs, children's health, delivery of humanitarian relief in war and natural disasters - Two main political bodies: o General Assembly o Security Council ~ Five permanent members with veto power (US, UK, China, Russia, France) ~ Ten rotating members

How is immigration policy related to partisanship in the United States?

- In the US, immigration policy is closely tied to partisanship - How will immigrants vote? - Republicans worry that majority will vote for Democrats - Permanent political status as minority party in key electoral states like Texas and Florida

According to your reading (Section 13.2), what is the nuclear revolution?

- Nuclear revolution in warfare is rooted in the immense destructiveness of nuclear weapons o This quantitative difference between nuclear and conventional weapons means that if nuclear weapons were used, they would alter key features of warfare—in particular, its duration, the targeting of noncombatants, and even the military relationship between winning and losing sides in a conflict

According to the Krasner reading, what are the two main tendencies within US foreign policy regarding democracy promotion and dealing with authoritarian regimes? What third option does Krasner propose in how the U.S. should deal with long-standing dictatorships?

- On the one hand, presidents like George W. Bush have tried to transform dictatorships into liberal democracies - On the other hand, presidents like Donald Trump and Barack Obama have taken a more hands off approach, choosing to demonstrate the virtues of democracy by example through a well-functioning American political system Third option: - Promoting good enough governance, which emphasizes greater security, economic growth, and better provision of some services

How do trade and globalization shape political relations and order in the international system?

- People are more likely to be friendly towards people they trade with - Trade sanctions can be used to punish countries - Growing density of commercial interactions among states fosters demand for multilateral governance structures that enables states to coordinate economic policies and manage some of the negative externalities associated with globalization

Why is alleviating global poverty so important? How is poverty a main driver of other social ills such as lower life expectancy and poor education?

- Poverty is one of the main drivers of many of the world's worst social ills including infant mortality, low life expectancy, crime and corruption, poor education, and gender and ethnic inequality

Using the module's reading (Section 19.5), describe historical waves of democracy and the possible causes of these waves such as demonstration effects, neighborhood effects, conditionality of international organizations, and the influence of hegemons.

- 3 primary waves each followed by a partial reverse wave in which democratic governments broke down and were replaced by autocracies - 1st wave: lasted most of the 19th century until the beginning of the 20th century leading up to the WWI o partial democratic regimes emerged primarily in EU and the US § democracy remained rare & outnumbered by non-democratic regimes - followed by a reverse wave in the interwar period b/w WWI & WWII2nd wave of democracy followed WWII: o W. EU saw the emergence of democratic gov in W. Germany, Italy, and Austria supported mostly by American hegemony o Japan also established a democratic government o Brief democratic experiments launched in Latin America o Reverse wave took place in the 1960s and 1970s w/ breakdowns of democratic regimes across Latin America and the emergence of military dictatorships across the region - 3rd wave of democracy took hold beginning in the 1970s with the democratization of Spain, Portugal, and Greece in Europe and then the widespread collapse of military rule in Latin America and its replacement with democracies in the late 1970s and early 1980s - now being followed by a 3rd reverse wave as countries such as Russia have returned to authoritarian rule - Demonstration effects: o Significant mass events that successfully challenge the autocratic regimes create demonstration effects among opposition leaders and mass publics in other countries who then try to emulate the same actions and outcomes - Neighborhood effects: o States tend to emulate the level of democracy of their neighboring states. This creates regional environments that are more or less conducive to the emergence of democracy - Influence of hegemons: o The actions of the US and the Soviet Union were instrumental in the spread of democracy or lack thereof during the Cold War

How did President Biden reverse President Trump's decisions on the Paris climate accord? Why would other countries potentially question the stability of the U.S. commitment to the agreement of a Democratic president reenters the Paris accord?

- A Democratic president in 2020 could rejoin the Paris agreement but other states would likely question how stable this commitment would be - If Trump is reelected, it would likely mean the effective end of the Paris agreement - Other countries are unlikely to continue to push for significant emission reductions while allowing the US the world's second largest carbon emitter to free ride

What is an externality?

- A cost or benefit of some transaction by people not involved in the transaction

According to lecture and the reading (Section 28.4), what is a trade deficit? How are trade deficits related to foreign capital inflows and investment in the United States?

- A trade deficit occurs when a country imports more than it exports o Must be offset by a current account surplus (being a net borrower from the rest of the world) - They are related because when US has a trade deficit with foreigners, they take a loan from the foreigners which indicates a healthy investment climate inside the United States (improving reputation) and improve capital account surplus which bring foreign capital into the state

According to lecture and the reading (Section 30.4), what is the International Monetary Fund? What are its main functions? What is the main source of its influence in the international economy? What is conditionality and how does the IMF use it to promote economic reforms within countries? Why does the U.S. have so much influence within the IMF?

- Acts like a bank: Overseas pool of capital created by member countries - Limit exchange rate fluctuations (prevent currency wars from Depression that interrupted trade) - Lender of last report: help governments in exchange rate crisis stabilize reserve loans The Power of the IMF - Conditionality: demands conditions that change economic conditions in country and enhance long term ability to repay o IMF loans as multiple disbursements: get partial money, then must implement reforms before getting more o Often imposes real pain: cut tariff barriers, cut budget deficits i.e., raise taxes and cut spending - Power of IMF stems from its willingness to lend when no one else will o Good housekeeping seal of approval necessary for private capital to come back in The US and the IMF - Voting power not equal in IMF, set by relative contribution to Fund - US biggest shareholder, therefore lots of influence on terms of emergency loans i.e., bailouts - US often relaxes conditions for strategic reasons

What is a Nationally Determined Contribution?

- An effort by each country to reduce national emissions and adapt to the impacts of climate change

According to the reading (Section 19.2), how does democracy affect foreign policy? Explain how mass participation through elections expands the range of societal interests that can affect foreign policy. Explain how competitive elections create a punishment mechanism that influences foreign policy.

- By enabling mass political participation through elections, democracy expands the range of societal interests within a state that can be represented in its foreign policy - Competitive and free elections give most groups within society a means to influence public policy outcomes o They can mobilize their voters, organize campaign rallies, make campaign donations, or make public statements to have their views heard in the selection process that determines which political leaders will rule and what policies those elected will pursue o the content of a country's foreign policy depends on which groups within society and the state can participate in its formation o democracies are less likely to implement foreign policies that disproportionately benefit small sections of society because their more political systems allow more groups a say in policymaking - elections create a punishment mechanism that pressures governments to implement policies favored by a majority of voters - a range of institutional checks and balances within democracies empower societal groups and politicians to block foreign policy changes that they oppose - open participation, elections, and separation of powers help to foster a larger cooperative collective identity among democracies

What do the Fed's actions say about the costs and benefits of American hegemony/leadership in the global economy?

- Challenge some core principles of America First o World not free riding on US, instead helping to pay some of the costs (with effectively no interest loans) of economic stabilization and recovery in the US ~ Typically, this explosion in deficit financing would cause interest rates to go up (as creditors demand higher interest rates)- Other countries (e.g. Italy, China) do not have this kind of monetary and fiscal flexibility ~ Global demand for dollars helping Congress to run massive deficits (at zero percent interest) and Fed to print trillions of dollars to backstop US financial institutions and the domestic economy - US supports these positive outcomes by providing public goods to the global economy like the dollar as a reserve currency and access to the US consumer markets, like emergency lending that the federal reserve is doing right now

How have domestic political considerations (and the distributional consequences of trade) in the United States contributed to this trade war?

- China's economic rise and the potential shift in global distribution of power - Different domestic systems o China's state-managed capitalism create unfair advantages o Less government support for US firms - Reorientation of US economic policy with Trump election

According to lecture and the reading, (Section 19.3), what is the democratic peace theory? How do the factors that contribute to democracy's influence over foreign policy in general - electoral constraints, institutional constraints on power such as checks and balances, and a shared democratic identity - help to explain peaceful relations between democracies?

- Claim that military conflict (low levels, including threat to use force; and war) is less likely between two democratic states - Democracies will be peaceful toward other democracies, but not peaceful toward autocracies - Causes of Democratic Peace: o Electoral constraints raise the political costs associated with war o Institutional checks and balances make peace settlements more durable because democracy helps solve the commitment problem o Shared democratic identity: Democracies externalize norms of conciliation and compromise with each other and there is less public support for using military force against fellow democracy

According to the reading (Section 26.3), what is comparative advantage and how does it contribute to aggregate economic gains for states from trade? How does trade contribute to the economic sources of order in the international system?

- Comparative advantage: gains from trade stem from differences in the relative efficiency of individuals, firms, or whole economies in the production of some mix of goods o it narrows the range of economic tasks for which an asset is used, specialization enables states to be deployed in their most efficient function - specialization and international trade increase a state's national income - the desire to get economic gains from trade leads to cooperative international agreements - heightened economic competition activates economic and political backlash that tries to limit market pressures and reassert control over economic outcomes

Discuss how credibility is based on capabilities and resolve (see Section 14.2).

- Credibility depends on capabilities and resolve - Capabilities—the ability to carry out the threat o States enhance capabilities by improving their weapons systems o Examples: North Korean nuclear and missile tests - Resolve—the will to carry out the threat o States enhance their resolve by managing risk during crises (i.e., brinkmanship) o Public pronouncements by democracies o "The threat that leaves something to chance" o Tripwire forces

According to lecture and the reading (Section 33.6), what is the Paris climate accord? How might it operate to reduce carbon emissions and limit the increase of average temperatures? How did it navigate the tension between developed and developing countries?

- Deal reached in December 2015 - Important role played by United States in final terms of the agreement, but pulled back on some of its pledges in this agreement after Trump was voted into office - Agreement on process by which states would submit voluntary reduced CO2 emission targets to keep average global temperature increases below 2.0 degrees Celsius, with ultimate goal of less than 1.5 degrees

Describe the tradeoffs associated with participation in international organizations and national sovereignty.

- Delegation of authority to IOs can limit domestic sovereignty - Example: WTO and steel - Tension/tradeoff: sovereignty v. gains from cooperation

According to lecture and the reading (Section 19.1), what is democracy? Describe Robert Dahl's three "procedural minimal" conditions of democracy.

- Democracy: "institutional arrangement for arriving at political decisions in which individuals acquire the power to decide by means of a competitive struggle for the people's vote." - If a country has competitive elections to determine who holds the top political offices in the land, then it is a democracy - Robert Dahl: o Public contestation ~ Electoral competition ~ Individual freedoms o Inclusion ~ Universal suffrage o Democratic sovereignty

Which group of countries will be the recipients of foreign aid under the Paris Climate Accord? How did this aid help facilitate the construction of this international agreement? And how might this aid help countries fulfill their emission targets?

- Developing countries (BRIC) will be the recipients of foreign aid under the Paris Climate Accord for actions on climate change adaptation and mitigation - It relieved tension between developed and developing countries about who should shoulder the burden of mitigating climate change - It will help developing countries switch to forms of renewable energy so they can continue to grow without emitting as much carbon as fossil fuels do

According to the reading (Section 32.3), why is there a gap between public opinion regarding the preferred levels of immigration and immigration policies adopted by democracies? How does the collective action problem help to explain this gap?

- Disparate signals from the public provide openings for politicians to construct a narrative that can shape public sentiments o Migration policy is often driven from the top down rather than the bottom up o Politicians can construct coalitions by appealing to key constituencies; such coalitions undergird policies that do not necessarily have widespread public support - Collective action problem: powerful interests experience concentrated benefits from immigration while the costs are distributed widely across less organized interests

What are the three different distributional struggles related to the problem of climate change?

- Distributional struggle within countries o Coal vs solar; oil versus general public - Distributional struggle among countries o Developed (US and Europe) versus Developing (BRIC: Brazil, China, India, Russia) o Variation in carbon emissions across countries means different levels of preparedness for changes ~ US: carbon consumption in electricity, transportation, industry ~ Europe: less in transportation ~ Industry (and carbon emissions) shifting to developing world; caps would impede their growth - Distributional conflict across generations

Discuss the global patterns of international migration (see Section 32.1). What are the countries with the largest inflows of international migration and which countries have the largest inflows of refugees?

- Dramatic growth over time o Since 2000, the number of international migrants has grown by nearly 50 percent from 173 million to 258 million - In general, global migration patterns involve a net flow of people from less developed to more developed countries o US, Saudi Arabia, Germany are top receiving countries o India, Mexico, Russia, China are top sending countries o But not the case with refugees where developing countries like Turkey bear the main burden - While the US has the largest cumulative stock of migrants by raw numbers, migrants make up a greater share of total population in other countries like United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, Australia, and Canada

How does a state demonstrate credibility in nuclear deterrence? Understand measures to demonstrate credibility such as brinkmanship, tripwire forces, "the threat that leaves something to chance", and public pronouncements made by democracies (see Section 14.2).

- Elected officials try to make commitments irrevocable or difficult to rescind so they cannot easily back down in a crisis o One way to do this in a democracy is simply to make public threats - Brinkmanship: another way can increase the credibility of deterrence threats toward a nuclear-armed adversary is to take actions that escalate a crisis but are short of actually initiating military conflict o Making threats "that leave something to chance." o Strategy of brinkmanship consciously employs and manipulates risk to increase the credibility of a threat to use extreme force, in this case a nuclear attack § By demonstrating willingness to take risky actions that lessen the leader's control of the situation and increase the chances that a crisis could spiral into nuclear conflict, one increases their credibility - Military actions like sending strategic bombers or naval vessels close to a conflict zone during a crisis are meant to demonstrate resolve to take the ultimate military action by risking confrontation, provocation, and escalation of the crisis - Another way that states have increased the credibility of their deterrence threats during and after the Cold War has been by placing their own forces in harm's way on the territory of an ally o Tripwire forces: raise the stakes of an adversary's attack against a protected ally by guaranteeing that such an attack involved losses for the patron state offering protection

According to lecture and the reading (Section 30.2), what is the Bretton Woods economic order? What were the main forces that served as an impetus for the U.S. to construct the Bretton Woods order? What are the main organizations that emerged from Bretton Woods?

- Emerges in final stages of WWII (1944): US supports creation of international organizations to ensure economic growth through international trade - Impetus from: o Great Depression o WWII - Main organizations: o International Monetary Fund (IMF) and International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, also known as the World Bank

According to lecture and the reading (Section 32.6), how does international migration intersect with national security? How does international migration present challenges for national security but also resources that can enhance a country's security?

- Immigration also raises fears of infiltration by terrorists through lack of regulation - Leads to calls for stricter control/regulation of access through borders, especially of refugees and migrants from countries experiencing war - More pronounced in Europe, especially in countries on the front lines of the migrant crisis caused by the Syrian civil war and instability in the Middle East

According to lecture and the reading (Section 33.3), what is the tragedy of the commons? Why is it rational for individuals to overuse public goods? How does this phenomenon help to explain the difficulty of managing the sustainable use of commonly held public property? Know some examples.

- Emerges with public property or resources for which it is difficult (costly) to restrict their use (consumption) - Divergence between private benefits and social costs: individually rational for people states to consume, but diffused costs to society insufficient to prevent overuse - Resource gets depleted - Examples: oil fields, common grazing lands, overpopulation, fisheries, atmosphere Illustrative example: - Factory upstream from city dumps pollutants into river, which is key water resource for city - People getting sick but also depend on factory for job - Who pays/adjusts behavior? o Factory adopts alternative energy source to cut emissions, becomes less profitable, out of business o City pays factory to cut emissions, simultaneously subsidize production - Problem: how define property rights over the river (a publicly owned asset) - Absence of property rights creates externalities (costs or benefits of some transaction by people not involved in transaction) o Private costs and social costs of using resource diverge o Factory pays nothing for pollution (zero private costs) while people in city pay health costs from unsafe drinking water (social cost) ~ Factory is distributing its costs of production to everyone one

What are the two main dilemmas facing NATO and how did the Trump administration address these dilemmas?

- European shirking: o President Eisenhower on European shirking in NATO: "They won't make the sacrifices to provide the soldiers for their own defense" - US as reluctant hegemon Trump Administration and NATO: - Challenging the basic foundations of NATO and European security

According to lecture and reading (Section 27.3), what are the domestic distributional consequences of globalization? Which groups win and lose from globalization inside the United States?

- Even though international trade increases the national wealth of the economy in the aggregate, some groups see income gains AND some groups see income losses - International trade helps to create jobs in sectors that rely disproportionately on resources (factor endowments) that US possesses in abundance o The abundance drives down the costs of these factors and makes goods that rely on them as inputs relatively cheaper ~ Example: job creation in financial and high-tech services because intensively use high-skilled labor (people with college or advanced degrees) o Think about factor endowments (scarcity and abundance) in the US relative to ratio of factor endowments in other countries ~ Example: US scarce in labor relative to India; consequently, wages lower in India - Jobs are lost in sectors that rely disproportionately on resources that are scarce in the US o Example: unskilled labor in manufacturing o Problem: when lose job in manufacturing cannot find work in high-tech because do not possess requisite skill level - Political implications: o Globalization tends to activate domestic political conflict because some groups win, and some groups lose o This powerful reason to explain prevalence of barriers to trade that constrict national income

According to the reading (Section 28 - Introduction, Section 28.2), what is an exchange rate? How do shifts in exchange rates alter patterns of imports and exports? How can exchange rate changes influence trade policy?

- Exchange rate: o Reflect differences in value of respective currencies; price of one currency in terms of another o As $ appreciates, it can buy MORE units of a foreign currency o As $ depreciates, it buys FEWER units of foreign currency o Example: § February 2018, $ buys 0.81 Euros § May 2020, $ buys 0.91 Euros § Dollar appreciates relative to Euro from 2018 to 2020 - Why are exchange rates important? o Shape the price of conducting international trade o When dollar appreciates, imports go up because foreign products (bought by more valuable $) are cheaper o When dollar appreciates, exports go down because they are priced in $ and more expensive to foreign consumers o Opposite with depreciating currency: helps exports, slows imports - Implications for US-China relations: o China has long sought to stimulate. Exports to US o How? Push dollar up to increase purchasing power of American consumer o How push dollar up? Buy dollar denominated assets like US Treasuries and mortgages

According to the reading (Section 32.5), how does international migration affect the demographic composition of countries? How do these demographic changes create conflict within countries over issues of national identity?

- Immigration as part of a broader demographic change in the United States and other top receiving countries - Accentuating racial lines of conflict - In US, this is manifest in debates over English as primary language and national identity rooted in Anglo-Protestant culture - In Europe, manifest largely over concerns over Muslim immigration - These concerns are demonstrated by strong public sentiment that knowing the national language and identifying as a Christian is important to national identity - Recent research about 2016 US election: fear of losing social/racial/cultural dominance, not economic anxiety, important for those that switched votes from Obama in 2012 to Trump in 2016

Discuss how restrictions on voting rights affected American democracy. What are the major historical expansions of voting rights during American history and how have expanded voting rights affected descriptive representation of women and ethnic minorities? How has universal suffrage affected election outcomes?

- Five stages of expansion of voting rights in the US: o Expansion of white male suffrage in 19th century o 15th amendment (1870) prohibits voting restriction based on race or color § Voter suppression prevented African Americans from voting, especially in the South, for decades o 19th amendment (1920) prohibits voting restrictions based on sex o Voting Rights Act of 1965 enforces racial equality at the polls o 26th amendment (1971) sets minimum voting age at 18 Effects of Expansion of Voting Rights - Philosophical and psychological effects: o Greater legitimacy of the democratic system—both domestically and internationally o Greater popular acceptance of political decisions and outcomes - Political effects—descriptive representation of historically marginalized groups - Patterns of women's representation o Growth over time but US lags behind much of the world in percentage of women in Congress - Patterns of minority representation o Growth over time as American population has become more diverse o But significant gap remains between the percentage of non-white population and percentage of non-white representatives - Political effects—partisan electoral outcomes are affected by who is allowed to vote o Simulation of the 2012 presidential election under different historical restrictions on voting rights

What is foreign aid? How does the amount of foreign aid provided by the United States compare with contributions from other wealthy countries? What percentage of national government spending in the US goes to foreign aid?

- Foreign aid: monetary assistance provided to developing country governments of particular groups or actors within developing countries - The US spends the most on foreign aid of any country in terms of raw dollars - However, the United States provides less than 0.20% of Gross National Income in foreign aid, five times less than the most generous donor, Sweden

What are the Cold War origins of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)? What did Lord Ismay mean when he said the goal of NATO was "to keep the Russians out, the Americans in, and the Germans down"?

- General Lord Ismay, NATO first secretary general, on goal of NATO: "to keep the Russians out, the Americans in, and the Germans down." - NATO and protection of Europe from the Soviet threat - NATO as a binding mechanism for American military power - NATO and peace between democratic powers in Europe

According to lecture and the reading (Section 26.3), what is the Ricardian model of trade? Describe the processes by which it suggests that trade and specialization can increase aggregate national income.

- Globalization helps to raise national income through specialization and trade - Theoretical logic illustrated by comparative advantage - Policy implication: states should eliminate trade barriers to max economic growth - Just generalizing to states what we do as individuals - Countries, like individuals, could maximize economic growth and gain from trade by specializing in the production of those goods in which they help the greatest efficiency gains relative to all other goods

Why did the United States launch a trade war against China in 2018?

- Grand strategy of America First - Deeper skepticism of free trade o Hurts American manufacturing and jobs o Consistent with domestic political strategy of Trump - Trump's demands specific to trade with China o China should boost imports of US products o Protection of US intellectual property o No currency manipulation - Trade deficit o Indicator of unfair trade policies

Understand, explain, and give examples of how international institutions shape international politics through the following mechanisms: a) guiding behavior and shaping expectations; b) providing information about state interests and incentives to comply; c) allocating and generating power for states.

- Guiding behavior and shaping expectations: o Institutions have rules that guide interactions among states o Examples: § Sovereignty as legal recognition (by other states) of a government right to regulate people living within its boundaries (should not violate the territory of other countries) (foster expectation of noninterference in others' domestic politics) ~ Trade liberalization: GATT rules grants access to foreign companies access to domestic market; countries expected to lower tariffs - Enforcement capacity: ability to punish a state if the state breaks a rule. Organizations rarely get power over states, UN has to delegate enforcement to states - Providing information about state interests and incentives to comply o Helps reduce uncertainty about future behavior which helps foster cooperation o Decision itself to join often domestically costly because requires concessions o Demonstrates commitment to pursue line of policies o Examples: ~ China entry into WTO, used to have restrictions to its multinational market, sought entry because it allowed its firms to face lower barriers for the manufacturers ~ Weapons inspectors: check for compliance, UN is a neutral party, so it helps to foster trust ~ Showed willingness to live within the set world - Allocating and generating power for states o Independently powerful o Gives judges the capacity to establish new precedents, which harms the legislative body o Create new international law (judicial activism at WTO) o Set agenda in favor of some o Veto power of UN Security Council (US) helps to keep recognition of Palestine off agenda o Ikenberry says we should actively participate in IO because it is a way to lock in policies, ideas, and regulations that will benefit the US o Lock-in existing power of arrangements o P5 on UN Sec. Council (US, Russia, China, UK, and France) function of post-WWII settlement; no Germany, Brazil, Japan, India

What other indirect effects may occur from the investigation of war crimes by Russia in Ukraine even if Putin or other Russian officials are not prosecuted or punished for war crimes?

- Has increased pressure on the international community to act against Russia o US and Europe have introduced additional sanctions and military aid o Yet, there are divisions within Europe about sanctioning Russian energy

Why do countries give foreign aid at all if it does not really seem to help that much? What political, security, and economic goals are met through aid?

- Humanitarian reasons, but... - As a vehicle to cultivate political influence o Domestic political gains in target state: provide economic support to governing coalition that shares foreign policy interests and want to remain in power § Can spend on internal security, distribute to regime allies · Ex: US and the Egyptian military § Foster widely distributed economic gains via development aid (education, infrastructure investment, public health) - Pay for preferred policies/concessions o EU aid to Turkey to hold Syrian refugees there o US aid to C. American to limit migration to US - Cheaper than alternatives o Can be a substitute for military intervention if helps keep target government in power o US military aid to Ukraine instead of NATO commitment - What happens when withdraw? o Can destabilize local governments because now part of local political and economic status quo o Example: post-Cold War Africa

Under what conditions might nuclear weapons paradoxically make war less likely?

- If both sides possess secure second-strike capabilities, both sides deterred from launching war o US and Soviets avoided direct military confrontation during the Cold War because of the risk that a war could escalate into a nuclear war and kill millions

According to lecture and the reading (Section 32.4), how is international migration a part of the broader phenomenon of globalization? How does the international flow of labor through international migration create winners and losers within domestic economies?

- International migration is part of the broader phenomenon of globalization o Just as the increased movement of goods and services through international trade increases the aggregate wealth of countries, the movement of labor across national borders also increases economic growth in the aggregate - However, like international trade, migration creates income distributional effects, creating economic winners and losers o Hi tech wants to employ high skilled workers to keep costs down o Agriculture, construction, service wants to employ low skill foreigners to keep labor costs down o Lower labor costs also benefit consumers through lower prices and can increase economic growth. Migrants also increase demand for goods, spurring economic growth - But the costs of immigration are borne by workers and taxpayers o By pushing labor supply up in certain sectors, real wages are driven down o Migrants can also present a cost through increased demands for social services like schools, public safety, and health care that are paid through taxes

According to the reading (Section 21.2), what is interstate cooperation? What are some of the primary impediments state face when trying to reach cooperative settlements with each other?

- Interstate cooperation: occurs when a collection of states subordinates their sovereignty in order to establish a supranational set of rules that governs conduct between them to achieve a desirable outcome for all states involved - Impediments states face trying to reach cooperative statements: o Collective action problem: when everyone agrees about the benefits of a common goal, but no one will pay to realize the goal o Free rider problem o Many actors would much rather avoid costs that come with reaching a cooperative settlement o Sometimes there is a lack of rules or a lack of enforcement of the rules placed to avoid the free rider problem o The problem of distributing the burden of collective goods provision can activate intense struggles among interested parties o There are some winners and some losers; in a perfect world, nobody would lose but that isn't the case so those on the losing side would want to push back

According to lecture and the reading (Section 30.1), what are the main elements of international economic cooperation? Why is political cooperation between states on international economic affairs difficult to achieve?

- Joint reduction in tariff barriers - Monetary cooperation: multiple countries coordinate monetary policies (ex: synchronize interest rate changes) to preserve exchange rates - Foreign aid - Emergency lending Difficult to achieve because: - The problem of contracting over time: states cheat - Uncertainty about political interests of other states - Monitoring compliance - Distributional hurdles: which side is getting a better deal?

According to the reading (Section 13.1), what is mutually assured destruction (MAD)? What is a secure second-strike capability and how does it affect nuclear deterrence? How is second-strike capability related to mutually assured destruction?

- MAD: depends on each state possessing a second-strike capability - Second-strike capability: the ability to survive a first-strike nuclear attack with sufficient nuclear warheads intact and operational to launch a devastating counterattack o This counterattack is intended to be damaging enough to outweigh any benefits that would be gained from launching a surprise attack in the first place - MAD has enormous implications for nuclear strategy and the dynamics of nuclear deterrence - During Cold War, MAD entailed the strong likelihood that any nuclear exchange between the United States and Soviet Union would result in both sides and their allies suffering unacceptable destruction

What are the main components of the Paris Climate Accord? How should it operate to limit the growth of carbon dioxide emissions?

- Main components of agreement: o Nationally determined contributions that are voluntary and not legally binding ~ Designed to work through the politics of naming and shaming o Fund to transfer $100 billion dollars from developed to developing countries ~ Designed to help developing countries pay costs and as compensation for the fact that developed countries are more responsible for this problem due to their earlier industrialization

What is the political significance of the dollar's reserve currency status in the global economy?

- Money as a medium of exchange, facilities economic growth and specialization - National governments supply for domestic economy, who supplies money for the global economy? - Dollar as global reserve currency o See this role whenever there is a flight to safety - Global liquidity or money supply generated via Treasury Bonds - Government issues Treasury bonds when it runs a budget deficit o Budget deficit: expenditures exceed (tax) revenues - Ability to rely on foreigners to finance budget deficits helps fund domestic and foreign policies that Americans unwilling to fund through taxes - US really being exploited for its global economic leadership?

How might national missile defense influence the stability of nuclear deterrence?

- Mutually assured destruction depends on each state possessing a secure second-strike capability - National missile defense (NMD) is designed to shoot down incoming ballistic missiles o If effective, could undermine an adversary's second-strike capability and threaten mutually assured destruction o Changes incentives for state with NMD. Could incentivize a first strike because it is protected from nuclear retaliation or could make it less cautious because it lowers costs of nuclear war o Also changes incentives for state without NMD. Could incentivize a military buildup to overwhelm missile defenses or launch a preemptive strike before missiles defenses become operational - Reagan administration's Strategic Defense Initiative, most ambitious missile defense program proposed to counter an all-out Soviet nuclear attack. Was never implemented - After Reagan, US has pursued limited NMD, which has goal of countering attacks by new nuclear states with small nuclear arsenals and accidental launches o Limited NMD has more support in light of threats from nuclear proliferations like North Korea o However, critics argue even new nuclear states can use countermeasures to overwhelm missile defenses and their effectiveness in real combat situations is in question

According to the reading (Sections 13.3, 13.4), what is deterrence? What are the different types of deterrence? What is extended deterrence and how does it affect the credibility of threats of nuclear deterrence?

- Nuclear deterrence: prevent adversary from attacking with credible threats to impose costly retaliatory attacks o National security through threats to use force rather than actual use of military force - Successful deterrence rests on secure second-strike capabilities o Sufficient number of nuclear weapons so that all cannot be destroyed in a first strike by adversary. Enough survive to launch retaliatory strike

Describe how President Obama's use of executive orders to commit to the Paris climate accord made the U.S. commitment to the agreement vulnerable. Describe how President Trump undermined the Paris climate accord when he came into office and then withdrew the U.S. from the agreement.

- President Obama based his pledge for American carbon emission reductions on executive orders. This made them vulnerable because the next president could reverse them unilaterally. - The Trump administration started to undermine American commitments to the Paris agreement even before formally announcing withdrawal by rescinding Obama's executive orders. - President Trump's formally announced in November 2017 that it intended to withdraw the US from the Paris Agreement - However, the US officially remains a party to the Paris agreement until November 2020, meaning the next election could reverse this decision again

How might international economic organizations, like the WTO and the IMF, facilitate economic cooperation among states and higher levels of international trade?

- Provide enforcement mechanisms o WTO: judicial panel o IMF conditionality - Helping to reveal information about state interests - Monitor compliance - Reducing distributional challenges

What is the collective action problem? How might it be applied to the challenges of managing climate change? What are some of the political solutions to the collective action problem in the case of carbon dioxide emissions?

- Public good: nonexcludable and nonrivalrous o These attributes activate free rider problem o Free riding as failing to limit own carbon dioxide emissions - CO2 cuts as a public good: costly to exclude countries (and their citizens) from consuming once supplied - Potential solutions o Large actors provide public good on own o International agreement to punish noncompliance - Markets undersupply public good, necessity of international agreement

Compare and contrast Putin's expectations at the beginning of the Russian invasion of Ukraine with what has happened so far in the war. How did Putin miscalculate in regards to Ukrainian resistance and the Western response to the war?

- Putin's expectations on Russia's invasion of Ukraine o Quick military victory and fall of Ukraine's government o Relatively weak response from the West o Divisions within NATO and the West o Russian insulation from Western sanctions o China's political and economic support - What has happened so far o Stalled invasion and inability to capture major cities o Economic warfare from the West that has crippled Russia's economy o NATO has been strengthened and fortified o China has tried to remain in the background o Europe turning away from Russian energy

Before the stalemate in the invasion, what were Russian President Vladimir Putin's goals in Ukraine and his broader goals for Russia's position in European security?

- Putin's goals in Ukraine: o Keeping Ukraine out of NATO o Reestablishing Russia's sphere of influence over Ukraine o (Re-)creating a "Greater Russia" - Putin's broader goals o Revisiting foundational part of post-1991 order: NATO Expansion into Eastern Europe ~ Pushing NATO military infrastructure out of Eastern Europe o Showing divisions within NATO o Expanding Russia's sphere of influence beyond Ukraine

According to the reading (Section 19.4), what are some critiques of the democratic peace theory?

- Puzzle for the democratic peace o States undergoing democratic transitions experience more conflict - Alternative explanations: o A common enemy in the Soviet Union explains peace in Western Europe after World War II o Great power settlements, not democracy, explains peace after WWII

What are the three main long-term implications of the war in Ukraine that were discussed in this module?

- Reaffirming important components of global political order o Atlantic alliance between US and Europe (particularly for Eastern Europe) o Bipartisan US commitment to international (long-term allies, NATO, multilateralism, support for democracy) o Economic strength of US and Europe - Remaking regional political order in Europe o Significant domestic changes in Europe: national support for rearmament and independent military power o Strengthened commitment to NATO expansion and allies in Eastern Europe - Causing Russia to decline: military weakness and decoupling from global economy

What are remittances? How do remittances help to redistribute wealth from wealthy countries to poorer ones (see Section 32.4)?

- Remittances - money sent from migrants to family and friends back home -- represent one of the largest transfers of capital across international borders, totaling more than $600 million in 2017, and increasing more than five times since 2000. - Remittances represent a much greater redistribution of wealth from wealthy countries to poorer ones than foreign aid, which totals less than $200 million. - They also have certain advantages over other forms of wealth transfer like foreign aid or foreign direct investment: o Because they usually involve transfers between family members, remittances cannot be withdrawn and are unconditional. o They also avoid government structures and thus avoid corruption. Because they are targeted to individuals, they avoid costly overhead. o They provide a valuable form of social insurance, credit, and investment in countries that lack these markets.

According to the reading (Section 27.3), what is the Heckscher-Ohlin model of trade? What does the H-O model of trade demonstrate about the relationship between access to the international market and redistribution of income within countries?

- The H-O says that the only reason international trade occurs is because of differences in resources between countries. The model says that trade happens because of differences in competitive advantage, which stem from varying relative abundances of factors of production and intensity of factors used in production

Why is it unlikely that Vladimir Putin or other Russian officials will be prosecuted for war crimes in the foreseeable future?

- The International Criminal Court (ICC) does not have enforcement powers or jurisdiction in Russia because Russia is not a member - Thus, Putin or other Russian officials are unlikely to face any concrete punishment for war crimes for the foreseeable future, if ever - However, formal allegations of war crimes have important normative effects

How has the Russian invasion of Ukraine contributed to a global food crisis? Explain the significance of loss of Russian and Ukrainian grain exports for global food prices. How does the decline of Russian fertilizer exports factor into the global food crisis?

- Russian and Ukraine are key global agricultural exporters o Together Russia and Ukraine account for 30% of wheat production, 17% of corn, 32% of barley, and 75% of sunflower oil o Some countries like Armenia, Mongolia, and Kazakhstan import almost all their wheat from Russia and Ukraine while other large importers like Turkey, Egypt, Bangladesh, and Iran, import more than 60% o Russia is also key exporter of fertilizer. Without Russian fertilizer, grain production drops worldwide - How the war in Ukraine affects Russian and Ukrainian global food supplies o Ukraine's agricultural production completely disrupted. Farmers have fled the country or joined the fighting, fuel has been diverted to the military, ports have been blocked by Russia o Russian exports have been blocked by Western sanctions - Key effect is on global food prices o The war comes at a time of already high prices due to other factors like climate change o Over the last year, wheat has risen 61%, corn 64%, soybeans 36% o Sanctions on Russian fertilizer compounds the problem by undermining the ability of other countries to increase production - Social and political ramifications of high global food prices o High food prices harm the poor and vulnerable the most o High food prices tend to spark political unrest and instability Long-term Global Food Crisis - Current high food prices are locked into the global food supply for months even if the war in Ukraine would end soon o Will take months of increased grain supplies to lower prices - But war is not likely to end soon o Western sanctions on Russia are likely to remain even if there is a cease-fire or negotiated settlement o Ukrainian grain exports will take time to rebound after war - Long-term global food crisis could weaken international sanctions on Russia o A prolonged global food crisis could produce a backlash against Western sanctions

What was the significance of atrocities reportedly committed by the Russian military in the Kyiv suburb of Bucha? How have these atrocities affected the war?

- Russian forces pull back from Kyiv suburb, leaving behind evidence of war crimes - International community reacts by condemning Russia, calling for an investigation, and promising more sanctions - Zelensky speaks to the United Nations Security Council, criticizes the lack of action by the UN - The civilian deaths in Bucha received strong international condemnation because they suggested very deliberate actions to torture and kill individual civilians

Explain how the Russian invasion of Ukraine hit a stalemate, particular in its attempt to capture the capital, Kyiv.

- Russian invasion has stalled, and Russian military has failed to capture major cities - Russian military has changed tactics and bombarded civilian centers - Over 3 million refugees have fled Ukraine and over 10 million have been displaced - Ukrainian resistance remains strong despite heavy civilian casualties - Komsomolskaya Pravda published an article claiming 9,861 Russian soldiers had been killed and another 16, 153 had been injured, citing the Russian Ministry of Defense. Figures were later deleted - Other estimates of Russian battlefield losses are even higher. NATO just released a report estimating that up to 40,000 Russian soldiers have been either killed, wounded, or captured. NATO claims Russia may have lost 20% of its combat forces

If trade makes states wealthier, why is there political resistance to globalization?

- Some groups see income gains AND some groups see income losses - International trade helps to create jobs in sectors that rely disproportionately on resources (factor endowments) that US possess in abundance

According to lecture and the reading (Section 14.1), what is the problem of credibility in nuclear deterrence? Explain why the effectiveness of deterrent threats depends on credibility.

- Stability of mutual deterrence depends on credibility of threats—adversary must believe that threats will be carried out - However, there are reasons for an adversary to question nuclear deterrence threats o If a nuclear attack breaks out, incentives change o Dilemmas of extended deterrence—using nuclear deterrence to defend allies against attack

Discuss the three potential scenarios offered in the module regarding how the war in Ukraine might end. What are the major obstacles to a negotiated settlement? Why is the current stalemate and a longer-term conflict a likely scenario? How might the war in Ukraine expand to a direct conflict between Russia and NATO?

- Stalemate resulting in negotiated settlement o Ukraine and Russia negotiate a deal resulting in partial Russian withdrawal and Ukrainian neutrality - Stalemate without a negotiated settlement o Russian military slowly captures most of southern and eastern Ukraine but cannot capture Kyiv or western Ukraine o Russia maintains a lower-level war in rest of Ukraine - An expanded war in Europe o Strategic or accidental military escalation leads to war between Russia and NATO

What emergency actions did the Federal Reserve undertake to help prevent a broader global financial crisis during the COVID-19 pandemic?

- The Fed has undertaken extraordinary, unprecedented actions during the past five weeks to prevent the economic shutdown associated with COVID-19 from triggering a global financial crisis o Buying US Treasury bonds; mortgage-backed securities; corporate debt; making loans to businesses smaller than 10k employees; loans to state and local governments; and debt collateralized with student loans, auto loans o Buys these assets by creating reserves for the financial institutions that sell them to the Fed ~ Creating deposits or (electronic) money o Doing this to encourage private financial institutions to continue lending in this crisis - Using part of the 2008 playbook and then going way beyond that Fed monetary policy actions in March and April 2020: - March 3: dropped Federal Funds Rate target to 0.00 to 0.25 (overnight interest rate charged to largest banks) - Multiple rounds of quantitative easing (asset purchases that increase size of its balance sheet) o 3/15: announce purchases of $700 billion (Treasuries and mortgage-backed securities) o 3/23: announced that purchases open ended - Direct lending to large corporations o Treasury (the US taxpayer) provides a backstop to take on up to $75 billion in losses - April 9: Indirect lending to small and medium size businesses o Fund 95% of loans originated by other domestic financial institutions - April 9: Direct lending to state and local governments, up to $500 billion - Swap lines (exchange dollars for foreign currencies) to 14 most trusted central banks - March 31: FIMA Repo Facility (Foreign and International monetary authorities)—Fed will lend dollars (create reserves) to foreign actors that hold and post US Treasury bonds as collateral o Preventing a global run on the dollar so foreign financial institutions (banks, hedge funds, pension funds, etc.) don't have to sell US Treasury bonds (and drive down their price) to cover other losses

According to lecture and the reading (Section 31.1). how do different measures such as national GDP, average income (GDP per capita), and average rate of economic growth influence which countries are perceived as economically powerful and prosperous in the global economy?

- The development level of an economy is often indicated by its average income level (GDP per capita) - Economic growth is another indicator of economic well-being o It captures the change in economic activity, or the difference in GDP, from one year to the next - Significance of policy efforts to reduce poverty

What does globalization in financial terms look like?

- The free flow of capital and goods across international borders - The rise of multinational firms who can leverage cheaper labor, cheaper capital, or advantageous government policies by changing where they do business

Describe the general level of extreme and moderate poverty in the world. Which countries and regions have the highest concentrations of poverty? Why has the percentage of the world's population living under extreme poverty declined significantly since 1990? (See Section 31.1)

- The level of extreme poverty is around 0-5% in most of the world, except in most of Africa and southeast Asia, where the extreme poverty levels are much higher o Dem. Rep. Congo has the highest rates of extreme poverty - The level of moderate poverty is again much higher in African and South/Southeast Asian countries than other regions - Rapidly falling poverty rates in China and India account for much of the global decline

According to the textbook reading (Section 26.2), what are the chief indicators of the increase of globalization since World War II?

- The most recent round of globalization has been supported by technological developments associated with the internet that have made it possible to trade services - Growth of imports and exports - The growing movement of people through immigration also indicates the integration of labor markets - Barriers to international commerce erode - Volume of economic transactions increase - International trade has led to an increase in economic activity

According to the reading (Section 31.6), why doesn't foreign aid work better to alleviate global poverty?

- The world's richest countries do not provide sufficient resources to alleviate poverty - Receiving states do not use foreign aid effectively (siphoned off through corruption) - Donor countries and organizations do not target foreign aid effectively

According to the Baker reading, what are the economic and national security benefits of ambitious U.S. leadership in combating climate change? What are the four pillars of the Baker-Schultz plan to reduce carbon emissions?

- They acknowledge the two common (usually conservative) objections to pursuing ambitious steps to combat climate change - economic costs and the free rider problem. - They turn both of these objections on their heads: o Environmental protection and economic growth are complementary not mutually exclusive o The U.S. already has a comparative advantage in low-emission manufacturing and so stronger environmental protections would actually promote a more equal playing field for American companies Strategic benefits for the U.S. from ambitious environmental protection: - Environmental protection can foster economic growth: o Cleaner energy such as natural gas and renewable energy like wind and solar power is becoming much more cost effective, so the U.S. has substantially cut emissions while maintaining a strong economy o Like the internet revolution, climate-saving technologies could bring revolutionary economic efficiencies o Climate change is already causing significant economic costs through worse natural disasters, combatting it will help the country's bottom line - Environmental protection can enhance national security: o Climate change poses serious national security threats such as flooding of major cities and international conflicts over water scarcity and thus reducing climate change will lessen these threats o Winner of the clean energy race will determine the international balance of power and set the rules of the new clean energy international economy, which ties to hegemonic stability theory - Policy proposal: carbon pricing as the most efficient means to reduce emissions - Four pillars: o Economy-wide, revenue-neutral carbon fee. This would cost less than subsidies and regulations o Revenue from carbon fee returned to American citizens as dividends. A family of four would receive approximately $2000 per year o Carbon pricing would replace many environmental regulations o Carbon tariff would be applied to energy-intensive imports to level playing field

What are some of the important stages in this trade war between China and the United States?

- Trump imposes tariffs on all imports - China imposes tariffs on 128 US products - The US bans Chinese telecoms giant Huawei Technologies Co Ltd [HWT.UL] from buying parts and components from US companies - Trump and Xi agree by phone to rekindle trade talks - China halts purchases of US agricultural products

How does the US target its foreign aid? What objectives get more or less funding? Which countries receive the most foreign aid from the US?

- US foreign aid objectives: o Economic aid: 71% o Military aid: 29% - US gives 25% of all foreign aid to five countries: Afghanistan, Israel, Jordan, Egypt, Iraq. Much of the aid to these countries is military aid - Economic and development aid is much more dispersed - Afghanistan again receives the most of any single country, but then most of the ten-largest recipients are in Africa, including Kenya, Nigeria, Tanzania, and Ethiopia

How have nuclear weapons influenced US foreign policy since 1945 and how have nuclear weapons complicated the provision of national security?

- US has sought consistently to deny nearly all other states access to nuclear weapons for multiple reasons - In conventional era, protect territory and civilians with defense (or defensive military strategies) o Use conventional weapons (tanks, machine guns) to block access to civilians - Nuclear armed missiles shift national security strategy of US from one based on defense to one based on deterrence o Cannot shoot down incoming missiles so cannot defend population

Why does the United States participate in the United Nations and often abide by its decisions when it could just ignore it instead (because it possesses much greater military capacity than the UN)?

- US key player because of seat on Security Council - Can ignore, but... why participate regularly (ex: seek approval for 2003 Iraq War) - Source of legitimacy abroad and at home o UN reflect global public opinion, easier to gain allies if support o Domestic public more likely to support policies that have secured UN approval - Real tension: might need to gai legitimacy for policy, secure additional support to implement policies, but... - Can require some surrender of sovereignty or authority of elected officials in US set policy of the United States

How does U.S. membership in international organizations like the UN, NATO, and WTO demonstrate the ability of international institutions to solve a fundamental problem of international politics - to create and preserve coercive power and, at the same time, constrain that same power?

- US used its power to set up these organizations, but because it is a multilateral effort, other countries can work through these organizations to constrain American policy when they oppose it - Ex: denying access to air bases in Turkey which constrains US ability to fight Iraq. This helps legitimate power by reassuring states that they can be checked on military usage

According to the reading (Section 32.1), what are the main differences between voluntary and forced migration?

- Voluntary migration o Legal vs. illegal or undocumented migration - Force migration o Refugees o Human trafficking

What are war crimes? How have the actions of the Russian military in Ukraine met the criteria for war crimes?

- What are war crimes? o In 1949, the Geneva Conventions established a set of humanitarian "rules of war" in the aftermath of WWII. The four Geneva Convention treaties have been ratified by 196 countries, including all members of the UN o According to Article 147 of the Fourth Geneva Convention, war crimes include "willful killing, torture or inhuman treatment, including biological experiments, willfully causing great suffering or serious injury to body or health, unlawful deportation or transfer or unlawful confinement of a protected person... taking hostages and extensive destruction and appropriation of property, not justified by military necessity and carried out unlawfully and wantonly." - The US accused Russia of committing war crimes prior to Bucha because of its indiscriminate bombing of civilian centers and targets

How can global capital markets discipline or influence the economic policy of governments?

- When foreign capital holders lose confidence in a government's monetary policy, they tend to sell assets denominated in that currency o Currency depreciates o Government can reassure investors (or bring them back) by: § Raising taxes or cutting government spending § Offering higher returns i.e., push interest rates up § But... these measures push domestic economy into recession - Example: Greece in the Euro crisis - Real policy implications: international capital markets can sharply constrain country's monetary policy; limiting discretion of elected officials and forcing them to push their economy into recession to reassure creditors

Describe some of the efforts by the United States to promote democracy around the world. What are the political challenges associated with American efforts to promote democracy? What are the benefits and drawbacks associated with promoting democracy around the world?

- Wilson sought to leverage American participation in WWI to expand democracies in the world - Promoting democracy took a back seat after WWII o Primarily to contain communism - United States used democracy promotion in Germany and Japan after WWII - The end of the Cold War was a boom for democracy promotion and democracy promotes greater security for the US - After the Cold War, Clinton intervened in Yugoslavia under humanitarian grounds (to stop genocide) with the goal of democracy promotion - Iraq: Bush (neo-conservatives) with regime change and democracy promotion in the Middle East was his strategy of countering terrorism after 911 resulted in invasion through military forces - A lot of third world countries especially in Asia that haven't had a good history with the US are wary when they want to introduce democracy because they believe that it will be bad, and they don't want to adopt democracy for that reason - post Bush administration (negative effects of Iraq war and its unpopularity in US) results in greater skepticism of democracy promotion by US military forces - Obama continues American commitment to liberal values like democracy but withdrew US military from Iraq and sought to keep US out of long-term engagements like Syria - Trump's America First with reducing the economic burden of American hegemony has diminished democracy promotion of US Benefits: - other democracies means that there is less chance for war and this means a more stable world order. o This means that it is in the interestof big democracies to promote moredemocracies. Drawbacks: - Can cause people to distrust democracies because it is often achieved through military intervention - The US promoting democracy in places like Latin America during the Cold War gave the US a bad rep because of the CIA constantly intervening in elections (made Latin America almost frightened of the US) - Cost is a huge drawback when it comes to democracy promotion, as the bill racks up when you start promoting democracy in every country that you deem it necessary - you take away some of the autonomy and sovereignty of a nation when you determine that their way of running things is not the correct way and try to promote your own system.

How and why has Democracy Promotion been a more or less important element within U.S. foreign policy over the years?

- democratic peace theory has long justified American efforts to expand democracy...means more partners for cooperation, more trade, and more peace - post-Cold War brought new idea that the spread of democracy aligned with greater security for the US

According to the reading (Sections 21.2, 21.3, 21.4), what are the incentives for global governance through international institutions? How are efforts at global governance confronted by the collective action problem? Once international agreements are established, what types of problems of compliance and enforcement do international organizations face?

- states have incentives for global governance because of negative externalities, high transaction costs, and collective action problems - overcoming collective action problem in global governance often proves quite difficult for several reasons ~ first, the problem of distributing the burden of collective goods provision can activate intense struggles among interested parties, both within and between states ~ the second problem for states or groups of states is one of enforcement, or the punishment for noncompliance - in the absence of a single enforcer, a group of states can provide enforcement. ~ However, each country would like to enjoy the benefits of enforcement without having to pay the cost. Yet if all countries try to shirk the responsibility of providing enforcement, enforcement is under-provided, and would-be aggressors may pursue their goals without fear of reprisal. Given these incentives, establishing credible enforcement is a challenge - in other issue areas, enforcement involves large-scale costs that can make states reluctant to trigger penalties for non-compliant ~ for example: if international organizations want to put economic sanctions to punish a country that broke an international agreement of law, sanctions could be costly ~ moreover, sanctions sometimes fail to produce the desired behavioral change

How does the status of the U.S. dollar as the reserve currency of the global economy help the Federal Reserve to take such dramatic steps during the pandemic to support the U.S. economy? How is this related to the Hegemonic Stability Theory?

COVID-19 changes to federal deficit and balance sheet of Federal Reserve - US annual deficit: from $1.1 trillion pre-COVID to $4 trillion post COVID (estimate) - this means spending more (~$7.4 t.) than twice revenues (~3.4 t.) this year - Fed Balance Sheet: From $4 t. to $6+ t. - The US dollar as the reserve currency - Huge implications for hegemonic stability theory and US leadership - US at center of global economy since 1919 - Long term investments in political and economic order that benefits US: Funds allies in WWI, WWII, rebuilds Europe with Marshall Plan aid, protects flow of oil out of Middle East, provides military and financial aid to countries opposing Soviet Union, opens domestic markets to international trade - All of these creates dependence on US economy, US capital... and, most importantly now, steady demand for the dollar (or financial assets denominated in dollars)

According to the reading (Section 33.1), what is the basic scientific claim about the causes and extent of climate change? What are the main environmental consequences that scientists fear will result from climate change? What countries and regions will be most affected by climate change (see Section 33.2)?

Claim that warming of the atmosphere rests on... - Carbon dioxide is a heat trapping gas - Carbon dioxide levels increased significantly since the Industrial Revolution began o From 280 ppm in 1800 to 400 ppm in 2015 - Average global temperatures +5.5 degrees F. from 1800 to 2050 at current rate of CO2 emissions Environmental consequences: - Drought, more extreme weather - Ice sheets melting, ocean levels rising - Ocean temperatures rising Regions most affected: areas with lowest variability and hottest temperatures - Tropical regions, close to the equator - Poorer countries

According to the reading (Section 31.2 and 31.3), what are the main determinants of economic growth? What are the main impediments to growth? (See Section 31.4)

Determinants: Development normally includes some indicators of human well-being, such as literacy rates or infant mortality these outcomes tend to be associated with institutions that incentivize investments in human capital - Growth = land + labor + capita + other - Growth = technology (land + labor + capita + other) - Introduction of technology and productivity - Savings, investment, capital accumulation o Investments: spending on education and public health, which enhances human capital - Creating good institutions Impediments: - Bad government policies - The resource curse: the abundance of natural resources helps to limit economic development and democratic political reform - Political violence - The unequal distribution of political and economic power in the international system

According to lecture and the reading (Section 30.3), what is the GATT and what is the WTO? How do these organizations differ? What are some of the norms, principles, and rules associated with the GATT and WTO? How does the dispute settlement mechanism in the WTO support international trade?

GATT - General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade - Multilateral international organization designed to support reduction of trade barriers on a reciprocal basis - GATT: provided a series of rules that would guide negotiating rounds during the Cold War o Important: no enforcement capabilities, trade disputes handled on a bilateral basis WTO (World Trade Organization) - Key difference: institutionalized a dispute settlement mechanism with established procedures for filing grievance, investigating complaints, and punishing defection - Designed to ensure that states uphold existing trade concessions (ex: tariff cuts) negotiated through GATT/WTO - Judicial panel can enforce these obligations by authorizing compensation to injured party in form of trade sanctions o Interesting: plaintiff has a lot of discretion on where to impose retaliatory tariffs - Political logic: WTO enforcement capacity keeps global economy open by punishing states pursuing protection - While successful at preserving existing trade concessions, WTO relatively ineffective over last decade in securing further trade liberalization because limited support in developed world (US, Europe, Japan)

What are institutions? What is the difference between institutions and organizations? What are some examples of institutions in domestic and international politics?

International institutions: - Rules of the game: humanly devised constraints that structure incentives and interaction - Tell us what is and isn't permitted - Domestic: don't speed, don't steal, win majority of electoral votes to become President - International: sovereignty, chemical weapons taboo International Organizations: - Political actors in the international system - Possess agency and pursue political objectives - Examples: United Nations, North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), World Trade Organization (WTO) How institutions/organizations influence international relations: - Institutions as rules that structure behavior - Provide information about how states might act; and how to define appropriate and inappropriate behavior - Facilitate international cooperation: o Mitigate collective action problem o Reduce transaction costs associated with reaching settlements o Sometimes help enforce agreements

According to the reading (Section 32.2), what are the main types of immigration policy? What are the main differences between merit-based migration policies and family-based migration policies?

Merit-based admission: - Designed to encourage economic growth and development o Can be employment-based or based on a point system - Tends to offer temporary residence Family-based migration policies: - Allow citizens and legal residents to sponsor family members for visas - More likely to offer permanent residence

Which countries or regions have the most national wealth? Which countries have the highest average income per capita? Which countries have had the highest rate of economic growth over the last 30 years? (See Section 31.1)

Most national wealth: - US, China, Japan, Germany, UK, France, India, Italy, Brazil, Canada Highest average income per capita (GDP per capita): - Qatar, Macao, Luxembourg, Singapore Highest rate of economic growth: - Guyana, Guinea, Ethiopia, Ireland, Tanzania, Tajikistan, Benin, Niger

According the reading (Section 28.3), what is the Mundell-Fleming Trilemma? How does this trilemma highlight the tradeoffs for states as they strive to achieve three goals: monetary policy autonomy, exchange rate flexibility, and capital mobility?

Mundell-Fleming Trilemma: - Although governments often want monetary policy autonomy, exchange rate stability, and capital mobility, they cannot possess all three - Instead, they must choose two based on the relative tradeoffs involved - The trilemma often reduces to a choice for governments between a fixed or floating exchange rate o Governments have to choose whether to give up monetary policy autonomy for stability by having a fixed exchange rate, or the opposite by opting for a floating exchange rate - The choice of exchange rate regime is often dictated by the tradeoff in exchange rate stability versus the preservation of monetary policy autonomy

According to the reading (Section 14.4), what is nuclear proliferation? Why do states acquire nuclear weapons, sometimes at the risk of provoking severe international backlash? Why do nuclear states and the international community want to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons?

Nuclear proliferation and the problem of credibility - non-nuclear states often seek nuclear weapons because they do not trust the credibility of extended deterrence - nuclear proliferation may increase credibility problems because proliferators lack the fundamentals for secure second-strike capabilities - why do some non-nuclear states pursue nuclear weapons and others do not? - security - domestic politics - international norms - why do nuclear states and the international community want to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons? - recent proliferators have fewer nukes and less likely to possess secure second-strike capabilities - domestic instability of nuclear proliferators increases chances of accidents, spread to terrorist groups - risk of regional nuclear arms races - nuclear weapons and changes to the regional and international status quo

What are the pros and cons of the Paris climate accord?

Pros: - Broad collective agreement: Previous agreement, the Kyoto Protocol, only had emission reductions for developed countries. Paris deal commits both developing and developed countries to emission reductions. Cannot mitigate climate change without developing countries involved in the effort - New voluntary approach: uses voluntary national targets rather than binding agreements with imposed targets to achieve lower emissions. More realistic. - Addresses needs of developing countries: has $100 billion in "climate finance" to help developing countries find ways to break out of poverty through development without contributing to climate change Cons: - Challenge is executing and deepening the Paris deal - Current targets will not meet the target of an increase global temperature of less than 2 degrees Celsius - Watchdog groups have shown that countries are not meeting their voluntary NDCs