H9 Unit 2 Study Guide
The Bill of Rights was a result of what?
A flawed constitution that stated what the government could do but didn't specify what it couldn't do caused unease among the American delegates in charge of ratifying the constitution. The American people wanted strong guarantees that the new government would not trample upon their newly won freedoms of speech, press and religion, nor upon their right to be free from warrantless searches and seizures. Early American mistrust of government power came from the colonial experience itself, where the American colonists had no representation in government and therefore were taxed relentlessly by the British government, as well as being morally mistreated.
WHAT IS THE PROPER ROLE OF GOVERNMENT?
A government is responsible for creating and enforcing the rules of a society, defense, foreign affairs, the economy, and public services. While the responsibilities of all governments are similar, those duties are executed in different ways depending on the form of government.
What did Popular Sovereignty influence?
A major consequence of popular sovereignty's application was the rush by both pro- and anti-slavery forces to populate Kansas and determine its fate, which manifested in violence and fraud.
What was "Common Sense"?
A pamphlet by Thomas Paine made to tell the public what he thought about America being independent of Great Britain. Paine's brilliant arguments were straightforward. He argued for two main points: (1) independence from England and (2) the creation of a democratic republic.
What is a Creole?
A person born in the Latin American colonies, but had Spanish or French parents
What is a Mestizo?
A person of combined Native American and European ethnic orgin
What is the context behind the idea of a Republican Government?
A republic (from Latin res publica 'public affair') is a form of government in which "supreme power is held by the people and their elected representatives". In republics, the country is considered a "public matter", not the private concern or property of the rulers.
What is Republican Government?
A republican government is one in which the people - directly or indirectly - are the ultimate source of authority, electing representatives to make laws that serve their interests and advance the common good. Republicanism would prove its political viability in the Founding of America.
What is Feudalism?
A social system existing in medieval Europe in which people worked and fought for nobles who gave them protection and land in return.
What was the context for "Common Sense"?
Although little used today, pamphlets were an important medium for the spread of ideas in the 16th through 19th centuries. After blood was spilled at the Battles of Lexington and Concord, April 19, 1775, Paine argued that the cause of America should be not just a revolt against taxation but a demand for independence.
What is the idea of Separation of Powers?
An act of vesting the legislative, executive, and judicial powers of government in separate bodies.
What is a Social Contract?
An implicit agreement among the members of a society to cooperate for social benefits, for example by sacrificing some individual freedom for state protection. Theories of a social contract became popular in the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries among theorists such as Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, as a means of explaining the origin of government and the obligations of subjects.
What is the context behind the theory of Natural Law?
Aristotle is often said to be the father of natural law. The concept of natural law originated with the Greeks and received its most important formulation in Stoicism. The Stoics believed that the fundamental moral principles that underlie all the legal systems of different nations were reducible to the dictates of natural law. During the Enlightenment, the concept of natural laws was used to challenge the divine right of kings, and became an alternative justification for the establishment of a social contract, positive law, and government (and thus, legal rights) in the form of classical republicanism.
What did the Intolerable Acts influence?
As a result of the Intolerable Acts, even more colonists turned against British rule. Great Britain hoped that the Intolerable Acts would isolate radicals in Massachusetts and cause American colonists to concede the authority of Parliament over their elected assemblies.
What did the Declaration of Independence influence?
As the first successful declaration of independence in history, it helped to inspire countless movements for independence, self-determination, and revolution after 1776 and to this very day. The Declaration also forced colonists to choose sides. Prior to the Declaration of Independence, many colonists still believed that reconciliation was possible between the colonies and the British government.
Who did Simon Bolivar influence?
Bolivar hoped to unite all South American countries into one nation. He did not succeed in this plan. Instead, his leadership helped establish what are now the nations of Colombia, Panama, Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, and Venezuela.
Who was Simon Bolivar influenced by?
Bolivar was inspired by the American Revolutionary War. He admired George Washington and Thomas Jefferson, and even sent his nephew to the University of Virginia. However, unlike the "Founding Fathers," Bolivar rejected slavery and called for its abolition in the Americas.
What was the Stamp Act the result of?
British Parliament passed the Stamp Act to help replenish their finances after the costly Seven Years' War with France. Part of the revenue from the Stamp Act would be used to maintain several regiments of British soldiers in North America to maintain peace between Native Americans and the colonists.
What is the context behind Democracy?
Democracy is generally associated with the efforts of the ancient Greeks, whom 18th-century intellectuals considered the founders of Western civilization. These individuals attempted to leverage these early democratic experiments into a new template for post-monarchical political organization. Enlightenment philosophers John Locke, Charles Montesquieu, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau all developed theories of government in which some or even all the people would govern. These thinkers had a profound effect on the American and French revolutions and the democratic governments that they produced.
What is Divine Right?
Divine right of kings, in European history, a political belief in defense of monarchical absolutism, which asserted that kings derived their authority from God and could not therefore be held accountable for their actions by any earthly authority such as a parliament.
What was Scientific Racism a result of?
During the Age of Enlightenment (an era from the 1650s to the 1780s), concepts of monogenism and polygenism became popular, though they would only be systematized epistemologically during the 19th century. Monogenism contends that all races have a single origin, while polygenism is the idea that each race has a separate origin. Until the 18th century, the words "race" and "species" were interchangeable.
What did the idea of Secularism influence?
During the Renaissance, individual thought and expression —separating oneself from the crowd in terms of ideas and creations—were encouraged and highly prized. Secularism was an emphasis on living well in this world and understanding better the activities of this world—political, economic, social and intellectual.
🎯 LT1: HOW DID ENLIGHTENMENT IDEAS IMPACT POLITICAL REVOLUTIONS?
Enlightenment ideals of rationalism and intellectual and religious freedom pervaded the American colonial religious landscape, and these values were instrumental in the American Revolution and the creation of a nation without an established religion.
Why did enlightenment philosophers believe in equality?
Enlightenment thinkers did not advocate equality for all, regardless of race, gender, or class, but rather insisted that rights and freedoms were not hereditary. Equality was promoted through political philosophy, through the notion of the state of nature. The social contract theory sought to justify restrictions placed on individuals' freedoms in return for rights and obligations.
What is the context behind Natural Rights?
Enlightenment thinkers wanted to improve human conditions on earth rather than concern themselves with religion and the afterlife. These thinkers valued reason, science, religious tolerance, and what they called "natural rights"—life, liberty, and property. For example, John Locke wrote that all individuals are equal in the sense that they are born with certain "inalienable" natural rights. That is, rights that are God-given and can never be taken or even given away. Among these fundamental natural rights, Locke said, are "life, liberty, and property."
What is equality?
Equality is about ensuring that every individual has an equal opportunity to make the most of their lives and talents. It is also the belief that no one should have poorer life chances because of the way they were born, where they come from, what they believe, or whether they have a disability.
What did Feudalism influence?
Feudalism had two enormous effects on medieval society. Feudalism discouraged unified government and it also discouraged trade and economic growth.
What is the history behind Feudalism?
Feudalism, in its various forms, usually emerged as a result of the decentralization of an empire: especially in the Carolingian Empire in 9th century AD, which lacked the bureaucratic infrastructure necessary to support cavalry without allocating land to these mounted troops.
What is the context behind the Reign of Terror?
Following the creation of the First Republic, a series of massacres and numerous public executions took place in response to revolutionary fervour, anticlerical sentiment, and accusations of treason by the Committee of Public Safety.
What did Toussaint L'Ouverture do?
François Toussaint L'Ouverture was a former Haitian slave who led the only successful slave revolt in modern history. Standing steadfastly, he fought to end slavery and gain Haiti's independence from European powers, France and Spain
Who was Toussaint L'Ouverture inspired by?
His decision to join the rebellion wasn't only driven by the desire to defend his way of life. Toussaint was also deeply influenced by his Catholic religion, which condemned slavery, and Enlightenment philosophers, John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who wrote of the equality of man.
What did Thomas Hobbes do?
Hobbes is best known for his 1651 book Leviathan, in which he expounds an influential formulation of social contract theory. In addition to political philosophy, Hobbes contributed to a diverse array of other fields, including history, jurisprudence, geometry, theology, and ethics, as well as philosophy in general.
What is the context behind Rule of Law?
Ideas about the rule of law have been central to political and legal thought since at least the 4th century BCE, when Aristotle distinguished "the rule of law" from "that of any individual." In the 18th century the French political philosopher Montesquieu elaborated a doctrine of the rule of law that contrasted the legitimate authority of monarchs with the sudden action of the rulers. It has since profoundly influenced Western liberal thought.
What was Divine Right a result of?
In European Christianity, the divine right of kings, divine right, or God's mandation is a political and religious doctrine of political legitimacy of a monarchy. It stems from a specific metaphysical framework in which a monarch is, before birth, pre-ordained to inherit the crown.
🎯 LT2: HOW DID THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION END?
In October 1781, the war virtually came to an end when General Cornwallis was surrounded and forced to surrender the British position at Yorktown, Virginia. Two years later, the Treaty of Paris made it official: America was independent.
What is the context behind Popular Sovereignty?
In an effort to prevent future prohibitive measures against slavery in the West, Democratic Senator Lewis Cass of Michigan, offered up the idea of popular sovereignty. In theory, as Cass and his supporters reasoned, in a democratic society free citizens determined the future. Cass himself coined the term "popular sovereignty."
🎯 LT2: HOW WELL DID THE ATLANTIC REVOLUTIONS UPHOLD THIER IDEALS?
In long-term perspective, the revolutions were mostly successful. They spread widely the ideals of liberalism, republicanism, the overthrow of aristocracies, kings and established churches.
What was the idea of the Social contract a result of?
In moral and political philosophy, the social contract is a theory or model that originated during the Age of Enlightenment and usually concerns the legitimacy of the authority of the state over the individual.
What is the context behind Secularism?
In studies of religion, modern democracies are generally recognised as secular. This is due to the near-complete freedom of religion (religious beliefs generally are not subject to legal or social sanctions), and the lack of authority of religious leaders over political decisions.
What was Individualism a result of?
In the United States, individualism became part of the core American ideology by the 19th century, incorporating the influences of New England Puritanism, Jeffersonianism, and the philosophy of natural rights.
What theories are supported by Scientific Racism?
In the United States, scientific racism justified Black African slavery to assuage moral opposition to the Atlantic slave trade. Alexander Thomas and Samuell Sillen described black men as uniquely fitted for bondage, because of their "primitive psychological organization."
What was the Renaissance a result of?
Increased interaction between different cultures, the rediscovery of ancient Greek and Roman texts, the emergence of humanism, different artistic and technological innovations, and the impacts of conflict and death
🎯 LT2: HOW DID THE LATIN AMERICAN REVOLUTION END?
Independence was declared in 1821 while the decisive victory in the Battle of Ayacucho in 1824 finally decimated any remaining Spanish resistance.
What is Individualism?
Individualism encompasses a value system, a theory of human nature, and a belief in certain political, economic, social, and religious arrangements. According to the individualist, all values are human-centred, the individual is of supreme importance, and all individuals are morally equal.
What influenced Individualism?
Individualistic systems urge people to pursue personal achievement, which creates competition between individuals (Triandis, 1995). These systems can also result in high social mobility, which lead to high social anxiety (Oishi et al., 2013).
What is the context behind Individualism?
Individualists promote the exercise of one's goals and desires and to value independence and self-reliance and advocate that interests of the individual should achieve precedence over the state or a social group while opposing external interference upon one's own interests by society or institutions such as the government. Individualism is often defined in contrast to totalitarianism, collectivism and more corporate social forms.
What influences did Republican Government have on the founding of America?
It influenced political parties such as the Republican Party, which was formed by antislavery forces across the North in reaction to the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 that promoted democracy (or "popular sovereignty") by saying new settlers could decide themselves whether or not to have slavery.
What did the theory of Natural Law influence?
It led to the creation of more modern natural law theories that combined natural law with other philosophical theories, such as the social contract theory. It was also used to justify the establishment of positive law, and therefore, government and legal rights.
What is the origin of the idea of a Republican Government?
It originates from Rome. In 509 BC, the Romans overthrew the Roman Kingdom and established a republic, a government in which citizens elected representatives to rule on their behalf.
What ideas were influenced by the idea of the Social Contract?
Jean-Jacques Rousseau's ideas of the social contract heavily influenced the American revolutionary generation. It was the idea that government exists with consent of the governed that led the revolutionaries to break free of Britain.
What was the Declaration of Independence a result of?
Jefferson, the principal author, was only 33 at the time, and had been influenced by British acts such as the Tea Taxes and the Quartering Act, but even more significant were the ideals of the Enlightenment thinkers, especially John Locke. The Declaration of Independence was designed for multiple audiences: the King, the colonists, and the world. It was also designed to multitask. Its goals were to rally the troops, win foreign allies, and announce the creation of a new country.
Who did John Locke influence?
John Locke influenced Thomas Jefferson when Jefferson was writing the Declaration of Independence, and Paine's most famous writings, A Letter Concerning Toleration and Second Treatise of Government, both heavily influenced Jefferson. Many believe much of the most memorable language of the Declaration of Independence is derived from Locke's works.
Who is John Locke?
John Locke was an English philosopher and physician, widely regarded as one of the most influential of Enlightenment thinkers and commonly known as the "Father of Liberalism".
What was Rule of Law a result of?
John Locke wrote that freedom in society means being subject only to laws made by a legislature that apply to everyone, with a person being otherwise free from both governmental and private restrictions upon liberty. "The rule of law" was further popularized in the 19th century by British jurist A. V. Dicey.
Why was the use of reason and logic novel during the Enlightenment?
Knowledge before the Enlightenment was limited to a select group and controlled by the Catholic Church. As Christians from Western Europe fought in the Crusades for the Holy Land, they brought back texts of ancient knowledge. As population and trade increased, there was a high demand for people who could read and write, however, it was thought during the Enlightenment that human reasoning could discover truths about the world, religion, and politics and could be used to improve the lives of humankind. Skepticism about received wisdom was another important idea; everything was to be subjected to testing and rational analysis.
What was the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen a result of?
Lafayette, with the help of Thomas Jefferson, drafted the 17 articles of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. The articles detailed the rights of all men to be considered free and equal, to own land, to vote, to exercise religious freedom, and to have the freedom of speech.
Who was John Locke influenced by?
Many of John Locke's writings were influenced by Thomas Hobbes, who also believed in the idea of a Social Contract, as well as being influenced by Aristotle and Plato, with the fundamental belief that political should be used to preserve and promote justice in order to serve the greater good of the commonwealth being shared.
What event(s) led to the Reformation?
Martin Luther, a German teacher and a monk, brought about the Protestant Reformation when he challenged the Catholic Church's teachings starting in 1517. The Protestant Reformation was a religious reform movement that swept through Europe in the 1500s.
What did Maximilien Robespierre do?
Maximilien Robespierre was a radical democrat and key figure in the French Revolution of 1789. Robespierre briefly presided over the influential Jacobin Club, a political club based in Paris. The Jacobins were the most radical and ruthless of the political groups formed in the wake of the French Revolution, and in association with Robespierre they instituted the Terror of 1793-4. He also served as president of the National Convention and on the Committee of Public Safety.
Who was Maximilien Robespierre?
Maximilien Robespierre, the architect of the French Revolution's Reign of Terror, is overthrown and arrested by the National Convention. As the leading member of the Committee of Public Safety from 1793, Robespierre encouraged the execution, mostly by guillotine, of more than 17,000 enemies of the Revolution.
What are Natural Laws?
Natural law is a theory in ethics and philosophy that says that human beings possess intrinsic values that govern their reasoning and behavior. Natural law maintains that these rules of right and wrong are inherent in people and are not created by society or court judges.
What has Rule of Law influenced?
Natural law is the foundation for communities of justice, opportunity, and peace—underpinning development, accountable government, and respect for fundamental rights. Research shows that rule of law correlates to higher economic growth, greater peace, less inequality, improved health outcomes, and more education.
What did John Locke do?
Often credited as a founder of modern "liberal" thought, Locke pioneered the ideas of natural law, social contract, religious toleration, and the right to revolution that proved essential to both the American Revolution and the U.S. Constitution that followed.
What was the context behind the Stamp Act?
On March 22, 1765, the British Parliament passed the "Stamp Act" to help pay for British troops stationed in the colonies during the Seven Years' War. The act required the colonists to pay a tax, represented by a stamp, on various forms of papers, documents, and playing cards.
🎯 LT2: HOW DID THE FRENCH REVOLUTION END?
On November 9, 1799, as frustration with their leadership reached a fever pitch, Napoleon Bonaparte staged a coup d'état, abolishing the Directory and appointing himself France's "first consul." The event marked the end of the French Revolution and the beginning of the Napoleonic era.
What was the Reign of Terror a result of?
On September 5, 1793, a group of Parisian radicals petitioned the National Convention to place "terror on the order of the day." Seizing that mandate, the Committee of Public Safety in Paris responded with ruthless efficiency to real and perceived threats to its rule.
What is the context behind Divine Right?
Originating in Europe, the divine-right theory can be traced to the medieval conception of God's award of temporal power to the political ruler, paralleling the award of spiritual power to the church. With the rise of nation-states and the Protestant Reformation in the late 16th century, the theory of divine right justified the king's absolute authority in both political and spiritual matters.
What is Popular Sovereignty?
Popular sovereignty means that the people are the ultimate source of the authority of their government. Popular sovereignty means that democratic government is by the people and for the people—for the benefit of the people, not for the benefit of those who govern in their name.
What are Natural Rights?
Rights that people supposedly have under natural law. The Declaration of Independence of the United States lists life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness as natural rights.
Who did Maximilien Robespierre influence?
Robespierre played an important part in the agitation which brought about the fall of the French monarchy on 10 August 1792 and the summoning of a National Convention. His goal was to create a one and indivisible France, equality before the law, to abolish prerogatives and to defend the principles of direct democracy. As the leading member of the Committee of Public Safety from 1793, Robespierre encouraged the execution, mostly by guillotine, of more than 17,000 enemies of the Revolution.
Who was Maximilien Robespierre influenced by?
Robespierre's politics were influenced by Rousseau, but his actions were no doubt more reminiscent of Sade. Rousseau believed that good government must have the freedom of all its citizens as its most fundamental objective, and Marquis de Sade was a proponent of absolute freedom, unrestrained by morality, religion, or law. The words sadism and sadist are derived in reference to the works of fiction he wrote which portrayed numerous acts of sexual cruelty.
What is Democracy?
Ruled by the people; democracy implies both popular participation and government in the public interest, and can take a wide variety of forms.
What is Scientific Racism?
Scientific racism, sometimes termed biological racism, is the pseudoscientific belief that empirical evidence exists to support or justify racism, racial inferiority, or racial superiority. Historically, scientific racism received acceptance throughout the scientific community, but it is no longer considered scientific.
What did the idea of Separation of Powers influence?
Separation of Powers in the United States is associated with the Checks and Balances system. The Checks and Balances system provides each branch of government with individual powers to check the other branches and prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful.
🎯 LT1: WHAT WAS THE CONTEXT FOR THE CAUSE OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION?
Several years of poor harvests, drought, cattle disease and skyrocketing bread prices had kindled unrest among peasants and the urban poor, as well as the despotic rule of Louis XVI, division of French society, rising prices, inspiration of the philosophers, role of middle class.
What did Simon Bolivar Do?
Simón Bolivar is remembered today as the greatest leader of South American independence. Highly influenced by the examples of the United States, the French Revolution and Napoleon, he led a massive revolt against Spanish colonial rule in South America, beginning in 1810.
Who was Simon Bolivar?
Simón Bolívar was a Venezuelan military and political leader who led what are currently the countries of Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Panama and Bolivia to independence from the Spanish Empire.
What is the context behind Scientific Racism?
Since enslaved people were first brought to this America and Europe, promoters of anti-Black racism and white supremacy have co-opted the authority of science to justify racial inequality. A history of pseudoscientific methods "proving" white biological superiority and flawed social studies used to show "inherent" racial characteristics still influence society today.
What did the Stamp Act influence?
Stamp Act aftermath influenced constitutional safeguards, First Amendment. The act and the violence that erupted with its passage remained fresh in the young country's memory. The crafters of the Constitution were careful to include safeguards against usurpations of freedom and the violence such acts could breed.
🎯 LT1: WHAT WAS THE ENLIGHTENMENT?
The Age of Enlightenment, or simply the Enlightenment, was an intellectual and philosophical movement that dominated Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries with global influences and effects.
🎯 LT1: WHAT WAS THE CONTEXT FOR THE CAUSE OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION?
The American Revolution was principally caused by colonial opposition to British attempts to impose greater control over the colonies and to make them repay the crown for its defense of them during the French and Indian War (1754-63).
What influenced Absolutism?
The Atlantic revolutions (Latin America, American Colonies, France), caused Enlightenment thinkers to rethink the idea of equality and natural rights, as well as the idea that the responsibility of the government was to protect and reaffirm those rights in return for governing the people (Social Contract).
What was "Common Sense" a result of?
The Battles of Lexington and Concord, as well as the starting of the American Revolution, prompted Thomas Paine to write 'Common Sense', which ultimately fueled the revolutionary spirit. Thomas Paine was inspired by the ideas of John Locke and Voltaire, who advocated for natural rights and the idea of a Social Contract.
What is the context for the Bill of Rights?
The Bill of Rights derives from the "Magna Carta" (which established Rule of Law), the English Bill of Rights (established Parliamentary Privelege, which ensures that Members of Parliament are able to speak freely in debates, and protects Parliament's internal affairs from interference from the courts), the colonial struggle against king and Parliament, and a gradually broadening concept of equality among the American people. The first ten amendments protect basic freedoms; especially of the minority groups. It was added to the Constitution to protect the people from the national government from having too much power. Adding the Bill of Rights helped change many people's minds to ratify the Constitution.
What is the Bill of Rights?
The Bill of Rights is the first 10 Amendments to the Constitution. It spells out Americans' rights in relation to their government. It guarantees civil rights and liberties to the individual—like freedom of speech, press, and religion.
What did the Bill of Rights have an influence on?
The Bill of Rights limited only actions taken by the federal government against people. The Founders assumed citizens would be protected against state governments by their home states' constitutions. The Bill of Rights serves to protect citizens from excess government power. It achieves this by ensuring there is separation of powers between different government branches, the judicial, executive, and the legislative.
What did the theory of Divine Right have an influence on?
The Church of England under Henry VIII and Elizabeth I had asserted the religious authority of the monarch before the reign of James I, but the theory of divine right expanded the monarch's authority to all aspects of government, not solely religious affairs.
What were the Intolerable Acts a result of?
The Coercive Acts of 1774, known as the Intolerable Acts in the American colonies, were a series of four laws passed by the British Parliament to punish the colony of Massachusetts Bay for the Boston Tea Party.
What is the American Constitution?
The Constitution is the framework for the federal government of the United States. It is the highest form of law in the country. The Constitution creates the branches of government and gives them the power to govern. However, it also protects the citizens of the United States and guarantees their basic rights.
What did the Creole's revolution influence?
The Creole Revolutions remade the New World, banishing the British and Spanish Empires to the margins of the hemisphere and transforming their former colonies into independent American states. They also led to popular sovereignty in the New World. Although these nations had revolutions, not all of them led to freedom. After the revolution, the social hierarchy, patriarchy, and power of the Catholic Church remained in Latin America.
What was the context behind the Declaration of Independence?
The Declaration of Independence was the culmination of years of dissatisfaction in the American colonies. People had been grumbling for a while, but the real anger started most clearly around 1763, at the end of the Seven Years' War (which is often referred to as the French and Indian War in the American context).
What was the Decleration of the Rights of Man and Citizen?
The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen was a written expression of the natural rights of citizens in revolutionary France. Inspired by British and American covenants, France's declaration was the most ambitious attempt to protect individual rights in any European nation to that point.
What did the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen influence?
The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen helped to form the foundation of the French Revolution, in hopes of ending the monarchy and establishing a democracy in France.
What was the context behind the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen?
The Declaration was intended to serve as a preamble to the French Constitution of 1791, which established a constitutional monarchy. (A purely republican form of government awaited the Constitution of 1793 after the treason conviction of Louis XVI had led to his execution and the abolition of the monarchy.)
🎯 LT1: WHAT WAS THE CONTEXT FOR THE ENLIGHTENMENT?
The Enlightenment - the great 'Age of Reason' - is defined as the period of rigorous scientific, political and philosophical discourse that characterised European society during the 'long' 18th century: from the late 17th century to the ending of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815.
HOW DID ENLIGHTENMENT IDEAS HELP SPARK REVOLUTIONS, REDEFINE THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GOVERNMENT AND CITIZENS, AND LEAD TO THE ESTABLISHMENT OF HUMAN RIGHTS STANDARDS?
The Enlightenment brought political modernization to the west, in terms of focusing on democratic values and institutions and the creation of modern, liberal democracies. Enlightenment thinkers sought to curtail the political power of organized religion, and thereby prevent another age of intolerant religious war.
🎯 LT1: WHAT WERE THE IDEAS OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT?
The Enlightenment included a range of ideas centered on the value of human happiness, the pursuit of knowledge obtained by means of reason and the evidence of the senses, and ideals such as liberty, progress, toleration, fraternity, constitutional government, and separation of church and state.
What did the use of logic and reason during the Enlightenment influence?
The Enlightenment's leaders believed that by using scientific methods, they could explain the laws of society and human nature. It was an optimistic faith—armed with the proper methods of discovering the laws of human nature, enlightened thinkers were convinced they could solve all problems.
What was the Estates General a result of?
The Estates General of 1789 was summoned by the French king to approve new taxes to enable the state to pay its debts.
What was the Estates System a result of?
The Estates General of 1789 was summoned by the French king to approve new taxes to enable the state to pay its debts.
What is the Estate System?
The Estates, also known as the States (French: États, German: Landstände, Dutch: Staten), was the assembly of the representatives of the estates of the realm, the divisions of society in feudal times, called together for purposes of deliberation, legislation or taxation. Nobles made up the first estate, the clergy made up the second, and the other 85% of the population mad eup the third estate.
What influence did the Estates System have on the French Revolution?
The Estates-General of 1789 was a general assembly representing the French estates of the realm summoned by Louis XVI to propose solutions to France's financial problems. It ended when the Third Estate formed into a National Assembly, signaling the outbreak of the French Revolution.
What influenced the need for the Estates General?
The Estates-General of 1789 was a general assembly representing the French estates of the realm summoned by Louis XVI to propose solutions to France's financial problems. It ended when the Third Estate formed into a National Assembly, signaling the outbreak of the French Revolution.
What were the Estates General?
The Estates-General was a meeting of the three estates within French society which included the clergy, nobility and the peasant classes. The estate to which a person belonged was very important because it determined that person's rights, obligations and status.
Who did Thomas Hobbes influence?
The Founding Fathers were heavily influenced by English philosopher Thomas Hobbes in establishing America's First Principles, most notably the recognition of unalienable rights, the Social Compact, and limited government.
What was the Mulattos' role in the Haitian Revolution?
The French Revolution provided the Mulattoes and slaves with an opportunity and an inspiration after having witnessed the successful insurrection in France against the government's long-standing denial of equal representation of the Third Estate. Nevertheless, many mulattos were consequently slaughtered by furious black Haitians during the Haitian Revolution in order to secure black political power over the island. Some black volunteers had even aligned themselves with the French against the mulattos during the Ogé Rebellion.
What influenced the Mulattos to participate in the Haitian Revolution?
The French Revolution provided the necessary spark for the revolution in Haiti to occur: it was the inspiration the cause of the abolition of slavery in Haiti needed to actualize its goals. St. Domingue's white minority split into Royalist and Revolutionary factions, while the mixed-race population campaigned for civil rights.
What influenced the theory of Natural Law?
The Greek's centered interest on humanity. Their concept of natural law was born of their study of man. It is one of their greatest contributions to the world's culture and civilization. It is a new idea, which is still alive today; and the Greeks had the genius of coining words for this new idea.
What was the context behind the founding of the National Assembly?
The Grievances of the Third Estate were about political, economic, and social inequalities that existed in France prior to the French Revolution of 1789. The extent to which the revolutionaries addressed these grievances ranged from speech and petitions to violence and finally to political and legal reform. When the king refused to give them more power, the Third Estate created its own group called the National Assembly. They began to meet on a regular basis and run the country without the help of the king.
What were the Intolerable Acts?
The Intolerable Acts were a series of punitive laws passed by the British Parliament in 1774 after the Boston Tea Party. The laws aimed to punish Massachusetts colonists for their defiance in the Tea Party protest of the Tea Act, a tax measure enacted by Parliament in May 1773.
What did the Mestizos influence?
The Mestizos started the Haitian revolution, a successful insurrection by self-liberated slaves against French colonial rule in Saint-Domingue, now the sovereign state of Haiti.
What was the context behind the Napoleonic Code?
The Napoleonic Code was created because the legal system in France before 1800 consisted of various laws derived from Roman, feudal, and royal legal codes. After the French Revolution, Napoleon wanted to modernize France by creating a new legal code that better reflected the revolution's principles.
What influenced the Napoleonic Code?
The Napoleonic Code was inspired by the sixth-century codification of Roman law, the "Body of Civil Law", or the "Code of Justinian". It consisted of the various sets of laws and legal interpretations collected and codified by scholars under the direction of Byzantine Emperor Justinian I.
What did the Napoleonic Code influence?
The Napoleonic Code was the main influence on the 19th-century civil codes of most countries of continental Europe and Latin America.
What was the Napoleonic Code?
The Napoleonic Code, also called the "French Civil Code of 1804", defined the concept of equality before the law and also secured the right to property. This code abolished the feudal system and freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues as well as improvement in the Transport and communication systems, or, in other words, upheld the idea of natural rights imposed during the French Revolution.
What did the National Assembly influence?
The National Assembly played a major role in the French Revolution. It represented the common people of France (also called the Third Estate) and demanded that the king make economic reforms to insure that the people had food to eat. Following the storming of the Bastille on July 14, the National Assembly became the effective government and constitution drafter that ruled until passing the 1791 Constitution, which turned France into a constitutional monarchy.
What was the National Assembly was a result of?
The National Assembly was created amidst the turmoil of the Estates-General that Louis XVI called in 1789 to deal with the looming economic crisis in France.
What was the National Assembly?
The National Assembly was the first revolutionary government of the French Revolution and existed from June 14th to July 9th in 1789. The National Assembly was created amidst the turmoil of the Estates-General that Louis XVI called in 1789 to deal with the looming economic crisis in France.
What did the Reformation influence?
The Reformation became the basis for the founding of Protestantism, one of the three major branches of Christianity. The Reformation led to the reformulation of certain basic tenets of Christian belief and resulted in the division of Western Christendom between Roman Catholicism and the new Protestant traditions.
What was the context for the Reformation?
The Reformation began with Henry VIII's quest for a male heir. When Pope Clement VII refused to annul Henry's marriage to Catherine of Aragon so he could remarry, the English king declared in 1534 that he alone should be the final authority in matters relating to the English church.
What was Secularism a result of?
The Reformation played a role in the emergence of secularism as the political leadership of the Catholic Church was overthrown. As a result of the separation of church and state, from the secularist perspective, it is expected that political decisions are made for secular rather than religious reasons.
What is Reformation?
The Reformation was the start of Protestantism and the split of the Western Church into Protestantism and what is now the Roman Catholic Church. It is also considered to be one of the events that signified the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the early modern period in Europe.
What was the Reign of Terror?
The Reign of Terror, also called the Terror, was a period of state-sanctioned violence and mass executions during the French Revolution between Sept. 5, 1793, and July 27, 1794.
What did the Renaissance influence?
The Renaissance period cultivated a new change in art, knowledge, and culture. It changed the way the citizens thought, with first the rediscovery of classical philosophy, literature, and art, as well as the new discoveries in travel, invention, and style.
What was the Renaissance?
The Renaissance was a fervent period of European cultural, artistic, political and economic "rebirth" following the Middle Ages. Generally described as taking place from the 14th century to the 17th century, the Renaissance promoted the rediscovery of classical philosophy, literature and art.
What was Scientific Revolution the result of?
The Scientific Revolution began in astronomy. Although there had been earlier discussions of the possibility of Earth's motion, the Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus was the first to propound a comprehensive heliocentric theory equal in scope and predictive capability to Ptolemy's geocentric system.
What did the Scientific Revolution influence?
The Scientific Revolution influenced the development of the Enlightenment values of individualism because it demonstrated the power of the human mind. The ability of scientists to come to their own conclusions rather than deferring to instilled authority confirmed the capabilities and worth of the individual.
What was the Scientific Revolution?
The Scientific Revolution was a series of events that marked the emergence of modern science during the early modern period, when developments in mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology and chemistry transformed the views of society about nature.
What was the Stamp Act?
The Stamp Act of 1765 was an act of the Parliament of Great Britain which imposed a direct tax on the British colonies in America and required that many printed materials in the colonies be produced on stamped paper produced in London, carrying an embossed revenue stamp.
What did Democracy have an influence on?
The U.S. government is a prime example of representative and constitutional democracy. It is a representative democracy because the people, the source of its authority, elect individuals to represent their interests in its institutions.
What was the US Constitution a result of?
The US Constitution emerged from the debate about weaknesses in the Articles of Confederation and was the product of important compromises over issues of representation and the power of the federal government. The single most important influence that shaped the founding of the United States comes from John Locke, a 17th-century Englishman who redefined the nature of government. Locke pioneered the ideas of natural law, social contract, religious toleration, and the right to revolution.
What did the Constitution influence?
The United States Constitution has influenced later constitutions and legal thinking internationally. Its influence appears in similarities of phrasing and borrowed passages in other constitutions, as well as in the principles of the rule of law, separation of powers, and recognition of individual rights.
What was the reason for the Intolerable Acts?
The act was passed by the British Parliament to punish the colony of Massachusetts Bay for the Boston Tea Party. The four acts were the Boston Port Act, the Massachusetts Government Act, the Administration of Justice Act, and the Quartering Act. The Quebec Act of 1774 is sometimes included as one of the Coercive Acts, although it was not related to the Boston Tea Party. These oppressive acts sparked strong colonial resistance, including the meeting of the First Continental Congress, which George Washington attended in September and October 1774.
What caused the ideas of logic and reason?
The complementary rational and empirical methods of discovering truth that were introduced by the scientific revolution.
What is the American Declaration of Independence?
The document proclaimed that the 13 original colonies of America were "free and independent states." It was the last of a series of steps that led the colonies to final separation from Great Britain.
What did the Reign of Terror influence?
The excesses of the Reign of Terror combined with the decreased threat from other countries led to increased opposition to the Committee of Public Safety and to Robespierre himself. Moderates freed many of the Jacobins' prisoners, neutralized the power of the Committee for Public Safety, and had many of Robespierre's friends killed.
Absolutism was a result of what?
The fall of feudalism resulting from the signing of the "Magna Carta" (which established Rule of Law), as well as the opposition of the church to the power and influence of nobles, contributed to the rise of Absolutism by consolidating the power of the monarch due to the decreasing influence of the Church and the nobility on the monarchy.
Why was Popular Sovereignty created?
The idea of Popular Sovereignty was created after the people of federal territories decided to vote on whether their territories would enter the Union as free or slave states.
What was influenced by the idea of equality?
The idea of equality influenced the US Declaration of Independence, however, when the Continental Congress adopted the historic text drafted by Thomas Jefferson, they did not intend it to mean individual equality. Rather, what they declared was that American colonists, as a people, had the same rights to self-government as other nations.
What is the context behind the idea of the Social Contract?
The idea of the social contract goes back at least to Protagoras and Epicurus. In its recognizably modern form, however, the idea is revived by Thomas Hobbes and was later developed, in different ways, by John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and Immanuel Kant. Theories of the social contract differed according to their purpose: some were designed to justify the power of the sovereign, while others were intended to safeguard the individual from oppression by a sovereign who was all too powerful.
🎯 LT1: WHAT WAS THE CONTEXT FOR THE CAUSE OF THE LATIN AMERICAN REVOLUTION?
The immediate trigger of the conflict was Napoleon's invasion of the Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal) in 1807 and 1808, but its roots also lay in the growing discontent of creole elites (people of Spanish ancestry who had been born in Latin America) with the restrictions imposed by Spanish imperial rule.
What was the context behind the Renaissance?
The main four events that lead to the Renaissance were the Crusades, the Black Plague, the discovery of Greek and Roman art, and the influx of excess wealth into Italy via trade. Additionally, Italy's unique geographic location played a major role, as well.
What were National Rights a result of?
The most famous natural right formulation comes from John Locke, who argued that the natural rights include perfect equality and freedom, and the right to preserve life and property, however, the idea of natural rights likely came from ancient Greek philosophers' ideas of natural laws.
What is the context behind the Constitution?
The official purpose of the Constitutional Convention of 1787 was to propose amendments to the Articles of Confederation but when the convention convened, the delegates realized that they had two general goals in common: to create a republican form as well as a new constitutional form of government. A chief aim of the Constitution as drafted by the Convention was to create a government with enough power to act on a national level, but without so much power that fundamental rights would be at risk.
What was the Creole's revolution a result of?
The origins of the Latin American independence movements of the early 1800s might be traced to changes in imperial administration. After many years of semi-autonomous local rule and limited metropolitan intervention, new bureaucratic reforms in the eighteenth century caused some discomfort in the American colonies.
What was the reason for the Estates General?
The political and financial situation in France had grown rather bleak, forcing Louis XVI to summon the Estates General. This assembly was composed of three estates - the clergy, nobility and commoners - who had the power to decide on the levying of new taxes and to undertake reforms in the country.
Why was the Estates System created?
The political and financial situation in France had grown rather bleak, forcing Louis XVI to summon the Estates General. This assembly was composed of three estates - the clergy, nobility and commoners - who had the power to decide on the levying of new taxes and to undertake reforms in the country.
What is Absolutism?
The principle of complete and unrestricted government power, usually in the hands of one person, a dictator or despot (ruler who holds absolute power)
What influenced the idea of equality?
The principle of natural equality only became recognized in the modern period beginning in the 17th century in the tradition of natural law as defined by Hobbes and Locke, and in social contract theory, first postulated by Rousseau.
What is Secularism?
The principle of separation of the state from religious institutions.
What is Rule of Law?
The principle under which all persons, institutions, and entities are held accountable to the law, or the idea that no one is above the law
What was Feudalism a result of?
The system had its roots in the Roman manorial system (in which workers were compensated with protection while living on large estates) and in the 8th century kingdom of the Franks where a king gave out land for life (benefice) to reward loyal nobles and receive service in return.
What was the idea of Separation of Powers the result of?
The term "Separation of Powers" was coined by the 18th century philosopher Montesquieu. Separation of powers is a model that divides the government into separate branches, each of which has separate and independent powers.
What is the context behind the idea of Separation of Powers?
The term "trias politica" or "separation of powers" was coined by Charles-Louis de Secondat, baron de La Brède et de Montesquieu, an 18th century French social and political philosopher. Under his model, the political authority of the state is divided into legislative, executive and judicial powers. He asserted that, to most effectively promote liberty, these three powers must be separate and acting independently.
What is the context behind the term Mestizo?
The term mestizo means mixed in Spanish, and is generally used throughout Latin America to describe people of mixed ancestry with a white European and an indigenous background. They became the backbone of the Spanish empire in the Americas. Mestizos made up the majority of conscripts in the army; they became artisans, traders, and local officials.
What was the context for the Scientific Revolution?
There were numerous causes of the Scientific Revolution including the rise of empiricism, new inventions, and new discoveries that questioned the works of ancient philosophers like Aristotle or Galen. The scientific method, the process of analyzing natural phenomena, was formulated during the Scientific Revolution.
Who was Thomas Hobbes?
Thomas Hobbes was an English philosopher, considered to be one of the founders of modern political philosophy. Hobbes is best known for his 1651 book Leviathan, in which he expounds an influential formulation of social contract theory.
What did the idea of Natural Rights influence?
Those natural rights of life, liberty, and property protected implicitly in the original Constitution are explicitly protected in the Bill of Rights. That right of liberty is the right to do all those things which do not harm another's life, property, or equal liberty. Thomas Jefferson adopted John Locke's theory of natural rights to provide a reason for revolution. He then went on to offer proof that revolution was necessary in 1776 to end King George's tyranny over the colonists.
How was reason and logic utilized during the Enlightenment Era?
To critique, to examine existing belief systems and institutions and to analyze them through rational thinking and logic or, in other words, to deconstruct the current particular point of power
Who did Toussaint L'Ouverture influence?
Toussaint Louverture inspired a successful slave revolt and emancipated the slaves in the French colony of Saint-Domingue (Haiti). A formidable military leader, he turned the colony into a country governed by former black slaves as a nominal French protectorate and made himself ruler of the entire island of Hispaniola.
Who was Toussaint L'Ouverture?
Toussaint Louverture was a free black man that led a successful slave revolt and emancipated the slaves in the French colony of Saint-Domingue (Haiti). A formidable military leader, he turned the colony into a country governed by former black slaves as a nominal French protectorate and made himself ruler of the entire island of Hispaniola.
What was Democracy a result of?
Under Cleisthenes, what is generally held as the first example of a type of democracy in 508-507 BC was established in Athens. Cleisthenes is referred to as "the father of Athenian democracy". Thomas Jefferson, George Washington, James Madison, and others took the brave steps of creating a government based on the Enlightenment liberated from the Greek ideas of Democracy. More than 200 years later, that government is still intact.
What was the context for Absolutism?
Was popular in Europe toward the end of the medieval period all the way up to through the 18th century, mainly during the transition from Feudalism to early Capitalism, and began with the reign of King Louis the 14th (XIV) and ended with the French revolution (1643-1789)
What did "Common Sense" have an influence on?
When it was published, it fundamentally changed the colonists' perspective of Britain as it advocated independence for the American colonies that were under the Crown. Thus, it is often credited for its remarkable role in uniting average citizens and political leaders towards the American Revolution and by promoting the idea of American exceptionalism and the need to form a new nation to realize its promise, Paine's pamphlet not only attracted public support for the Revolution but put the rebellion's leaders under pressure to declare independence.
Who was Thomas Hobbes influenced by?
William Cavendish was a supporter of Charles I in the English Civil War, and this connection to royalty influenced Hobbes's political philosophy. William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Newcastle, was an English courtier and supporter of the arts. He was a renowned horse breeder, as well as being patron of the playwright Ben Jonson, and the intellectual group known as the Welbeck Circle.
What is a Mulatto?
a person of mixed white and black ancestry, specifically, a person with one white and one black parent
What did the Creoles do in Latin America?
During the 19th century, in Latin America, the Creoles led the fight against the Spanish Throne because of their desire for power, equal representation in government, and economic control. The desire for political power was the main factor in the Creole decision to lead the fight.