HBSE: Final Exam

Infancy & Early Childhood: Autism

A developmental disability that hinders an individual's social interaction and communication abilities - falls under a larger umbrella of autism spectrum disorders Signs of autism: - difficulties with eye contact - communication - age-appropriate play Other considerations: - socioeconomic status - health - education - mental health

Middle Childhood: Ages 5 to 11

Erikson's Stage: Industry vs. Inferiority (6-12 years) Piaget's Stage: Concrete Operations (7-11 years) Steady development physically, cognitively, and with motor skills

Psychodynamic Theory

Sigmund Freud is one of the best-known personality theorists - emphasized the role of family and childhood experiences, one's relationship to the unconscious, and sexuality in relation to human behavior - behavior and motivation was shaped by innate drives - role of the therapeutic relationship is extremely important - gain insight into the origins of one's own problems - resolving present-day problems requires discussing and reflecting on earlier conflicts, often from childhood - treatments are often long-term The mind consisted of 3 levels... 1. Conscious mind: Mental processes with which we are aware 2. Preconscious: Not currently aware of, but could be easily brought to consciousness (e.g. cell phone number) 3. Unconscious: Mental processes not accessible to one's consciousness that influence feelings, behavior, judgement - primitive impulses and bio-based urges for sex aggression - where we store feelings, motives, etc - can be revealed with "slips of the tongue" or "Freudian slips" Psyche (Personality) has 3 structures... 1. Id: An element of the unconscious, made up of basic needs and drives such as sex, hunger, and survival - driven by pleasure principle (e.g. babies/toddlers). - provide primary energy, through the libido, that forges personality 2. Ego: The cognitive, rational aspect of the mind, which keeps the id in check - controls thinking, evaluates consequences - operates on reality principle - develops shortly after birth 3. Superego: One's conscience, based on society's morals and values (incorporated during ages 3-5) - when a drive within the id strives for expression the superego disapproves of, the superego will send warning to the ego to prevent expression of the instinct - without the superego, a person would be completely selfish Stages of Psychosocial Development There are 5 stages in which personality develops: oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital. - if conflicts arose during any of these phases, a person could be fixated, or stalled, at that level - in order to develop optimal mental health, a person would need to resolve the conflict or use defense mechanisms - often unconsciously - to address negative emotions (e.g. anxiety, frustration, guilt) that could arise 1. Oral (Birth-18 months) Focus of Libido: Mouth, tongue, lips Major Development: Weaning off of breast or formula Consequences: Personality disorders, smoking, obesity. 2. Anal (18 months-3 years) Focus of Libido: Anus Major Development: Potty training Consequences: Orderliness, Messiness 3. Phallic (3-5 years) Focus of Libido: Genitals Major Development: Resolving Oedipus/Electra Complex Consequences: Sexual Dysfunction, Relationship Issues 4. Latency (5/6 - 12 years; or when puberty begins) Focus of Libido: None Major Development: Developing Defense Mechanisms, Exploration of children's intellectual pursuits in school and hobbies, and become more concerned with social interactions with peer and their relationships Consequences: None 5. Genital (12+ years; at start of puberty) Focus of Libido: Genitals Major Development: Reaching full sexual maturity (ability to love and work) Consequences: If all stages completed successfully, the person should be matured and mentally health Defense Mechanisms - anxiety triggered when strong but difficult feelings, normally kept unconscious, threaten to break and disturb our conscious mind - we try to fend or manage this psychological pain through various defense mechanisms Common Defense Mechanisms • Denial: Avoidance of unpleasant realities by ignoring or refusing to acknowledge them; probably the simplest and most primitive defense mechanism • Identification with the aggressor: Increasing feelings of worth by taking on the attributes of people or institutions of greater power, strength, or importance. • Intellectualization: Creating emotional distance through rationalizing or using logic. • Projection: Blaming others for one's own shortcomings and mistakes; unconsciously ascribing to others one's own unacceptable impulses and desires (for example, a person with a tendency to be lazy criticizes others for laziness). • Reaction formation: Developing attitudes and behaviors that are the opposite of repressed and unconscious dangerous or unpleasant impulses and desires (for example, expressing abhorrence of homosexuality when one has repressed homosexual feelings). • Regression: Retreating to behaviors that were appropriate in earlier stages of development (for example, temper tantrums) that bring easy satisfaction of desires or needs. • Repression: Unconscious process whereby painful or dangerous thoughts and desires are excluded from consciousness. These can be revealed through dreams, jokes, or slips of the tongue. • Sublimation: Consciously satisfying socially unacceptable needs and desires through socially acceptable activities (for example, playing football to satisfy aggressive impulses); probably the most advanced defense mechanism. • Withdrawal: Retreating into solitude to avoid painful emotions and situations.

Piaget: Strengths & Limitations

Strengths: - one of the first to theorize cognitive development - his theory has improved the understanding of cognitive development Limitations: - observations based on his own children. Focus on the "average" child, but what does that mean across ethnic, class, and cultural differences? - underestimated children's abilities, when you use language they understand - children may not be as ego-centric as Piaget believe

Ecological Theory: Coping

The ways in which individuals deal with negative events and situations

Educational/Systemic Responses to Children with Disabilities

Under Federal law, under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), the term "specific learning disability" is one of 13 categories of disability under the law - however, a clinical diagnosis of SLD is not necessarily synonymous with "learning disabilities" as identified within educational systems Some of the main provisions of IDEA are that: - eligibility criteria for services be clearly defined - evaluations for these criteria be readily accessible to children who need them - children who meet criteria receive individualized education plans, which offer students specialized services targeted to their specific needs - students with disabilities be offered educational services in the least restrictive environment (LRE), which means that the setting in which education for students with disabilities takes place is as similar and equal to that of other students as possible; this last effort is to ensure that students with disabilities do not end up in facilities that are less equipped or somehow inferior to those offered to students without disabilities The current philosophy on educating children with disabilities is that they should spend time in regular classrooms interacting with children who do not have disabilities - this process has been referred to as mainstreaming, or inclusion - for mainstreaming to be implemented successfully, teachers must receive specialized training to meet the needs of children with disabilities, and social workers must provide support services for teachers, children, and their families - often, teachers, schools, and social workers complain that funding is inadequate to truly provide for the needs mandated by IDEA - moreover, some professionals argue that regardless of the efforts made to provide appropriate services to children with special needs—whether through mainstreaming or separate class rooms—recipients of these services often experience discrimination because of educational policies and services that lack clear goals and fiscal, cultural, and other support Problems in the education system such as lack of funding, support, and overcrowding may contribute to increases in ADHD diagnoses - simply because teachers and other staff do not have the resources to accurately identify or deal with problem behavior when it occurs - moreover, some professionals speculate that otherwise "normal" behavior such as high activity levels may be labeled as maladaptive and abnormal in the context of contemporary settings such as the controlled, formal classroom - consequently, some children may be misdiagnosed and inappropriately referred to physicians, psychologists, social workers, and special education programs Special Education... Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA): Law decreeing that all children with disabilities will have access to free and appropriate education Least Restrictive Environment (LRE): The setting of education for children with disabilities should be similar and equal to the educational setting of other students. Mainstreaming: Including children with disabilities in regular classroom settings and activities. School Choice and Vouchers... - Public school systems may have issues such as poor student achievement, inadequate or unstable funding, and low academic standards School Vouchers: Certificates that allow parents to pay for schools of the parent's choosing, rather than sending children to inadequate schools

Erikson: Identity vs. Identity Confusion (Adolescence)

Adolescents explore and develop their identities

Ecological Systems Theory (Bronfenbrenner)

A method of understanding human development through the interaction between the individual and his or her environment. - events in a person's life and the way that person reacts to the events, shapes the person and impacts his or her developmental processes - clients do not live in a vacuum; people have positive and negative interactions with others - people both receive and expend energy from surrounding systems - human beings have the ability to adapt to changes and cope with negative experiences or events - people are interdependent; all humans rely on one another in mutually beneficial and necessary relationships; additionally, humans rely on and impact the environment in which they live Fundamental Tenet: perception impacts well being - and the meaning we place on events can differ from person to person (e.g. unemployment) Focus: Individual & environment Assumptions: People are active in their environmental settings The organization of ecological theory is very similar to the micro-mezzo-macro conceptualization, but with five dimensions: 1. Microsystem 2. Mesosystem 3. Exosystem 4. Macrosystem 5. Chronosystem Key Concepts: - Adaptation - Coping - Energy - Interdependence - Social Environment - Transactions

Infancy & Early Childhood: Gender Identity Development

A product of our innate characteristics that are shaped by and interact with our social experiences Gender (non-biological): Social and cultural categories associated with men and women Labels include: - Male/Man/Boy - Female/Woman/Girl - Non-binary/Genderqueer Gender Identity: Innate perception of ourselves; The gender a person identifies as - such as being man, woman, non-binary, gender-queer, transgender Gender Socialization: The process of learning social expectations, meanings, and attitudes associated with being masculine or feminine Gender Expression: Involves the ways we communicate our gender to others Gender Roles: A set of culturally accepted activities, expectations, and behaviors assigned to either males or females Gender Normative (i.e. cisgender): Congruent gender identity and expression with the sex an individual was born with Transgender: When a person's gender identity does not match the person's assigned sex Gender Dysphoria: As of 2013 in DSM-V (formerly gender identity disorder, or GID) Gender variance (Gender fluidity): A normal part of human expression that suggests a wider, more flexible range of gender experiences that people can have

Behavioral Theory

A systematic approach to understanding the behavior of humans and other animals - it assumes that all behaviors are either reflexes produced by a response to certain stimuli in the environment, or a consequence of that individual's history, including especially reinforcement and punishment, together with the individual's current motivational state and controlling stimuli - although behaviorists generally accept the important role of inheritance in determining behavior, they focus primarily on environmental factors - only interested in observable behavior Ivan Pavlov was a Russian psychologist known primarily for his work in classical conditioning - discovered while studying digestion with dogs, salvation with food (basic innate reflex) John Watson was an American psychologist who established the psychological school of behaviorism - discovered in his Little Albert Study, which was a controlled experiment showing empirical evidence of classical conditioning in humans - he conditioned children to fear a distinctive stimulus that normally would not be feared, in this case, furry objects - generalized classical conditioning to humans Classical Conditioning: Focuses on how people respond to stimuli in their environment - a form of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response after being associated with a stimulus that already elicits that response Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that elicits a response without any prior learning Unconditional Response (UCR): A response that does not have to be learned, such as a reflex Conditional Stimulus (CS): A stimulus that yields a response only after learning has occurred Conditional Response (CR): A response that was not previously associated with the US, but has become associated to it due the the learning process Operant Conditioning: It is the consequences of behavior that result in behavior change (either an increase or decrease in behavior) - a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened it followed by a reinforcer or diminished followed by a punishment Reinforcement: In operant conditioning any event that strengthens the behavior it follows - a consequence that occurs immediately after a behavior that increases the strength of that behavior - reinforcements can be positive or negative Positive Reinforcement: Increases behaviors by presenting positive stimuli - adding something positive to strengthen a behavior - such as food a positive reinforcer is anything that when resented after a response strengthens a response Negative Reinforcement: Increases behavior by stopping and reducing negative stimuli - taking away something negative to strengthen a behavior - such as shock or anything that when removed after a response strengthens a response Punishment: Weakening or reducing the frequency of a behavior by adding something negative or removing something positive - an event that decreases the behavior that it follows - punishment aims to weaken or reduce a behavior Behavior Modification: Assessing A-B-Cs A = Antecedents: What happens before the behavior? B = Behavior: Describe the behavior in specific, concrete detail (frequency, intensity, duration). C = Consequences: What happens immediately after the behavior? How do other people respond? What's reinforcing it or suppressing it?

Social Learning Theory

A theory of learning and social behavior which proposes that new behaviors can be acquired by observing and imitating others - this type of learning is called modeling, which is we can learn behaviors by watching how others do things and then imitating those behaviors Bandura identified one important aspect of learning as self-efficacy, which he defined as people's expectations that they can perform a task successfully - according to social learning theory, successful experiences are necessary to build self-efficacy - when people have high levels of self-efficacy, they are more likely to perform well in school, work, and other areas of their lives, which helps to build and reinforce their feelings of competence (Bandura, 1997) - on essence, the development and maintenance of self-efficacy is a cyclical process: The more successful experiences that people have, the more likely they are to seek other opportunities that lend themselves to successful outcomes, which helps to further build a sense of competence Social workers may also find it useful to explore how learning has shaped his perceptions of certain behaviors such as intimacy, independence, and display of emotion - specifically, social workers can help clients understand how to change undesirable behaviors, which can be generalized to other situations in which clients wish to change behaviors

Specific Learning Disabilities (SLD) in the DSM-5

A type of neuro-developmental disorder that impedes the ability to learn or use specific academic skills (e.g. reading, writing, or arithmetic), which are foundation to academic learning - not to a result of visual, hearing, or motor handicap, or intellectual disability, emotional issues or environmental disadvantage Examples of SLDs: - Auditory Processing Disorder - Dyscalculia - Dysgraphia - Dyslexia - Language Processing Disorder - Non-verbal Learning Disability - Visual Perceptual/Visual Motor Deficit Dyslexia: the flipping or swapping of alphabet characters, which results in severe reading and spelling impairments. - difficulties with words - preference for non-linear thought

Adolescence: Identity Development

According to Erikson, adolescence is a period of Identity vs. Confusion: - "who am I?" - social relationships become extremely important in figuring out how one fits in to society - the peer group becomes very influential - adolescents explore their identities and try out roles - those that have difficulty integrating roles into their identity will experience confusion

Kohlberg's Moral Development Theory

According to Kohlberg's theory, people develop their moral thinking at differ ent rates - ideally, this development takes place during childhood - however, not everyone will develop to the third, or final, level - rather, people may remain in different stages depending on their experiences and cognitive development Level 1: Pre-conventional Reasoning - Stage 1: Punishment and obedience orientation; people make decisions about what is good and bad to avoid punishment - Stage 2: Naïve instrumental hedonism; people obey rules to get rewarded Level 2: Conventional Reasoning - Stage 3: Good boy/girl mentality; people behave in ways that please others - Stage 4: Authority-maintaining morality; people strongly believe in law and order; social order is paramount and people will defer to higher authority to guide behavior Level 3: Post-conventional Reasoning - Stage 5: Morality of contract, of individual rights, and of democratically accepted law; people view laws and social order as necessary, however laws need to be questioned in light of the common good - Stage 6: Morality of individual principles and conscience; people's behavior is based in internal principals of what is right and wrong; people make decisions based on what is right for the common good, regardless of whether or not decisions go against law or higher authority

Erikson: Generativity vs. Stagnation (Adulthood)

Adults are invested in work, family, and communities; the focus is on others

Ainsworth's Styles of Attachment

Ainsworth (1979) described four different types of attachment styles between infants and their mothers: 1. Secure: The caregiver serves as a safe base from which an infant can explore the outside environment - the infant seems confident in exploring her world but will return to the caregiver if unsure or afraid 2. Insecure Avoidant: Infants show little interaction with the caregiver but will cry when the caregiver leaves - the infant shows reluctance in interacting with the caregiver when that person returns 3. Insecure Resistant: The infant may be clingy with the caregiver and refuse to explore but try to push away when being comforted. 4. Insecure Disorganized: Infants appear confused and fearful - they may show fear, anxiety, or resistance around the caregiver

Cognitive Theory

An approach to psychology that attempts to explain human behavior by understanding your thought processes - developed by Aaron Beck, MD, "Father of Cognitive Therapy" - recognized thoughts thoughts mediate perception of a stimulus and the behavior that follows - our thoughts affect our emotions; the development of cognition (or mental processes) and how this development can impact behavior - the aim to help clients recognize and change distorted and negative thoughts, beliefs, and feelings Schema: Thought patterns or mental representations that organize knowledge and information - they result from our efforts to systematically process and store information to make sense of what happens around us Negative Cognitive Schemas: Creates distorted thinking and irrational logic - over-estimates the changes of bad things happening - over-emphasizes or exaggerates the negative effect or impact Automatic Negative Thoughts (ANTs): Thoughts that are negative and random in nature in reference to one's self - clients who suffer from depression or anxiety are vulnerable to ANTs - clinician helps client monitor and recognize ANTs

Infancy & Early Childhood: Attachment

Attachment, as discussed here, refers to the bond or relationship between an infant and her or his caregivers, particularly the mother - the quality of attachment in early infancy affects sub sequent social behavior and development; although, some studies have shown mixed results - attachment is biologically adaptive. - Bowlby's theory of attachment (1958) was based on research with hospitalized children who experienced maternal deprivation - a secure attachment to the caregiver is very important in infancy - secure attachments are the foundation for healthy development later in life - stress, poverty and substance abuse may cause insecure attachments Reactive Attachment Disorder (RAD) - Inappropriate social interactions present before the age of 5 - emotional and/or physical needs unmet - child less likely to interact with others due to negative early experiences. - have difficulty calming down when stressed; do not seek comfort from caregivers. - show little emotions when interacting with others; or are unhappy, irritable, sad, or scared.

How do attachments form with caregivers? What differences are observed in children?

Attuned, sensitive parents respond to child's needs, upsets, emotional arousals. Care that is loving, emotionally attuned, responsive, predictable, and consistent leads to secure attachments. Attachments that are not secure can lead to insecure patterns (e.g. ambivalent, avoidant). Bowlby's attachment theory was tested using the Strange Situation, created by Mary Ainsworth - this assessment technique helped to identify how attachments might vary in children, and was the basis for understanding different attachment styles

Responses to Trauma, Stress, and Ability to Cope

Cognitive development critical to one's ability to manage stress and cope with adversity - within a stress and coping framework (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984), stress is a 2-way process: an event from the environment and one's appraisal and response to the event - challenge (rather than threat) → cope through modifying emotional response or event itself - allostatic load, or the body's ongoing adaptive capacity to deal with stress, can be chronically elevated and stop turning on and off properly Trauma Overwhelms the Ability to Cope... Coping Strategies: - drinking, smoking - sexual promiscuity - drug use Behavioral Symptoms: - jumpiness - defiant behavior - withdrawal - inability to focus - lack of trust Problem Health Behaviors a Form of Coping with Trauma - substance abuse and other risky behaviors may be attempts at coping with trauma when more adequate support are unavailable (Larkin et al., 2014). - "public health problems as attempted personal solutions"

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)

Basis: One's thinking influences one's feelings and behavior - merges cognitive therapies (focus = thinking generates behavior) and behavioral therapies (focus = changing specific behaviors) Is especially effective for psychiatric conditions such as: - Depression - Anxiety disorders (GAD, PTSD, panic, OCD, social phobia) - Eating disorders - Schizophrenia - Personality disorders - Marital problems A focused form of psychotherapy based on a model stipulating that psychiatric disorders involve dysfunctional thinking - distorted thinking can come from a number of influences. - modifying distorted thinking and behavior → symptom improvement - modifying underlying beliefs which underlie thinking → more durable change Popular for several reasons: - strong evidence base (comparable to medication) - clear treatment approach (outcomes-based) - patients have sense of control - present-oriented (current behavior) Elements in CBT Practices - CBT is a collaborative effort between the therapist and client - teaches the benefit of remaining calm or neutral in the face of difficult situations - if upset by your problems, you have 2 problems: (1) the problem, and (2) your being upset as a reaction. - based on "rational thought," fact, not assumptions. - posits that emotional and behavioral reactions are learned - goal of therapy is to unlearn unwanted reactions and learn new ways - homework is central to CBT Rationale for CBT - negative emotions are elicited by cognitive processes developed through influences of learning and temperament. - adverse life events elicit automatic processing, which is viewed as the causal factor. Cognitive triad: Negative automatic thoughts center around our understanding of... - Ourselves - Others (the world) - Future Example: Negative Triad Associated with Depression - Self "I am incompetent/unlovable" - Others "People do not care about me" - Future "The future is bleak"

BioPsychoSocial Approach: Biological/Biophysical

Biological/Biophysical dimension: - biophysical growth and development - biophysical strengths - biophysical hazards and risk factors - you might look at the individual's physical health and functioning (e.g. the client's diet, health (both past and present), exercise patterns, sexual functioning, medication and substance use, and family health and genetic history)

Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

Condition in which the child shows above normal inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity - children with ADHD are easily bored, have difficulty focusing on tasks and activities, show high levels of activity, are unwilling or unable to think before acting, and have low levels of impulse control - ADHD is the most common reason why children are referred to mental health professionals - more common among boys; symptoms in girls can manifest in different ways An individual with ADHD has differences in brain development and activity that affect attention, the ability to sit still, and self-control. Groups of symptoms... 1. Inattentive: May include procrastination, uncompleted activities, being disorganized, lacking focus, having a hard time attending to details, being forgetful about daily activities, getting distracted by trivial noises. 2. Hyperactive: May include fidgeting and squirming when seated, getting up frequently to walk or run, always on the go, talking excessively. 3. Impulsive: May include impatience, having a hard time waiting to talk, frequently interrupt or intrude on others

Macrosystem

Encompasses all the ways in which larger cultural factors affect the other levels of a person's environment and, consequently, how they affect a person's development - cultural patterns, social/legal/economic systems (e.g. policies affecting children and families; political context; societal attitudes against gay marriage, laws prohibiting it, and resulting discrimination in benefits)

Erikson: Industry vs. Inferiority (6-12 years)

Children learn to be productive and successful - e.g. academically and socially

Erikson: Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt (18 months-3 years)

Children learn to do some things independently, such as eat and dress

Erikson: Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6 years)

Children learn to pursue goals and interests (e.g. taking initiative to learn, explore, and manipulate their surroundings)

Erikson: Trust vs. Mistrust (0-18 months)

Children learn to trust others (e.g. caregivers for food, shelter, love)

Emotional Intelligence

Describes such qualities as understanding one's own feelings, empathy for feelings of others, and regulating emotions in ways that enhance life. - research shows that ability to delay gratification and control impulses is a master skill, a sign of EQ - "people skills" such as empathy, graciousness, and the ability to read a social situation are easily recognizable, visible emotional skills - in relation to IQ: Coping with stress, ability to focus

Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

Developed by Jean Piaget beginning about 1920 - he observed and described children at different ages - his theory describes how people develop their capacities to think, learn, and process information from birth through their teenage years - a progressive reorganization of mental processes resulting from biological maturation and environmental experience Four Stages of Cognitive Development: 1. Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years) 2. Preoperational Stage (2-7 years) 3. Concrete Operations Stage (7-11 years) 4. Formal operations stage (11-16 years)

Queer Theory

Developed in the late 1980s and early 1990s, advocates for examining how a society's definition of "normal" effectively excludes, and even pathologizes, all that is not normal - with regard to homosexual identity development, queer theory would suggest that we reexamine the definition of heterosexuality and the binary of heterosexual/homosexual and articulate ways in which that definition is problematic and oppressive - any socially constructed labels, categories, and relationships that are considered binary in nature by the dominant social group should be examined and critiqued - often used as a lens through which to view sexual orientation and the LGBT community, as well as other social "problems" Models such as these help to guide social workers in their work with gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgendered, and questioning teens as they grapple with their sexuality and other psychosocial issues associated with it - social workers can provide a great deal of information and support to teens on all levels - they can help teens to explore their personal feelings and beliefs about sexuality, help teens explore how to involve family and friends in their work, and help them learn how to negotiate larger social issues such as heterosexism and negative attitudes toward homosexuality Heterosexism: Favoritism of heterosexuals that leads to prejudice or discrimination against homosexual and bisexual individuals and groups Homophobia: Type of prejudice involving a fear, anger, disgust, or discomfort with homosexuals Transphobia: Dislike or prejudice of transgender or transexual people

Learning Disabilities

Difficulties among children who demonstrate normal or above normal intelligence and who do not show any signs of developmental disability, but who struggle in some area of academic performance - can manifest as problems in speaking, thinking, and concentration across a broad array of subjects - the numbers of children diagnosed with learning disabilities have been increasing; boys tend to be diagnosed more frequently than girls

Adolescence: Sexual Activity

During puberty, many physical changes take place that cause teens to think about and struggle with the person they are becoming - for many people, the first sexual intercourse experience is associated with sexual maturity - they often see this as a "coming of age" event If, as a social worker, you ascribe to Piaget's theory, you recognize that many adolescents who have not yet attained full formal operational thinking—that is, they cannot reliably think through consequences that may occur in the future—are making decisions about sexual activity - further, psychosocial factors such as emotional and cognitive immaturity, peer pressure, and perceived invulnerability may make some teens more likely to engage in risky behaviors leading to the contraction of STIs Sexually Transmitted Infections (STI): Are infections that pass from one person to another through sexual contact - adolescents ages 15-24 account for nearly half of the 20 million new cases of STIs each year - 4 in 10 sexually active teen girls have had an STI that can cause infertility and even death - males make up more than 66% of HIV diagnoses among 13-19-year-olds - chlamydia is by far the most commonly occurring STI

Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Emphasizes what people encounter in their environment as well as how they adapt to their environment - this theory focuses on how people think and solve problems - very much in contrast to the traditional ways in which we think about intelligence Three main components: 1. Componential Intelligence: Focuses on how people process and analyze - people who are high in componential intelligence perform well on standardized IQ tests 2. Experiential Intelligence: Based on how people perform tasks - people who are high in experiential intelligence can master knowledge and tasks to perform them as if on automatic pilot, which frees them to learn new things - this is also known as "insightful" intelligence 3. Contextual Intelligence: Stresses the practical side of a person's intelligence - it emphasizes a person's ability to adapt to new situations and to successfully navigate in different environments - another way to describe this component is "street smarts" - people who are high in contextual intelligence are good at "working the system" or "jumping through the hoops"

Infancy & Early Childhood: Birth to age 5 or 6

Erikson's Stages: Trust vs. Mistrust (0-18 months) Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt (18-3 years) Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6 years) Piaget's Stages: Sensorimotor (0-2 years) Pre-operational (2-7 years)

Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development

Erikson's psychosocial theory of development considers the impact of external factors, parents and society on personality development from childhood to adulthood - though influenced by Freud, Erikson was interested in development over the entire lifespan - individuals follow a sequence of life stages or "conflicts" that result from biological forces and age-related social/cultural expectations • every person must pass through a series of eight interrelated stages over the entire life cycle • successfully resolving a conflict at each life stage allows for psychological growth Epigenetic Principle: Each stage builds on the preceding stages, and paves the way for subsequent stage Each stage is characterized by a psychosocial crisis, which is based on physiological development, but also on demands put on the individual by parents and/or society - ideally, the crisis in each stage should be resolved by the ego in that stage, in order for development to proceed correctly Eight Stages of Psychological Development: 1. Trust vs. Mistrust (0-18 months) 2. Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt (18 months-3 years) 3. Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6 years) 4. Industry vs. Inferiority (6-12 years) 5. Identity vs. Identity Confusion (Adolescence) 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood) 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (Adulthood) 8. Integrity vs. Despair (Old Age)

Attachment Behavior

From an evolutionary perspective, the caregiver provides safety and security to an infant. - Bowlby also influenced by Harry Harlow's work (1958) with rhesus monkeys. - Bowlby's work diverged from earlier psychoanalytic and behavioral perspectives. Attachment behavior is triggered when infant feels frightened, distressed, confused, or upset - loud noises, feelings of hunger, tired, cold, illness, or danger will also trigger attachment behavior *Goal of attachment behavior is to recover closeness to the primary caregiver* - attachment behavior driven by call for love, and the presence of the mother, a drive akin to hunger for food Attachment Figure - a source of security, a secure base Proximity - the need for attachment is assuaged if caregiver is nearby; when no secure base is close, infant is in despair and resorts to actions that minimize pain of separation anxiety As a result, over time, the child develops his own internal working model of the world in which the self and others are represented, an Attachment Behavioral System - this working model is what individuals base attachments and attachment behaviors on

Infancy & Early Childhood: Emotional Development

Generally, emotion constitutes affect, or a feeling that causes some kind of physiological, behavioral, or cognitive response. Emotion has also been defined as a "feeling that motivates, organizes, and guides perception, thought and action" (Izard, 1991, p. 14) - in infants and toddlers, you can generally sense what kind of emotion they are experiencing through their use of language (for example, cries or coos) Stranger Anxiety - (around 6 months) Intense fear of unfamiliar people - infants vary widely in the ways they display this reaction - infants' reactions tend to depend on the stranger and the situation in which infants encounter the stranger Separation Anxiety - (between 8-18 months) Fear children display when separated, or may become separated, from caregivers - the intensity and frequency with which children show separation anxiety tend to vary a great deal - children reactions may depend on the situation as well as personality characteristics such as their temperaments Social Referencing - Ability to recognize and respond appropriately to emotions exhibited in others - while facial cues are important in social referencing, studies suggest that infants react more strongly to caregivers' vocal cues Studies indicate that young children may be negatively impacted by the environment and can exhibit symptoms of emotional disorders, such as: Major depression, Social anxiety disorder, Prolonged bereavement, Post traumatic stress disorder

Childhood Grief

Grief: Deep mental anguish or sorrow over a loss - it is not a "one size fits all" process - many factors affect a child's grief process and adjustment to life without the dead parent Factors affecting the child's grief and bereavement process include... - the gender of the child and deceased parent - the child's relationship with the surviving parent - the effect of the death on the surviving parent - the preparation and information regarding the death provided to the child - the family's' strengths and resources Mourning: The process of adapting to the loss - the painful, gradual process of recognizing the serious and permanent nature of the loss of a loved one - transforming the relationship with the deceased from an active interactional attachment to one of memory - finding meaning in life in the absence of the deceased - this normal mourning process is characterized by great sadness, feelings of anger, sleep and eating impairment, preoccupation with the death and difficulty concentrating Childhood Traumatic Grief (CTG): The distinguishing feature of CTG is that the trauma symptoms interfere with the child's ability to navigate the typical bereavement process - it is like coupling bereavement and Post Traumatic Stress symptoms. - CTG is a condition that can affect a child's development, relationships and achievements if not otherwise resolved. - losing a parent, sibling, or primary caregiver is a trauma in and of itself - when we are referring to CTG, we are discussing the constellation of symptoms that are more severe than the typical reactions to grief. - it is the child's perception of the death rather than the actual cause that plays the key role in determining whether the child may develop trauma symptoms - these symptoms may be apparent the first few months or may not be observable more than a year later. - for some children, exposure to trauma can cause long-lasting changes in their ability to trust others, affect their sense of personal safety, and their belief in justice and fairness in life. Trauma symptoms may make it difficult for the child to enjoy positive memories of the deceased and cope with life changes. - it is imperative to deal with the trauma symptoms before you can really deal with the grief Childhood Traumatic Grief Symptoms - re-experiencing - distressing thoughts about the event - nightmares - repetitive play involving the trauma in young children - guilt and self- blame - hyper-Arousal - nervous and jumpy - agitated and irritable - increased startle response - avoidance - avoiding thoughts, feelings, places that remind the child of the trauma - withdrawal - becoming disinterested in activities - stomach aches/headache or pain - numb or flat affect Childhood Traumatic Grief Triggers: CTG involves intrusive and distressing trauma-related thoughts, memories, and images that may be triggered by trauma reminders. Trauma reminders: situations, places, people, smells, sights or sounds that remind children of the traumatic nature of the death Loss reminders: thoughts, memories, objects, people, places or situations who remind the child of the deceased person Change reminders: situations, people, places or things that remind the child of changes in living circumstances caused by the death such as new people picking up kids, etc. - example of 12 year old whose mother committed suicide Bowlby's thoughts on childhood grief - Bowlby believed that infants as young as six months old experience grief reactions similar to those of adults. Protest Phase of Separation and Loss: During this phase, infants generally react very forcefully - the intensity of these reactions decreases if the separation is extended, as is what happens with the primary caregiver's death - anxiety, anger, and denial give way to sadness and hopelessness Despair Phase: When the infant fails to bring about the return of his or her attachment figure, they feel despair Recovery: Gradual interest in other activities and social relationships Cognitive Development: A child's ability to understand the meaning and finality of death corresponds to his or her cognitive development. - from infancy to about 18 months to 24 months old, the death of a parent will not be understood. - the child will notice the absence of the parent - they will notice the emotional changes in those providing care - they will become more irritable, crying more; eating habits may change and there may be bowel or bladder upsets Piaget: Preoperational Stage (approx ages 2-6) - here the child believes the deceased person has gone away and will return at some point. - may see death as reversible. - the future, the idea of "never" is outside their understanding - trend toward magical thinking - may not clearly distinguish between thought and action - believe in a direct causal connection between content of their thoughts and subsequent events in the world Egocentrism: Generalize from their own experience/outlook - concrete thinking- very literal Children 5-9 years old can grasp the finality or permanence of death, but are just learning to come to terms with what death means: - lots of questions: Who dies ? Why do people die? - interest in biological processes and what happens with disease Children experience a multitude of feelings once they realize death is final - death can be avoided - they may see death as a punishment for doing something wrong Piaget: Concrete Operational (approx 7- 11 years old) - increased and improved capacities for reasoning - reduced egocentricity - numeric and organizational skills improving resulting in better sense of time - they understand biologically and conceptually that everyone dies (around age 9) Adolescence and Grief Adolescent grief differs from that of children in that - capable of future considerations, abstract and realistic assessments - express personal meaning of parental loss - tend to have a more adult approach to grief and loss because they have achieved formal operations in their cognitive ability If the death of the parent occurred before adolescence, when the child becomes an adolescent, they will then often experience a deeper level of grief when they arrive at the formal operations of thinking Signs of Distress Related to Grief - regression - eating and sleeping, insecurities etc - becoming parentified - problems in school (grades dropping, truancy) - acting out - a desire to join the deceased parent—suicidality - fears of abandonment - prolonged depression - physical manifestations such as fatigue, headaches, stomach issues etc. - isolation/withdrawal

Mesosystem

Interaction of the different microsystems - the interactions among two or more environmental settings in which people live (e.g. the dynamics in a person's work and home lives often impact one another; this is exemplified when a person brings home the tensions from her work)

Internalizing vs. Externalizing Behaviors

Internalizing: - children deal with problems internally rather than acting out. - causes distress to the child. - beliefs: Self-doubt, catastrophizing, expecting the worst in situation and oneself. - consequences: depression, anxiety, withdrawal, inhibition Externalizing: - children deal with problems by acting out. Problem behaviors are directed toward others. - causes distress primarily to others. - beliefs: Musts and shoulds about others, low frustration tolerance. - consequences: ODD, CD, AD/HD, aggression

BioPsychoSocial Approach: Strengths & Limitations

Strengths: - some focus on biological aspects of behavior and problems - helpful in guiding assessment and intervention process Limitations: - too focused on immediate environment - difficult to test constructs empirically and predict behavior - too problem-oriented

Adolescence: Individual Maturation and Self-Esteem

Maturation: Large variability of development in adolescents - early or late maturation may have both positive and negative impacts on adolescents - for boys...early maturation often means increased physical ability, which can bring respect and admiration from peers; whereas, late maturing boys may be perceived as less physically desirable due to their small size - for girls...girls who mature early showed some problems in school but were more popular with boys and showed more independence; also, they may be placed at higher risk of anxiety, depression, substance abuse, early sexual exploration, dysfunctional responses to stress, and problem in school - may be impacted by peers, family, the culture, individual personality, and advances in development Self-Esteem: Overall evaluation of the self - evaluation can influence how they view the world, which can affect further development and well-being - peer/family relationships, body image, media messages, social norms, expectations, and many other variables may impact self-esteem - problems with self-esteem during adolescence may be related to mental health issues later in life

Internal Working Model

Model of how child sees self, others, and social relationships. As child interacts with significant people in her life, she builds a sense of who she is from the way she is viewed and treated. - Loved → Loveable, loving - Rejected → Unlovable, emotionally alone - Valued → Self-worth - Reliable, responsive→ Trust The quality of these attachments becomes internalized and begins to form part of child's psychological make-up

Microsystem

Most immediate environment - where all the roles and relationships that a person has in the immediate environment take place (e.g. physical places such as home, school, work, and the neighborhood)

Infancy & Early Childhood: Motor Development

Motor skill development can be considered in two main categories: 1. Gross Motor Skills - Movements that use large muscles, such as walking or pushing an object - During the first year, infants develop gross motor skills very rapidly Examples: Holding up one's head, sitting, pulling up, rolling over, balance, and walking 2. Fine Motor Skills - Small movements made by small muscle groups, such as fingers and toes Examples: Eye-hand coordination, reaching or grasping, manipulating objects The developmental progression of both types of motor skills tends to follow an orderly, predictable pattern. There are two aspects to this pattern: 1. Cephalocaudal Development - Idea that progression of development moves from the head down - Infants learn to control their necks, heads, and arms before they learn to crawl or walk 2. Proximodistal Development - Tendency of progression of development to move from trunk to extremities - Infants learn to sit up and move their trucks before they are able to use two fingers to grasp

Infancy & Early Childhood: Language Acquisition

Newborns immediately communicate needs via sounds, which become more complex as the child ages - first words generally occur between 10 and 15 months - are able to speak full sentences by 3 years - children from a lower socioeconomic status struggle with language development more than children from higher socioeconomic status - language development is universal Language Acquisition Devise (LAD) - Mechanism an infant is born with that enables the understanding and mastery of language

Classical Conditioning vs. Operant Conditioning

One of the simplest ways to remember the differences between classical and operant conditioning is to focus on whether the behavior is involuntary or voluntary Classical conditioning involves associating an involuntary response and a stimulus - classical conditioning involves no such enticements - classical conditioning is passive on the part of the learner - classical conditioning, on the other hand, involves forming an association with some sort of already naturally occurring event. Operant conditioning is about associating a voluntary behavior and a consequence - in operant conditioning, the learner is also rewarded with incentives - operant conditioning requires the learner to actively participate and perform some type of action in order to be rewarded or punished - for operant conditioning to work, the subject must first display a behavior which can then be either rewarded or punished

BioPsychoSocial Approach

Understanding human behavior through assessing an individual's interrelated biological, psychological, and social functioning - unlike the micro-mezzo-macro model, the level of functioning in these areas is usually assessed on the individual level Focus: Individual & immediate environment Assumptions: Some emphasis is placed on people's active involvement in their immediate environment Each area is assessed as it relates to the client or person with the presenting problem in three dimensions: 1. Biological/Biophysical 2. Psychological 3. Social

Infancy & Early Childhood: Family and Environment

Parenting skills, competence, and styles have enormous impacts on the children - various cultures value different characteristics in children, and support a wide range of parenting techniques Parenting Styles 1. Authoritarian: Parent is controlling and insists on conformity; establishes rules and ideas about how child should behave - this style is associated with children who are unhappy, fearful, and anxious and who lack initiative and communication skills. 2. Authoritative: Parent offers some control, consistent support, and compromise; encourages independence with limits and negotiation - this style is associated with children who are cheerful, motivated, and self-directed and who demonstrate social competence in communication and cooperation 3. Neglectful: Parent is uninvolved with the child; offers little structure for or control over the child - this style is associated with children who have low self esteem and poor self-control and who are immature and socially incompetent. 4. Indulgent: Parent is highly involved with child; does not offer much structure for or control over the child; makes few demands of the child - this style is associated with children who show poor self-control and a lack of respect for others

Erikson: Integrity vs. Despair (Old Age)

People develop a sense of well-being based on reflection and resolution of the past

Exosystem

Pertains to the linkages that may exist between two or more settings - one of which may not contain the individual, but still affects the individual nonetheless (e.g. parent's anger due to employment and hitting their kid; improvised neighborhoods having a lack of resources which causes stress for students to focus when hungry)

Stages of Attachment

Pre-Attachment (0-6 weeks): Newborn infants know to act in such a way that attracts adults, such as crying, smiling, cooing, and making eye contact - although not attached to their mothers yet, they are soothed by the presence of others Attachment in Making (6 weeks - 6/8 months): Infants begins to develop a sense of trust in their mothers, in that they can depend on her in times of need - they are soothed more quickly by their mother, and smile more often next to her Clear Cut Attachment (6/8 months - 18 months): Attachment is established - the infant prefers his mother over anyone else, and experiences separation anxiety when she leaves - the intensity of separation anxiety is influenced by the infant's temperament and the way in which caregivers respond and soothe the infant Formation of Reciprocal Relationships (18 months - 2 years): As language develops, separation anxiety declines - the infant can now understand when his mother is leaving and when she will be coming back - in addition, a sense of security has developed, in that even when his mother is not physically there, he knows she is always there for him - Bowlby called this sense of security an *internal working model*

Adolescence: Puberty

Process of physical changes that occur in the transition from childhood to adulthood - rapid physical and sexual development accompanied by hormonal, emotional, and other changes - primary and secondary sex characteristics are developed - in industrialized countries, a secular trend has emerged as youth have begun to start puberty earlier than in past generations. - hormones, and their imbalance, may impact behavior

BioPsychoSocial Approach: Psychological

Psychological dimension: - cognitive development and information processing - communication - attitudes and emotions - self and identity - social cognition and regulation - psychological strengths - psychological hazards and risk factors - you might assess the individual's emotional and cognitive development by referring them to a psychologist for intelligence (IQ) (e.g. the client's self-esteem, coping skills, mental health (both past and present), personality characteristics, family history of mental illness, spiritual development, and cognitive and emotional development)

Adolescence: Eating Disorders

Psychological disorder characterized by abnormal or disturbed eating habits - stress, genetics, and family and peer dynamics seem to contribute to the development of eating disorders Anorexia Nervosa: Characterized by a restriction of food intake, excessive exercise, and vomiting or consumption of laxatives - refusal to maintain body weight that is appropriate for age and height; intense fear of gaining weight Effects... - anxiety, depression, flat affect, obsessive-compulsive behaviors - dry skin, stunted growth, fine hair on body, sensitivity to cold, reduced bone density, irregular loss of menstruation, cardiac problems, death Treatment...anti-depressant medications, family-based and psychodynamic therapies Bulimia Nervosa: Characterized by binge eating and purging pattern - extreme exercise, vomiting, and laxative use are typical. - distorted body image - may experience depression, obsessive-compulsive behaviors, and substance abuse Effects... - dehydration, dizziness, cardiac problems, electrolyte imbalances, tooth enamel erosion Treatment...anti-depressant medications, family-based and cognitive-behavioral therapies

Attachment Styles & Relationships Later in Life

Secure: Caregiver was emotionally responsive to child. - as an adult, can develop close and trusting relationships; problem-solving is done through communication. Avoidant: Caregiver was absent or indifferent, and child learns not to depend on others. - as an adult, has difficulty forming close relationships; has intimacy or trust issues; may have negative attitude toward people in general. Anxious/Ambivalent: Caregiver was inconsistent/neglectful in providing attention and care, and child becomes anxious and unsure of oneself. - as an adult, will seek intimate relationships but are concerned about their partner not staying with them, may get jealous, or have fear of abandonment.

Ainsworth's Styles of Attachment in regards to the Strange Situation

Separation Anxiety - Secure: Distressed when mother leaves - Resistant: Intense distress when the mother leaves - Avoidant: No sign of distress when the mother leaves Stranger Anxiety - Secure: Avoidant of stranger when alone, but friendly when the mother is present - Resistant: The infant avoids the stranger, shows fear of the stranger - Avoidant: The infant is okay with the stranger and plays normally when the stranger is present Reunion Behavior - Secure: Positive and happy when the mother returns - Resistant: The infant approaches the mother, but resists contact and may even push her away - Avoidant: The infant shows little interest when the mother returns

Separation and Divorce

Separation and divorce are more common today than even a generation ago. - a child may be impacted by the separation of his or her parents - children can see the stress parents may feel about separation or divorce - child's age and development partially determine how the child will react Some of the major issues facing children who have experienced divorce include... - low self-esteem - academic - attachment - behavioral (e.g. acting out, delinquency, promiscuity in teen years) - emotional problems (e.g. anxiety, depression) What are the child's coping abilities? - Coping Abilities - Level of Development: children who are able to cognitively process the divorce as well as understand the complex nuances behind the reasons for the divorce will probably fare better than their younger counterparts, who are less likely to grasp why the divorce is occurring - Gender: research has indicated that boys adjust better to divorce than girls Parents going through separation should... - maintain open and respectful communication with children - ensure children understand they are not to blame - maintain a consistent daily routine - support the children - be realistic but hopeful

BioPsychoSocial Approach: Social

Social dimension: - groups and families - communities and social supports - organizations and social institutions - multicultural and gender considerations - social strengths - social hazards and risk factors - you might focus on family issues and dynamics (e.g. the client's work stability, engagement with social activities and recreation, and relationships with family, friends, and co-workers)

Early Vocalizations in Language Development of the Infant

Starting at Birth: Crying - signals fear, anger, pain, and hunger. About 3 weeks - 2 months: Cooing - repeated vowel-like sounds such as "ooh" or "aah." - cooing and gurgling often convey happiness and satisfaction. About 4-6 months: Babbling - repeated sounds that have no outward meaning but reflect the new language babies are learning. (e.g. "baba") About 8-12 months: Gestures - behaviors that include pointing, showing, waving and nodding ---- On average, spoken language skills develop rapidly between 10 and 36 months 10-15 months: When children speak their first words 18-24 months: Children generally begin with a vocabulary of 50 words and can expand to 200 words during this period. Words used generally have meaning, and two-word combinations become more common: - dada, Mama, bye-bye, no, juice - "more juice" and "want ball" 24-36 months: Children have a vocabulary of about 1,000 words and can speak full sentences

"Alternative" Family Forms

Stepfamilies and blended families - blending families may face adjustment difficulties - new roles, rules, and responsibilities Single parent and cohabiting households - over 50% of all U.S. births are to single women under 30 - children exhibit more frequent behavioral, mental health, and learning problems - children's problems may not be directly related to parenting stressors Gay and lesbian parents - children and parents may face discrimination - using technological advances to create a child may impact the child's self-concept throughout multiple developmental stages

Sternberg: Strengths & Limitations

Strengths: - many professionals view Sternberg's approach to intelligence as a more positive and strengths-based way to think about people who score below average on standardized intelligence tests - this theory can help to explain why some people who do not seem to possess high levels of typical intelligence are able to succeed in life, despite barriers that appear insurmountable to others - some social workers would argue that a theory such as this one is invaluable in their work with clients - it also speaks to the need to revisit the ways in which cognitive skills of children and adults are evaluated, given that these evaluations are often used as criteria for access to services and programs Limitations: - it describes only one of many factors that can impact human behavior: How useful can a theory be to social workers that describes whether someone is more likely to be good at crunching numbers or "jumping through the hoops" at her or his workplace? - the underlying concepts can be difficult to define, measure, and evaluate: How do social workers define "street smarts," for example? - finding ways to validate and justify the use of alternative forms of intelligence can be daunting, given the widespread use of standardized intelligence testing: How can social workers prove to policy-makers the value of investing in people who have skills that differ from those included in traditional definitions of intelligence?

Psychodynamic Theory: Strengths & Limitations

Strengths: - notion of the unconscious - the role of childhood experiences; stages of development could be located with the age of the client - influenced object relations theory (relationships with others based on family experiences), which led to attachment theory - importance of therapeutic dyad - influenced subsequent stage theories; focuses on the individual to analysis the development to get a better understanding of the conflict - brought sexual awareness when dealing with psychological analysis Limitations: - not evidence-based; almost impossible to measure empirically; more humanities than science? - sexist/misogynistic, heterosexist (e.g. penis envy, women's "hysteria") - knowledge, insight, or interpretation alone is not curative (though modern psychoanalysts question this too) - psychoanalysis is extremely time consuming, and thus could be costly - outdated and controversial due to the test subjects for his theory were rich Caucasian women; was not inclusive to different socioeconomic variables - it focuses solely on the individual, ignoring the impact of outside forces on client problems, such as economics or discriminatory or problematic social policies

Erikson: Strengths & Limitations

Strengths: - provides a broad, integrative framework - provides insight into the directions of healthy development across the lifespan - explains culture and its affects towards development - concept of psychosocial crises considers individual differences within a framework of normal development Limitations: - there is so much variation in development; these stages can be limiting and too linear - the constructs are abstract and hard to measure and test - social norms and expectations are always changing - may not be valid across cultures

Ecological Theory: Strengths & Limitations

Strengths: - A comprehensive approach to problems - Easy to apply concepts in practice - Considers dynamic interaction between person and environment Limitations: - Too broad to easily predict behavior - Difficult to test constructs empirically and predict behavior - Not enough focus on the biological aspects of behavior and problems

Kohlberg: Strengths & Limitations

Strengths: - this theory does offer social workers a broad way to think about the moral development of their clients and how this development might affect clients' behaviors and responses to problems - cross-cultural studies confirm that children of various cultures progress through Kohlberg's pre-conventional level into the stages of the conventional level - theory reinforces the fact that as our thinking matures, our behavior becomes less selfish and more caring; more "moral" Limitations: - it places too much emphasis on cognition; that is, the theory describes what people think is right, but that does not necessarily translate into what people actually do - we can understand what people are thinking only if they can verbalize their reasoning - unfortunately, not everyone can do this in the same way - consequently, some people might seem as though they are not as morally "advanced" as others because they cannot verbalize their thinking - Kohlberg's theory is biased in that it may not apply to women or people of other cultures - specifically, Kohlberg's theory is based in individualistic thinking, which may not apply to people who are more concerned with the perspectives of others and who take those perspectives into consideration when making decisions

Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)

Stressful or traumatic events, including abuse and neglect - they may also include household dysfunction such as witnessing domestic violence or growing up with family members who have substance use disorders - linked to health problems, substance use problems, and behavioral health problems later in life - ACEs are strongly related to the development and prevalence of a wide range of health problems throughout a person's lifespan, including those associated with substance misuse ACEs include: - Physical abuse - Sexual abuse - Emotional abuse - Physical neglect - Emotional neglect - Intimate partner violence - Mother treated violently - Substance misuse within household - Household mental illness - Parental separation or divorce - Incarcerated household member Poverty and ACEs - children in poverty who grow up in dangerous neighborhoods are far more likely to be traumatized as children and less likely to overcome adversity (Pinderhughes, Davis, & Williams, 2015 - Prevention Institute Report) - trauma is pervasive, manifests at a community level, and can be prevented

Adolescence: Suicide

Suicide among adolescents has been an increasing problem over the past several decades - suicide is the second leading cause of death for young people aged 15 to 24 - females are more likely to attempt suicide, while males are more likely to die from suicide attempts Stressful life events contribute to a high risk of suicide: - Abuse - Alcohol or drug use - Depression, or feelings of hopelessness - Teen pregnancy - Lack of strong family supports or other relationships - Academic problems - Discrimination due to sexual orientation Suicide is a particularly important issue among homosexual youths - gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgendered adolescents, as well as youths questioning their sexuality, are at even higher risk for suicide than heterosexual youths - moreover, many teens may be victims of discrimination, violence, or family rejection because of their sexuality, which is an additional stressor that increases their risk for suicide - the development of a homosexual identity in adolescence is difficult and can lead to problems such as depression, substance abuse, and feelings of isolation - these are factors that contribute to a higher suicide rate for sexual minority youth Social workers need to be aware of these pressures so they can provide the added support that these young people often require - a useful tool for assessing the possibility of suicide is the SAD PERSONS scale - the acronym makes it easy to remember, and the components to be assessed are empirically based predictors for suicide - the social worker gives one point to each component that is present for a client; the higher the score, the higher the risk for suicide for that particular client SAD PERSONS Suicide Assessment Sex (Males are more likely to complete suicide) Age (Younger than 25 and older than 45 are more likely to complete suicide) Depression Previous attempt Ethanol abuse Rational thinking loss Social support loss Organized plan No spouse or partner Sickness

Adolescence: Cognitive Development

Teen's cognitive skills become more complex and sophisticated - begin to think hypothetically and about abstract ideas; Piaget's operations stage - Meta-thought: The ability to think about thinking - personality and emotional developments continue - youth begin to establish more "adult-like" identities - many adolescents have established identities that will endure into adulthood, although these identities likely will be modified some what throughout adulthood and into old age - will be negatively influenced with use of drugs or alcohol - often make "irrational" decisions or even dangerous decisions since their brain is not fully developed

Infancy & Early Childhood: Temperament

Temperament refers to consistent behavioral and emotional responses to one's environment and interactions with others. - Thought to be present at birth and consistent with throughout one's life Chess & Thomas (1977) Three Main Temperament Styles: 1. Easy child: These children generally display happy, positive moods and adapt easily to their environment 2. Difficult child: These children are fussy, cry frequently, and have trouble adapting to changes in the environment 3. Slow-to-warm-up child: These children tend to show low levels of activity, emotion, and adaptability and tend to be somewhat negative Different children display a wide range of temperaments that may not fit nicely into categories

Ainsworth's Strange Situation

The "strange situation" experiment was conducted with infants 12-18 months in a sample of 100 middle-class American families. 1. Parent and baby enter playroom. 2. Parent sits quietly while baby plays → Parent as secure base for exploration 3. Stranger enters and talks with parent → Baby's response to new adult 4. Parent leaves the room. Baby is alone with the stranger → Baby's response to separation 5. Parent returns. Stranger leaves → Baby's response to reunion 6. Parent leaves. Baby alone in the room → Baby's response to separation 7. Stranger enters and offers comfort → Baby's ability to accept comfort from a stranger 8. Parent returns and offers comfort if needed and tries to get the baby to play → Baby's response to reunion

Ecological Theory: Adaptation

The ability of individuals to adjust to their environments

Ecological Theory: Energy

The active engagement of people with their environments. Energy can take the form of input or output Ecological Theory: Interdependence The reciprocal and mutually reliant relationships that people have with one another and with their environments

Ecological Theory: Social Environment

The conditions, circumstances, and human interactions that encompass human beings Ecological Theory: Transactions Communication, interactions, or exchanges that occur between people and their environments - these can be positive or negative communications or exchanges

Adolescence: Sexual Identity Development

The development of a sexual identity is a complex process that is affected by many biopsychosocial factors - because of the great diversity of individual experience, researchers find it difficult not only to articulate precisely what sexual identity is but also to study how identity develops in ways that describe the experiences of most people Sex (biological): Ascribed (assigned) status at birth based on anatomy and physiology - such as being male, female, or intersex Intersex: A variety of conditions in which a baby may be born with some combination of reproductive or sexual anatomy that is not congruent with their gender appearance - parents of children with intersex characteristics are now being advised to wait until the child displays gender characteristics before proceeding with hormonal and surgical procedures Sexual Identity: Refers to a person's sexual orientation as well as an array of beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors related to sexuality Sexual Orientation: Refers to how people classify themselves in terms of an inherent or immutable enduring emotional, romantic, or sexual attraction to other people - such as being straight, gay, lesbian, bisexual, asexual, queer - heterosexism and heterosexual privilege assumes heterosexuality is the norm

Chronosystem

The environmental events and transitions that occur throughout a child's life, including any sociohistorical events (e.g. changes over the life course in family structure; socioeconomic status; employment; placement of residence)

Intelligence and Intelligence Testing

Traditional definitions of intelligence, which rely on standardized intelligence tests and IQ (which is discussed later in this section), play a significant role in society - many social institutions, including schools, use standardized definitions and assessments to categorize people into groups based on their intellectual abilities - however, standardized tests do not take into account cultural differences, various learning styles, and learning disabilities that people may have - very Eurocentric Standardized Tests: 1. Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test: Developed by Alfred Binet in 1905 to identify children with learning problems - Intelligence Quotient (IQ): A measure of intelligence calculated by dividing a person's mental age by his or her chronological age, then multiplying by 100 2. Wechsler scales: Tests individuals aged 6-6.5, 6-16, and 17+ - these scales provide an overall IQ score as well as two separate scores on verbal and performance IQ

Adolescence: Substance Abuse

Trends in teen drug and alcohol use change over time - alcohol and other substance use and abuse can cause myriad short- and long term problems for adolescents and their families - alcohol is the substance abused most frequently by adolescents Factors associated with substance abuse: - family history of alcohol/drug abuse - stressful life events - stressful relationships - conflicted relationships with peers and parents - poor social supports from peers and parents, lack of quality relationships, and frequent conflict and arguments in relationships Effects of substance abuse: - higher rates of violence, accidents, teen pregnancies, STIs - early sexual intercourse - long- and short term health problems - disrupted development - lower financial success - poor academic achievement

Erikson: Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adults)

Young adults look for closeness and intimacy in relationships

Piaget: Pre- Operational Stage (2-7 years)

• Egocentrism: Children cannot take into account the perspectives of others when thinking about objects or events - world revolves around the child; they cannot understand a situation or event from another's perspective • Classification is Limited: Children can differentiate between two objects based on their differences and unique properties - children are able to differentiate objects only based on one difference at a time • Children cannot understand conservation (objects remain the same even if its characteristics change) and seriation (differentiate objects based on size, weight, and length) Activities for children in the pre-operational stage: - Smell games; guess items based on smell - Planting seeds - Cooking and baking

Adaptive Tasks for Homosexual Adolescents

• Expanding one's self-concept within the context of gender, family, and cultural group: Many homosexual teens must come to terms with the discrepancies between how they think, feel, and behave and a world that assumes people are heterosexual. Teens must learn to develop positive feelings about themselves in an environment that rewards heterosexuality. • Changing one's relationships and establishing independence: Adolescence is normally a time when people begin to question the values and beliefs of their parents. Many families hold heterosexist beliefs and may even openly condemn homosexuality as immoral. Homosexual teens must confront these beliefs and attempt to define themselves within the context of their relationships and social environment. • Building social supports: Though peer groups can be helpful to teens in exploring identity, many homosexual teens may have trouble finding appropriate social supports in which to do this. Heterosexual peers may not be accepting of homosexuality and may aggravate homosexual teens' attempts to establish an identity and place within a social structure. • Exploring career, vocational, and educational goals: Adolescence is a time to work on self-efficacy through achievement and success in academics, setting the stage for pursuing higher education and career-related goals. Homosexual teens must confront institutional discrimination and find ways to move toward their goals while fighting social barriers that may impede their success. • Establishing intimate relationships: Dating, flirting, holding hands, falling in love, and other activities that occur during adolescence that help teens prepare for adult relationships are difficult for homosexual teens to do, at least in public. Homosexual teens must find other ways to "practice" relationship skills; often this is done through passing as heterosexual or lying about one's identity, which hinders the development of honest, trusting intimate relationships

Piaget: Formal Operations stage (11-16 years)

• Hypothetical-deductive reasoning: Children can engage in abstract thinking, consider multiple aspects of an object or event at one time, formulate hypotheses, analyze properties of objects/events • Advanced problem solving abilities • Able to consider possible outcomes and predict consequences of actions Activities for children in the Formal Operations stage: - Give problems with multiple variables (Chemistry experiment) - Read Sherlock Holmes - Play the "What If" game or 20 Questions

Piaget: Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years)

• Object permanence: When a child learns that objects continue to exist even if the objects are out the range of child's senses • Actions such as sucking and rooting; crying • Focus shifts from self to outside world • Develop beginning symbolic capacities that allow them to hold rudimentary pictures of objects, or words for objects, in their minds Activities for children in the sensorimotor stage: - Peek-a-boo - Roll a ball back and forth - Practice filling and emptying containers - Shape sorters - Hide-and-seek with objects

Piaget: Concrete Operations Stage (7-11 years)

• Understand events from another's perspective • Comprehend complex relationships among variables • Learn to use symbols to communicate, such as those used in math and writing • Classification: Children are able to differentiate objects in multiple ways based on color and shape • Seriation: Children are able to differentiate objects based on size, weight, and length • Master classification, conservation, seriation Activities for children in the Concrete Operations stage: - More complex puzzles - Competitive games, such as Capture the Flag and Monopoly - Scavenger hunts - Legos - Reading