HBSE II: Quiz 3
Emerging Adulthood
"It is in many respects the age of possibilities, a period in which many different potential futures remain possible and personal freedom and exploration are higher for most people than at any other time." -Arnett A phase of the life span developed by Jeffery Arnett, Ph.D., psychologist - argues there is a separate developmental stage between Adolescence and Young Adulthood - approximately ages 18-25 Arnett emphasizes Emerging Adulthood is not the same as Young Adulthood for these reasons: - young adulthood implies that adulthood has been reached, whereas people in this age group 18-25 are likely to disagree that they are adults - "young" adulthood is better applied to those in their 30's as they have reached adulthood, yet are still young - "emerging" describe the dynamic changing fluidity of this life stage - the late teens & early twenties time of life is very different from 30's - 18-25-generally are in process of getting education, training, & jobs - 30's-tend to be more stable, more settled in education/occupation - emerging adulthood suggests a gradual progression to adulthood Characteristics of Emerging Adulthood - primarily found in Westernized/industrialized countries - persons in this age group tend to feel they are not adults, yet not teens. - delay/postponement of marriage/child rearing - higher education required for workforce, thus delays entry into adulthood - middle-upper social class have more opportunity for this delayed entry - minority groups may not have opportunity for delay of adulthood - more identity formation in emerging adulthood than adolescence - trying out new possibilities, then working towards a more lasting decision - try out new, exciting experiences (risk taking) Most Distincitive Feature of Emerging Adulthood Identity exploration: 1. Love 2. Work 3. Worldview Culture & Emerging Adulthood - emerging adulthood as a cultural construct - in taditional cultures marriage typically is the event that indicates transition to adulthood - westernized/industrialized cultures view achieving adulthood with individualistic criteria: responsible for self, independent, self sufficient, etc - minority groups in America tend to combine individualistic criteria with collectivistic criteria (greater obligation to others, less self oriented) Immigration & Emerging Adulthood - emerging adulthood: Time of transition & exploration, also can be a time of stress - immigration: Time of transition, also a time of stress - immigration can impact Emerging Adulthood: 1. Challenge sense of self 2. More stressors, more demands 3. Learn new language, culture, norms, rules 4. Possible discrimination, hostilities - may move into adulthood sooner due to increase demands - closeness with parents and family support are protective factors - culture has unique influence
Young Adulthood & Addiction
Characteristics of Young Adulthood 1. Identity Formed 2. Roles Established 3. Focus on Career Path 4. Exploration (Career, Lifestyle, Relationship) 5. Focus Changes from Self to Others 6. Establish Intimate Relationships 7. Child Rearing Tasks of Young Adulthood 1. Economic Independence 2. Decision-making Independence 3. Living Independence 4. Manage New Responsibilities 5. Intimate Relationships Biological Development in Young Adulthood - physical growth completed - maximum performance for: • muscle strength • motor skills & task performance • vision & hearing • memory - research suggests brain growth continue until age 25 - focus on reproduction, fertility - generally, a healthy status in this age group Health Risks - nutrition risks - metabolism slows, contribute to increasing weight - STD's - injuries & accidents - substance use contributes to health risks - risks for chronic illness , diseases & cancers increase Psychological Development in Young Adulthood - cognitive: Piaget's Formal Operational Stage • with more experience, and education may be able to use formal operational thinking - changes in thinking from adolescence to adult • leave egocentrism, can consider other views - identity formed - communication - regulation of emotions - moral development (Postconventional Stage) - intimacy/love - emergence of mental illness Erikson's Psychosocial Developmental Stage: Intimacy vs. Isolation - necessary to have successfully established identity in prior stage in order to have intimate relationship - important to develop emotionally satisfying relationships - these relationships are important to well-being through out adulthood - success in this stage will lead to more stability - failure in this stage will result in isolation, less committed relationships, difficulty in relationships, loneliness • Intimacy: - capacity to have a relationship with another without losing one's own identity - being open to another person - sharing experiences, emotions & feelings, viewpoints - respect for one another - reciprocal communication - give and receive empathy - intimacy can be found in the different type of relationships: marriages, partnerships, friendships, community • Isolation: - individual may be reluctant or unwilling to be in intimate relationship - fear of commitment, fear of opening up oneself to another - not secure in identity formation - attachment experiences - situational barriers to intimacy - may lead to loneliness, depression Psychological Risks in Young Adulthood - emergence of Mental Illness • schizophrenia • bipolar Disorder • personality Disorders • anxiety Disorders • depression - substance Use/Abuse - stress - isolation/loneliness Risks in Social Dimension Young Adulthood - lack of social support - family functioning - interpersonal violence - unemployment/low employment - financial/poverty - housing/living conditions - availability/access to community resources Addiction - activation of the brain reward system - substances act upon the system and changes the system - produces euphoria, feelings of pleasure, a "high" - continue use to gain/maintain high - may eventually use the drug to feel "normal" - patterns of behavior to obtain, gain, maintain the substances - psychological, cognitive, behavioral & physical changes occur - impact in the social system Risk for Addition - multi-Factorial • genetic: more likely to have family member with substance use problem • evironmental: many environmental variables may contribute (Stress, trauma, economic, behavioral, etc) - mental health disorders also common in persons with substance use Symptoms of Drug Abuse - develop physical and/or psychological dependence - experience withdrawal symptoms - experience intense craving - spend a lot of time trying to obtain/use drug, neglect usual activities, family, work, school - continue to use despite being aware of hazards/risks (i.e. health, legal, family, work problems) - many attempts to stop/cut down Consequences of Use •Biological: - brain function - cardiac - liver disease - gastrointestinal - kidney disease - lung disease - malnutrition - cancers - injuries • Psychological: - cognitive impairment - mood changes - anxiety/depression • Social: - family functioning - legal problems - loss of social support - financial issues - job loss - housing loss Treatment - detox - aversion therapy - motivational interviewing - cognitive-behavioral therapy: individual & group - support groups/12 Step Meetings (AA) - family therapy - inpatient, residential, outpatient
Arnett et al., 2014: The new life stage of emerging adulthood at ages 18-29 years: implications for mental health
In high-income countries today, the period from 18 years to 29 years of age is more usefully understood as a life stage of emerging adulthood - emerging adulthood is a period of heightened instability since young people experience a series of love relationships and frequent job changes before making enduring decisions - to treat these individuals as adolescents underestimate their capacities for self-direction, self-reflection, and independent living - more than 40% in people aged 18-29 years, higher than in people in any other age range, especially for anxiety disorders, mood disorders, and substance misuse Arnett has proposed four cultural beliefs that underlie the period of emerging adulthood in high-income countries: 1. The value of attaining independence and self-sufficiency before making adult commitments 2. The goal of finding a so-called soul mate in marriage who will complement one's own identity 3. The search for work that will be experienced as an expression of one's own identity 4. A view of this period of life as one of self-focused fun Demographic transitions: ever later There has been a shift from an economy based on manufacturing to one based mainly on services (such as business, health care, and education) - demographic changes show that a person's twenties, which used to be a time of settling into adult responsibilities in work and family roles, are now something else entirely - instead of taking on marriage and parenthood in their early or mid-twenties, most young people have a series of intimate relationships, - also, instead of entering a stable work path, most young people remain in education or training of some kind into their early twenties then make a transition into the workforce, with frequent job changes punctuated by periods of unemployment or underemployment USA: five features of emerging adulthood Arnett proposed five features as distinct (although not unique) to emerging adulthood 1. Identity explorations - entails trying out various possibilities for what kind of person to be and what kind of life to live, specifically in the areas of love relationships, work, and ideology - it can be exciting but are often daunting and confusing to the person, especially for emerging adults who find themselves unable to make choices about which paths to explore, or who feel the choices they would like to make in love relationships and work are unattainable - anxiety disorders and mood disorders are prevalent during the emerging adult years 2. Instability - emerging adulthood is arguably the most unstable period of the lifespan - it is certainly the time when changes in love relationships and work are most frequent - emerging adults' instability in love relationships and work is derived partly from their identity explorations - also, frequent changes of residence mean that emerging adults might often find themselves without adequate social support; therefore, leading to higher rates of anxiety and depression 3. Self-focus - emerging adulthood is a self-focused time of life, in the sense that it is the time when people have the fewest daily social roles and obligations to others - emerging adults have obligations, too, but the strength of these obligations might be less than in other life stages - emerging adults in the USA often thrive on their self focused independence - however, being self-focused might be accompanied by low social support and consequent depression 4. Feeling in-between - emerging adults tend to view themselves as being neither adolescents nor adults but somewhere in between, on the way to adulthood but not there yet - the feeling of being in-between adolescence and adulthood might be derived from the criteria that emerging adults view as most important in adulthood - tend to be gradual and psychological: "accepting responsibility for one's self" and "making independent decisions" - feeling in-between might elicit feelings of depression and anxiety in some emerging adults, especially those who believe they should feel more adult at their current age than they actually are 5. Possibilities or optimism - although emerging adulthood is often a time of struggle and mixed emotions nearly all emerging adults in the USA believe their future is bright - the optimism of emerging adults in the face of dire economic conditions could be argued as being misplaced, especially for those in the lower end of the socioeconomic spectrum who face the prospect of low wages and high unemployment in their adult lives - however, optimism can be used as a psychological resource during what is often a stressful and difficult decade of life Europe: struggle amidst prosperity Currently, Europe is one of the most affluent and healthy societies in human history - however, emerging adults in most countries in Europe face serious barriers to entering the workforce - unemployment is especially high in young people who have little education - people with less education struggle more to find adequate jobs than they did previously - even for people with tertiary education, the entry into the workforce presents some issues - better success at finding a job than do their less educated peers, but they are often underemployed, in jobs that are not commensurate with the education they have received - in both Europe and the USA, unemployment has been associated with increased risk of depression, especially for emerging adults who do not have strong parental support Japan: movement towards individualism Japan has had demographic changes in the rise of a new life stage of emerging adulthood, especially with respect to the length of education, and the timing of marriage and parenthood - emerging adulthood into adulthood is increasingly an individualistic project, in which young people concentrate on developing independence, agency, and identity - Japan seemed to achieve economic success while maintaining traditional societal values of collectivism and interdependence - traditional values of filial piety, social obligations, and social harmony remain important to young people in Japanese society - nevertheless, Japanese culture has become substantially more individualistic - Japan's education council has revised the teaching guidelines for schools to emphasize the development of agency and individuality in children and adolescents in the era of economic globalization - a distinctive mental health problem is the suicide rate in people aged 20-39 years, which is higher than in older or in younger age groups and is the leading cause of death in people aged 20-39 years - a key reason for suicide is the failure to find a job, which has been increasing in people between 20 and 29 years of age since the global recession began in 2007 - although this increase might relate to increasing individualism, it probably also portrays growing difficulty in the entry to the workforce during Japan's persistent economic stagnation - another mental health problem that has increased in recent years and might be linked to individualism is acute social withdrawal, called hikikomori - they withdraw into their homes to avoid failure in making the transition to adulthood and minimize their social contact
Webb et al., 2010: Using theories of behaviour change to inform interventions for addictive behaviours
There are several theories from social and health psychology that have been used to predict and promote behaviour change in the field of addiction - provide useful insights for promoting changes in addictive behaviours when considered in isolation and in combination with other theories - while the mechanisms of developing addiction or substance dependence involve cognitive, emotional and physiological processes, the manifestations of addiction are largely behavioural - behaviour is termed 'addictive' when it meets two conditions: (a) the strength of its reinforcement (e.g. reward-seeking or withdrawal avoidance) makes self-regulation of the behaviour very difficult and (b) the failure to regulate prevents the achievement of the person's or society's goals—in other words, the behaviours are maladaptive 1. Control Theory - once a goal has been set it serves as a 'reference value' in a control system that compares the current rate of behaviour change (input function) against this point of reference - perceived discrepancy between actual and ideal state - this theory provides a useful integrative framework for understanding the process of self-regulation - successful self-regulation is—in part—the process of inhibiting a lower-level goal in favour of a higher-level goal - prompts monitoring of behaviour 2. Goal-Setting Theory - this theory was developed to incorporate a growing body of evidence on the relationship between performance goals and subsequent performance - focuses on how different reference values influence behaviour - task difficulty and goal specificity - set specific and challenging goals 3. Model of Action Phases - ability to act on discrepancies between reference values and input - intention, planning - form implementation intentions 4. Strength Model of Self-Control - ability to act on discrepancies between reference values and input - state of the self-control resource - bolster self-control resources 5. Protection Motivation Theory - determinants of reference values - intention (protection motivation) - change appraisals of threat and coping 6. Theory of Planned Behaviour - determinants of reference values - intention, perceived behavioural control - change attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control 7. Health Belief Model - determinants of reference values, environmental disturbance - perceived threat, perceived efficacy, general health motivation, and cues to action - change perceived threat, perceived efficacy, general health motivation and/or cues to action 8. Elaboration Likelihood Model - determinants of reference values - message acceptance - consider targets' motivation and ability to process the information 9. Prototype Willingness Model - determinants of reference values, direct effects on behaviour - intention, willingness - change prototype perceptions 10. Social Cognitive Theory - self-efficacy - modify one of the four sources of self-efficacy Even when authors claim that their intervention is 'theory-based', it can be unclear exactly how theory has influenced intervention development - behavioural interventions are often reported poorly and are difficult to replicate - there is a lack of common standards for reporting features of intervention content such as behaviour change techniques, mode of delivery and theory use - therefore, this review prompts researchers and practioners to recognize the value of behaviour change theory in developing interventions for addictive behaviours
Rodgers Chapter 10: Development in Early Adulthood
Young adulthood is a time of great change - many individuals undergo changing roles, achieve independence, and embark on new experiences - social workers may work with young adults in many capacities to assist in increasing independence, self-assurance, decision-making capacities, and functioning as responsible adults Trauma and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Trauma can be defined as any experience that is emotionally distressing enough to overwhelm an individual's ability to cope, often leaving the individual feeling powerless - exposure to trauma in childhood and adolescence is particularly serious since it can significantly impact brain development Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is characterized by several intrusive and distressing symptoms (American Psychiatric Association, 2000): • recurring dreams, memories, or flashbacks; • persistent avoidance of stimuli associated with the traumatic event; • problems with cognition or mood associated with the event; • changes in behavior such as increased aggression or exaggerated startle response. Main Points: • Physical and cognitive growth begins to stabilize during young adulthood, while continued development occurs emotionally, intellectually, and interpersonally • Emerging adulthood is a newly conceptualized life stage that helps to explain the shifts in the developmental processes between adolescence and the mid-twenties that have begun to occur • Mental illness and disability can arise at any time in the life span, with symptoms affecting well-being and functioning - social workers frequently use the medical model to guide assessment and intervention in these cases, but they can also draw on systems and ecological theories and consider factors on the micro, mezzo, and macro levels • Spirituality and religious participation, for some young adults, are a source of stability - fowler's theory of faith development consists of seven stages that describe how people develop faith and meaning in their lives • Mindfulness is an evidence-based technique that helps clients learn to focus on goals by attending to the present moment and approaching problems with an attitude of openness and acceptance - a central tenet in Buddhist meditation, advocates actively and non-judgmentally paying attention to the present moment - has been shown to be a powerful tool in alleviating symptoms of mental illness and other problems and for bringing richness and meaning into life • Increasingly, young adults are choosing lifestyles that include cohabiting, delaying marriage, and remaining single - however, for some individuals, living with a partner, regardless of the arrangements, also brings with it issues of domestic violence - social workers can use the lenses of social learning, family systems, and feminist theories to help understand domestic violence and intervene effectively with clients • Choosing whether or not to attend college can be a struggle for some young adults; still others do not have the opportunity to pursue a college education because of financial and other constraints - social workers can use social learning theory to understand clients' situations and help them overcome barriers to achieving their goals—whether they involve getting into the college of their choice or succeeding in school • Young adults—especially women—are likely to face sexism and sexual harassment as they enter the workforce, begin college, and take on other new roles - women do not receive equal pay for equal work, and they are frequently discriminated against on the job; these are issues with which social workers must contend • Some think that affirmative action does nothing but create reverse discrimination, while others think that it is needed to help eradicate institutional discrimination - reverse discrimination is a condition in which whites are discriminated against in favor of less qualified or deserving minorities - social workers need to be informed about this debate and play an active role in policy-making
