HI 102 Final Exam

How can we use this novel to gain a better understanding of the Enlightenment? (Voltaire, Candide)

"The Enlightenment" is the name for a movement that encompasses a wide variety of ideas and advances in the fields of philosophy, science, and medicine that began in the seventeenth century and peaked in the eighteenth century. Many historians mark the French Revolution as the crowning event of the Enlightenment era. The primary feature of Enlightenment philosophy is a profound faith in the power of reason and rational thought to lead human beings to a better social structure. The political ideology of Enlightenment philosophers is characterized by a spirit of social reform. The champions of the Enlightenment called for rebellion against superstition, fear, and prejudice. They attacked the aristocracy and the church. Candide reflects Voltaire's lifelong aversion to Christian regimes of power and the arrogance of nobility, but it also criticizes certain aspects of the philosophical movement of the Enlightenment. It attacks the school of optimism that contends that rational thought can curtail the evils perpetrated by human beings. Voltaire strongly opposed certain Enlightenment ideas about social class. Some Enlightenment thinkers promoted the idea of the enlightened monarch as an alternative to a radical reformation of society. Instead of denying the divine right of kings, the concept of the enlightened monarch relied on the idea that rulers could use their power to ensure the protection of their subjects' rights. The reach of the monarch's power could be extended so that he or she could ensure this protection. Thus, the name of the Enlightenment could be used to legitimize despotism. Moreover, witch-hunts and organized campaigns of religious persecution continued well into the eighteenth century, and Enlightenment philosophy's propagation of reason as a social antidote did not bring a halt to the ravages of superstition and fear. Candide illustrates this fact in the figure of the Grand Inquisitor who orders an auto-da-fé to ward off earthquakes, among many other examples. Voltaire's work may be difficult for the present-day student to understand because it alludes to some very specific concerns of his contemporaries. To better understand his wit as well as his relevant context, readers may benefit from consulting supplementary readings such as a history of the Enlightenment, a biography of Voltaire, or the writings of other Enlightenment thinkers like Rousseau and Leibniz.

How does Vasari describe Leonardo's skill and talent?

"The greatest gifts are often seen, in the course of nature, rained by celestial influences on human creatures; and sometimes, in supernatural fashion, beauty, grace, and talent are united beyond measure in one single person, in a manner that to whatever such an one turns his attention, his every action is so divine, that, surpassing all other men, it makes itself clearly known as a thing bestowed by God (as it is), and not acquired by human art. This was seen by all mankind in Leonardo da Vinci, in whom, besides a beauty of body never sufficiently extolled, there was an infinite grace in all his actions; and so great was his genius, and such its growth, that to whatever difficulties he turned his mind, he solved them with ease. In him was great bodily strength, joined to dexterity, with a spirit and courage ever royal and magnanimous; and the fame of his name so increased, that not only in his lifetime was he held in esteem, but his reputation became even greater among posterity after his death."

How does Vergerius define the "liberal arts" or "liberal studies"? (Petrus Paulus Vergerius)

"We call those studies liberal which are worthy of a free man; those studies by which we attain and practice virtue and wisdom; that education which calls forth, trains and develops those highest gifts of body and of mind which ennoble men, and which are rightly judged to rank next in dignity to virtue only."

Pope Innocent III

(1160-1216) As pope, he wanted he wanted to unify all of Christendom under papal hegemony. He furthered this goal at the Fourth Lateran Council of 1215, which defined one of the church's dogmas as the acknowledgement of papal supremacy. The council also took an unprecedented interest in the religious education and habits of every Christian.

Ottomans (Ottoman Empire)

(1300-1923) During the 13th century, the Ottoman dynasty established itself as leader of the Turks. From the 14th-16th centuries, they conquered Anatolia, Armenia, Syria, and North Africa as well as parts of southwestern Europe, the Crimea, and areas along the Red Sea. Portions of the Ottoman Empire persisted up to the time of the First World War, but it was dismantled in the years following it.

John Wyclif

(1330-1384) A professor of theology at the University of Oxford, Wyclif urged the English king to confiscate ecclesiastical wealth and to replace corrupt priests and bishops with men who would live according to the apostolic standards of poverty and piety. He advocated direct access to the scriptures and promoted an English translation of the Bible. His teachings played an important role in the Peasants' Revolt of 1381 and inspired the still more radical initiatives of a group known as Lollards.

Hundred Years' War

(1337-1453) A series of wars between England and France, fought mostly on French soil and prompted by the territorial and political claims of English monarchs.

Donatello

(1386-1466) The first great master of Renaissance sculpture working in both marble and bronze. His bronze statue David is the first free-standing nude of the period.

Nicholas Copernicus

(1473-1543) Polish astronomer who advanced the idea that the earth moved around the sun. -a Polish monk and astronomer who had studied in Italy and subjected himself to Renaissance questioning attitude. Back in northern Europe, he made astronomical observations and determined that the sun is the center of the universe and that the earth revolves around it NOT vice versa as had been taught for centuries and endorsed by the Church. Mathematically his heliocentric theory was much simpler than the convoluted explanations 'astronomers' had been giving at that time to make the data fit the geocentric theory that had dominated since the time of Ptolemy. Copernicus published his findings in the year of his death. While the R.C. Church (and even Protestants such as Luther) disagreed with his propositions, there was not a great stir such as would follow almost a hundred years later.

Michelangelo Buonarroti

(1475-1564) A virtuoso Florentine sculptor, painter, and poet who spent much of his career in the service of the papacy. He is best known for the decoration of the Sistine Chapel and for his monumental sculptures.

Ulrich Zwingli

(1484-1531) A priest from the Swiss city of Zurich, Zwingli joined Luther and Calvin in attacking the authority of the Roman Catholic Church. (Zwinglianism)

Ignatius Loyola

(1491-1556) Founder of the Society of Jesus (commonly known as the Jesuits), whose members vowed to serve God through poverty, chastity, and missionary work. He abandoned his first career as a mercenary after reading an account of Christ's life written in his native Spanish.

John Calvin

(1509-1564) French-born theologian and reformer whose radical form of Protestantism was adopted in many Swiss cities, notably Geneva. (Calvinism)

Galileo Galilei

(1564-1642) Italian physicist and inventor; the implications of his ideas raised the ire of the catholic church, and he was forced to retract most of his findings. -Italian mathematician, astronomer and physicist. Determined the validity of the heliocentric theory. The telescope had recently been invented in the Netherlands and he refined the design to make astronomical observations and confirm Copernicus' theory. He discovered the mountains on the moon, the moons of Jupiter, the rings around Saturn and the sunspots. Persecuted by the Roman Inquisition for publishing his work, he spent the remainder of his life under house arrest. There he continued his scientific work with a focus on less controversial subjects. His study of falling bodies disproved Aristotle's contention that objects fall at varying speeds(implication of gravity), depending on their weights (experiments done from top of leaning tower of Pisa) and he also developed the theory of the pendulum and discovered the principle of inertia.

Thomas Hobbes

(1588-1679) English political philosopher whose Leviathan argued that any form of government capable of protecting its subjects' lives and property might act as an all-powerful sovereign. This government should be allowed to trample over both liberty and property for the sake of its own survival and that of his subjects. For in his natural state, Hobbes argued, man was like "a wolf" toward other men.

Cardinal Richelieu

(1595-1642) First minister to King Louis XIII, he is considered by many to have ruled France in all but name, centralizing political power and suppressing dissent.

Edict of Nantes

(1598) Issued by Henry IV of France in an effort to end religious violence. The edict declared France to be a Catholic country, but tolerated some forms of Protestant worship.

Thirty Years' War

(1618-1648) Beginning as a conflict between Protestants and Catholics in Germany, this series of skirmishes escalated into a general European war fought on German soil by armies from Sweden, France, and the Holy Roman Empire.

Louis XIV

(1638-1715) Called the "Sun King," he was known for his success at strengthening the institutions of the French absolute state. Turned Hunting lodge into Palace of Versailles and moved there from what now is the Louvre. He was the most dramatic, self-absorbed, interesting human ever. Very involved in and concerned with the arts.

Sir Isaac Newton

(1642-1727) One of the foremost scientists of all time, Newton was an English mathematician and physicist; he is noted for his development of calculus, work on the properties of light, and theory of gravitation. -Son of an English farmer, his genius won him early recognition, and he became a professor of mathematics at Cambridge University while he was still in his twenties. He discovered calculus, classical physics, and gravity. Wrote a book, the Natural Laws of Science. He solved the one great unanswered question remaining from the work of Copernicus

The Fronde

(1648-1653) A series of revolts by French nobles against the authority of Louis XIV, Cardinal Jules Mazarin, and Anne of Austria triggered by objections to high taxes and increasing royal power. Fronde was the name of a child slingshot game.

The Glorious Revolution

(1688) In order to prevent a Catholic Dynasty the English Parliament drove out James II following the birth of his son and replaced him with the protestant Stahoulder of the Nederlands William, and his wife and daughter of James II, Mary II. This was a relativly bloodless revolution. (excepting the Irish Rebellion in which an Catholic coalition of English-Irish-French troops led by James were butchered).

War of Spanish Succession

(1701-1713) war over the successor of Charles II "the sufferer"; Charles had selected Philip V Bourbon, his grand-nephew and Louis XIV's grandson to succeed him, going against a previous agreement that he would be succeeded by an Austrian; an alliance of European powers with troops led by Eugene, Prince of Savoy, and John Churchill fought against French and Spanish troops; the war ended with the Peace of Utrecht. This European war was fought to determine the rightful heir to the throne behind Louis XIV. The country did not want to let Philip rule because his family rooted back to Spain.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

(1712-1778) an "outsider" who quarreled with other philosophies and contradicted many of the assumptions -he introduced morality and sensibility (the cult of feeling) into the Enlightenment his interest in emotions led him to develop a more complicated portrait of human psychology than that of the Enlightenment writers -very radical -he brought the Enlightenment to a larger audience

Adam Smith

(1723-1790) Scottish economist. -expression of laissez-faire economics came from him -wrote "An inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations" (1776) -he thought the central issues were the productivity of labor and how labor was used in different sectors of the economy.

Scholasticism

(meaning having origins in the pedagogy of medieval schools). An educational revolution led to the development of new critical methods for training and resolving complex problems. Scholastic methods are highly respectful of authority, but they also rely on rigorous questioning and argumentation. The therefore place great emphasis On evidence derived from reason. Indeed, scholasticism can be defined as the theory and practice of reconciling various forms of knowledge through logical debate, often called dialectic.

Describe John Locke's anti absolutist theory of government.

-Believed government is a social contract between the governor and the governed -Against absolutism, believing that if a ruler has both legislative and executive power, there is no fair judge to be found Overall, Locke did not support absolutist government, believing that absolutist rule is unjust because having both executive and legislative power the ruler has no checks and balances. In Locke's opinion, being that government is a social contract between the governor and the governed and that the governor's fundamental task is to provide the people with essential protections, failing to do so means the rule loses their legitimacy.

Voltaire

-Best known philosophe -born as Francois Marie Arouet (1694-1778) -virtually personified the enlightenment -educated by Jesuits -gifted and sharp-tongued writer (which landed him in prison for libel and he was temporarily exiled in England) -he became an extremely persuasive convert to the ideas of Newton, Bacon, an Locke. -his themes were religious and political liberty and his weapons were comparisons.

Briefly describe the key points of John Calvin's theology.

-Calvin emphasized the role God plays in the process of salvation. He theorized that believers were predestined to salvation. This means that before God had even created the world, he chose which people would be beneficiaries of his gift of salvation. -Calvin affirmed a strict understanding of God's sovereignty. He believed that God was in complete control over humanity's actions and that nothing happens unless God wills it. The five foundational tenets of Calvinism are often referred to as 'points.' Let's take a look at each point of the acronym T.U.L.I.P. -Total depravity: This is the belief that all human beings are sinful and are born with an inherent sin-nature. Every human is completely sinful from the moment of birth. -Unconditional election: This is the belief that God predestined individuals for salvation, and that individuals cannot choose God without God enabling them to do so. -Limited atonement: This is the belief that God sent Jesus Christ to die for the sins of his chosen saints only, and not for the sins of those who are unbelievers. -Irresistible grace: This is the belief that God's chosen elect cannot resist God's grace in their lives. Perseverance of the Saints: this is a belief that once the individual is saved, he or she can never lose his or her salvation because he or she is eternally bound to Christ.

In what ways did René Descartes and Sir Francis Bacon set out methods or rules that should govern modern science?

-Descartes- a French scientist, mathematician, and philosopher. He discovered the laws of optics and is considered the founder of analytic geometry. He supported the method of acquiring knowledge which proceeded from the general to the specific - deductive. See cogito ergo sum. -Deductive method- method of acquiring knowledge. Promoted by Descartes in Discourse on Method in early 17th century. Been used before Descartes but he put emphasis on it and formalized its use in philosophical discourse. -Bacon- an English philosopher and statesman (Lord Chancellor of England for James I) who wrote the Advancement of Learning and popularized the new scientific method of observation and experimentation. He was not a trained or full-time scientist but kept up with astronomical debates and mathematical competitions of the day. His philosophical inclinations led him to consider science in his age and the timeless elements of the scientific approach. -Inductive method- method of acquiring knowledge. Promoted by Bacon in early 17th century in Novum Organum . Proceed from the specific/particular to the general. It had been used before Bacon but he formalized it and put an emphasis on it. Would become an important part of the scientific method which evolved in the scientific revolution. -Though up against considerable Church opposition, science moved into the spotlight in the late 1500s and early 1600s. Galileo had long said that observation was a necessary element of the scientific method-a point that Francis Bacon (1561-1626) solidified with his inductive method. Sometimes known as the Baconian method, inductive science stresses observation and reasoning as the means for coming to general conclusions. -A later contemporary, René Descartes (1596-1650), picked up where Bacon left off. Descartes' talents ran the gamut from mathematics to philosophy and ultimately the combination of those schools. His work in combining algebra and geometry revolutionized both of those fields, and it was Descartes who came to the philosophical conclusion "I think, therefore I am"-asserting that, if nothing else, he was at least a thinking being. Descartes' deductive approach to philosophy, using math and logic, stressed a "clear and distinct foundation for thought" that still remains a standard for problem solving.

Why did large numbers of people rally to Luther's cause?

-Everyone was dissatisfied with the conduct and corruption of recent popes. One was thought to have incest relations with his daughter. One only cared about starting wars. One used the churches money to support his illegitimate son. Basically all of them were way too concerned with money and were in simple terms, selling grace for money. -Papal taxes were ridiculous and drained Germany of all its wealth. Germany barely ever had any representatives in the papacy and had no say so in any matter. This encouraged them to join the new religion.

What is "humanistic" about this description of education? (Petrus Paulus Vergerius)

-He explains the different types of learners/thinkers and explains how people will be better at different things. He explains every type of category of education and describes which type of person would probably excel most focusing on that specific category. He believes each individual has his/her own strengths. If you are capable of dipping into multiple categories, go for it, but someone that struggles more with learning should choose the subject he/she is best at and focus on that because one single focus would end in more knowledgeable success. So basically every educational path that is pursued must be chosen by the individual and is completely based on his/her independent strengths. -It's all about morals and virtue and personal growth and whatnot. Very humanistic.

Describe the agricultural revolution that occurred in the Middle Ages

-Heavy wheel plow developed could cut and turn the rich soil more effectively -Improvements in collars and harnesses (horses could pull heavy loads without choking themselves) -development of iron horseshoes and the tandem harnessing of paired teams (horses more effective for transport of agricultural surpluses -labor-saving devices further increased productivity. -wheelbarrow -harrow -watermills- worlds only source of mechanical power for manufacturing until the steam engine -climate change- temps gradually rose (lengthened growing season) -Settlement of viking and magyar led to peace for the Europeans so less disruption of planting cycles (monasteries developed and implemented the tools listed above) -increased population changes in pattern of settlement and the organization of the peasant work force led to productivity -common fields - farmed by entire villages (manors)- increased efficiency and were more productive (villagers experimented with new crops and could support more animals) (with time peasants could establish a church, a communal oven, a blacksmith, a mill, and a tavern) (some lords owned the manors and could eventually make peasants into serfs- land of like slaves- couldn't more freely) -three field crop rotation system- so they wouldn't exhaust the soil (increased land cultivated from 50 to 67%) (spread labor more evenly) (more yield per acre- more food- healthier animals)

How does Machiavelli define "virtue"? How does it differ from "virtue" as defined by medieval rulers and the Church? (Machiavelli, The Prince)

-Machiavelli defines virtues as qualities that are praised by others, such as generosity, compassion, and piety. He argues that a prince should always try to appear virtuous, but that acting virtuously for virtue's sake can prove detrimental to the principality. A prince should not necessarily avoid vices such as cruelty or dishonesty if employing them will benefit the state. Cruelty and other vices should not be pursued for their own sake, just as virtue should not be pursued for its own sake: virtues and vices should be conceived as means to an end. Every action the prince takes must be considered in light of its effect on the state, not in terms of its intrinsic moral value. -As part of his un-Christian remix of the genre, Machiavelli changed what virtù traditionally meant. Sure, he talked about it a lot, but Machiavelli's virtue was not your grandma's virtù. Remember all that smart, faithful, moral stuff? Yeah, that stuff is out the window. In its place is the ability to do what you need to do to rule. That's what will bring you good fortune. Not that squishy stuff.

What is humanistic about The Prince? (Machiavelli, The Prince)

-Machiavelli is often listed as a humanist, but he's tricky. In a lot of ways, Machiavelli is closer to the modern definition of a humanist than the old-school one. For example, Machiavelli thought, like most humanists at the time, that people could control their own destinies. The thing is, he went one step further and said that they didn't need to worry about Christian virtues while they were doing that. -Another difference is that humanists, as we said before, were history geeks. They looked to history for examples of how to behave. Machiavelli was, too, but he didn't look at history just for examples of virtue. Nah, he wanted it all-the good, the bad, and the ugly. No moral judgment here; he just wanted to know what works. Actually, part of Machiavelli's whole PR problem is that he was the first dude to separate politics and morality

How does Machiavelli justify a ruler's use of violence and deception? (Machiavelli, The Prince)

-Machiavelli never advocates cruelty or other vices for their own sake. He advocates them only in the interests of safeguarding the state, which, in Machiavelli's view, is a kind of ultimate good in its own right. -it's fine to look like a good and compassionate ruler, but you have to act the way circumstances dictate to stay in power and maintain the state. Keeping your word simply for the sake of appearances isn't very wise, especially if it threatens either your position or the state.

Although the Scientific Revolution marked a decisive break between the Middle Ages and the modern world, it did have roots in earlier developments. Describe these.

-Most views were based on the theories of the ancient Greeks/Romans and the bible. - People believed in a geocentric universe (Ptolemy)(Earth Centered) and heavier objects fell faster than lighter ones (Aristotle) . -Before, people did not challenge common doctrines. People changed and challenged views on: Reason, Nature, Happiness, Progress, and Liberty.

Why did so many German princes and towns impose the new religion within their territories?

-Protestant princes could consolidate authority by naming their own pastors, collecting taxes usually sent to Rome, and curtailing the jurisdiction of Church courts. -They could also guarantee that the political and religious boundaries of their territories would now coincide. No longer would a rival ecclesiastical prince (such as a bishop or archbishop) be able to use his spiritual position to undermine a secular prince's sovereignty. German princes specifically: -Town councils and guild masters could this establish themselves as the supreme governing authorities within their towns, cutting out local bishops or powerful monasteries. -monasteries and convents could be shut down and their lands appropriated.

How is this similar to a medieval education? How is it different? Compare this description of learning and knowledge to scholasticism, which was endorsed in the Middle Ages. (Petrus Paulus Vergerius)

-Scholasticism (Roman-Greek term science of schools), collective name for the science of Latin Middle Ages from the 9th century, particularly however for characterizing philosophy and theology. Basis formed assumption that belief truth might be defined already by means of theology. In such a way, the scholasticism limited itself to establish, explain, systematize and defend the theological statements rationally. -Humanism (which is what Vergerius bases his education plan off of) comes from the Roman and means in general the taking care of humanity, of a dignity of the human being and development of the free personality corresponding organization of the life and society by formation and education, however, too creation of the necessary life and environmental conditions themselves for it. The term is strictly speaking used for all the philological, cultural and scientific movements of the 14th to 16th century.

What were the main sources of disagreement between the Stuart monarchy and Parliament?

-They both wanted absolute monarchy and power and money -Parliament did not believe in divine right of kings. Parliament believed that they would rule with the king, and have power. The king believed that not his subjects but God had appointed him to the position, and often ruled with disregard to the parliaments position. Some causes of Revolution were the disagreements between king and parliament. Also the king's unfair taxes and disregard to the petition he signed may have lead to the Revolution. One effect of the revolution might have been that the revolution influenced many Puritans to move to the Americas and thus could've influenced American beliefs and ideals. Also, it led to a division in the once unified Church of England.

How does Vergerius compare the trivium and quadrivium to the "three great professional disciplines"? (Petrus Paulus Vergerius)

-Trivium- grammar, rhetoric, and logic -Quadrivium- arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music -Three Disciplines- medicine, law, and theology -The seven liberal studies (trivium and quadrivium) are practical, very useful, less difficult to understand, building-block subjects. The three disciplines, however, all build off of one of the seven liberal arts and are much more complex subjects. Only people of pure intelligence should attempt to focus on any of the three disciplines.

What were Voltaire's religious ideas as seen through Candide? Does he attack all religious beliefs and churches? What does he find wrong, in general, with Christianity? (Voltaire, Candide)

-Voltaire was a Christian and thought that everyone had a right to religious freedom. -He was not a fan of the Bible and was vigorously against the Catholic Church - The Church were gaining from being involved in politics by pocketing a religious tax, which is why Voltaire thought they had no place in politics. They were in politics for their own gain and were using fear tactics help suppress the lower classes. -In Candide, Voltaire satirizes organized religion by means of a series of corrupt, hypocritical religious leaders who appear throughout the novel. The reader encounters the daughter of a Pope, a man who as a Catholic priest should have been celibate; a hard-line Catholic Inquisitor who hypocritically keeps a mistress; and a Franciscan friar who operates as a jewel thief, despite the vow of poverty taken by members of the Franciscan order. Finally, Voltaire introduces a Jesuit colonel with marked homosexual tendencies. Religious leaders in the novel also carry out inhumane campaigns of religious oppression against those who disagree with them on even the smallest of theological matters. For example, the Inquisition persecutes Pangloss for expressing his ideas, and Candide for merely listening to them. Though Voltaire provides these numerous examples of hypocrisy and immorality in religious leaders, he does not condemn the everyday religious believer. For example, Jacques, a member of a radical Protestant sect called the Anabaptists, is arguably the most generous and humane character in the novel.

What were the consequences of the crusades?

-Westerners learned new techniques of fortification and muslims leaned new methods of siege warfare and new repeat for the uses of heavy Calvary -Development of both Christian and Islamic doctrines of holy war- the ideologies of crusade and jihad that continue to be so destructive in the 21st century -end of any viable Western European presence -fostered a new political and religious ethos that would spur the reconquest of the Liberian peninsula by the Christian rulers of Spain and lead to the massacre of forced conversion of Muslim and Jews -Crusading provided the rhetoric for English wars against welsh and Scots- this language was used to justify the massacre and disposition of heretics in France. -motivated voyages of discovery from 15th century onward, and the conquest of the Americas and colonization of Asia, Africa, and Australia.

Doctrine of "justification by faith alone"

-Written by Martin Luther. -statement on his belief/discovery after long amounts of studying which lead to his new religion -God's justice does not demand endless good works and religious rituals for salvation, because humans can never be saved by their own efforts. Rather, humans are saved by God's grace alone, which God offers as an utterly undeserved gift. Men and women are therefore "justified" by faith alone. Those whom God has justified though faith will manifest that fact by performing work of piety and charity, but such works are not what saves them. Piety and charity are merely visible signs of each believer's invisible spiritual state, which is known to God alone.

What are some of the definitions of feudalism? what is the common denominators when discussing feudalism?

-feudalism: mode of production on which wealth is entirely agricultural and cities have not yet been formed. -feudalism: aristocratic social order in which propertied men are supported by the labor of serfs attached to manors -feudalism: a system in which lesser men hold land from greater men in return for military service of various kinds -all these definitions are anachronistic - many recent historians have abandoned the term feudalism -common denominator- feudalism entails the abuse of officials privileges for personal gain -feudum- "fief"- a gift or grant that creates a kind of contractorial relationship between giver and receiver (the receptionist would owe the giver loyalty or services of some kind and sometimes might be subordinate to the giver- becoming the giver's basal boy.

Denis Diderot

-guiding spirit behind the center of the encyclopedia -it was published between 1751 and 1772 -28 volumes, over 71,000 articles.

What strategies does Machiavelli say a ruler must employ in order to be successful? (Machiavelli, The Prince)

-the employment of cunning and duplicity in statecraft or in general conduct -According to Machiavelli, there are four main ways a prince can come into power. The first way is through prowess, meaning personal skill and ability. The second is through fortune, meaning good luck or the charity of friends. The third way is through crime, such as through a coup, conspiracy, or assassination. The fourth way is constitutional, meaning through the official support of either nobles or common people. -It is better to be stingy than generous. -It is better to be cruel than merciful. -It is better to break promises if keeping them would be against one's interests. -Princes must avoid making themselves hated and despised; the goodwill of the people is a better defense than any fortress. -Princes should undertake great projects to enhance their reputation. -Princes should choose wise advisors and avoid flatterers.

Why did Renaissance develop first and most distinctively in Italy?

1.The most fundamental reason was that after the Black Death, northern Italy became the most urbanized region if Europe. Italian aristocrats customarily lived in urban centers rather than in rural castles and consequently became more fully involved in urban public affairs than their counterparts north of the Alps. Other places in Europe most aristocrats lived on the income from their landed estates while rich town dwellers gained their living from trade; but in Italy, many town-dwelling aristocrats engaged in banking or mercantile enterprises while many rich mercantile failed imitated the manners of the aristocracy. -great demand for the skills of reading and accounting necessary to become a successful merchant in Italy. Italy produced a large number of lay educators Italian schools and tufts turned out the best-educated urban elites in all of Europe. 2. -vexed political situation -unlike France, England, Spain, and the Kingdom of Scandinavia and Eastern Europe, Italy had many competing political institutions. The most important of which, the papacy and the holy Roman Empire, based their claims on different sources of authority. Italians therefore looked to the classical past for their time of unity and glory, dreaming of a day when Rome would be, again, the center of the world. Italians were particularly intent on re appropriating their classical heritage because there were seeking to establish an independent cultural identity that could help them oppose the intellectual and political supremacy of France. The removal of the papacy to Avignon got most of the 14th century and the subsequent Great Schism has heightened antagonism between the city-states of Italy and the burgeoning nation-states and empires of the continent. this coincided with a rejection of the scholasticism taught in northern Europe's universities and the embrace of the intellectual alternatives offered by new reading of classical sources. 3. The Italian Renaissance could not have occurred without the underpinning of the Italian wealth gained thought the increasing commercial ventures. This meant that talented men seeking employment and patronage were more likely to stat at home than to seek opportunities abroad. Investment in art and learning also rose from an intensification of urban pride and the growing concentration of individual and family wealth in urban areas. Cities themselves became primary patrons of artists and scholars in the 14th century.

Mongols

A nomadic people from the steppes of Central Asia who were united inder the ruler Chingiz Khan. His conquest of China was continued by his grandson Kubilai and his great-grandson Ogedei, whose army also seized southern Russia and then moved through Hungary and through Poland toward eastern Germany. The Mongol armies withdrew from Eastern Europe after the death of Ogedei, but his descendants continued to rule his vast empire for another half century.

Why did Luther's theology lead him the break with Rome?

Because he didn't agree with the Roman church (Catholicism). He basically said the Pope and the Papacy in general sits on a heap of lies. He says nowhere in the bible does it say that there should be a Pope or that anyone is more important than anyone else. The bible says that all are equal in Christendom. Everyone has their own unique job to help serve God and the people around them, but not one more important or worthy than the next. Martin Luther tries to tear down the papacy by belittling their powers and laws and fights for his rights and encourages his Protestant teachings.

Describe the impact of the Black Death that hit Europe in the Fourteenth Century.

Black Death- The epidemic of bubonic plague that ravaged Europe, Asia, and North Africa in the 14th century, killing one third to one half of the population. Carried by an oriental rat flea. The flea had the disease. The rat just carried the flea. Trade routes from land and sea helped spread the disease. They thought it was God's wrath. -higher wages -more available land and food for peasants -cheaper land -economic boom -partnership between royalty and nobility -Jewish communities were destroyed because people though they were to blame for the plague. -put an end to Serfdom -the mood of literature, art, and culture in general became very morbid. -more study of the human body. Surgeons more important.

What are Voltaire's views on human nature? (Voltaire, Candide)

Candide parodies the philosophy of optimism promulgated by Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibnitz that stated that because God created the world, and God is perfect, everthing in the world is perfect. One example of this philosophy, which Voltaire found ridiculous, is in Chapter XXVIII where Candide talks with Pangloss, who personifies Leibnitz's nonsensical reasoning: "Tell me, my dear Pangloss," said Candide, "when you were hanged dissected, cruelly beaten and forced to row in a galley, did you still think that everything was for the best in this world?" "I still hold my original opinions," replied Pangloss, "because, after all, I'm a pilosopher, and it wouldn't be proper for me to recant, since Leibniz cannot be wrong, and since preestablished harmony is the most beautiful thing in the world, along with the plenum and subtle matter." When Cacambo asks him what is human reason, Candide replies in Chapter XIX, "Alas, it's a mania for insisting that everything is all right when everything is going wrong." As exemplification of this definition of man's irrational reason, Cacambo and Candide leave Eldorado, the only place where everything is perfect because Candide always wants something else, such as his desire to marry Cunegonde. Ironically, at the narrative's end, even though Cunegonde has become ugly, Candide still desires to marry her, but the barron refuses him saying that his sister will not marry except to a baron of the Empire. Angered, Candide says, "I've rescued you from the galleys and freed you and your sister; she was wasing dishes here, and she's ugly, and yet when I'm kind enough to offer to make her my wife, you still claim the right to prevent me! I'd kill you again if I listened to my anger!" "You can kill me again," said the baron, "but you'll never marry my sister while I'm still alive." In the conclusion, Chapter XXX, Martin decides that man was born to live in either the convulsions of distress or the lethargy of boredom. Candide did not agree, but he affirmed nothing. Pangloss admitted that he had always suffered horribly, but having once maintained that all was for the best, he still maintained it, without believing it. According to Voltaire, it seems that without the ability to reason, little ability to reform. After Paquette and Brother Girofee arrive at the farm in abject misery, having squandered their fortunes, quarreled, and been imprisoned, Martin tells Candide that he knew they will spend their money and become worse off than before. Pangloss and the others simply "philosophize more than ever."

How important is social status to these characters? How is one supposed to determine the status of a particular individual? (Chaucer, Canterbury Tales)

Chaucer is starting off by saying that one needs to have wisdom to be the leader of the town, but then finishes by saying that one must have wealth to obtain power During Chaucer's time period, there was not a way an individual could move from the status of being a commoner to the status of aristocracy. Chaucer showed a diverse group of individuals in The Canterbury Tales of each social class. This was an introduction to how life was lived during the late Middle Ages. Feudal society was traditionally divided into three "estates" (roughly equivalent to social classes). The "First Estate" was the Church (clergy = those who prayed). The "Second Estate" was the Nobility (those who fought = knights). It was common for aristocrats to enter the Church and thus shift from the second to the first estate. The "Third Estate" was the Peasantry (everyone else, at least under feudalism: those who produced the food which supported those who prayed and those who fought, the members of the First and Second Estates). Note that the categories defined by these traditional "estates" are gender specific: they are defined by what a man does for a living as much as by the social class into which he was born. Women were classified differently. Like men, medieval women were born into the second or third estate, and might eventually become members of the first (by entering the Church, willingly or not). But women were also categorized according to three specifically "feminine estates": virgin, wife and widow. It is interesting to note that a woman's estate was determined not by her profession but by her sexual activity: she is defined in relationship to the men with whom she sleeps, used to sleep, or never has slept.

Describe the course of the Church of England from the time of Henry VIII's break with Rome to the "Elizabethan settlement."

Edward turns church into a more protestant. then mary comes to power going back to catholic ways. when elizabeth comes to power she repeals mary's catholic legislation, prohibited foreign religious powers from exercising authority in england and declared queen "head governor" of english church. combined protestant and catholic beliefs of last supper and its commemoration

Oliver Cromwell

English military, political, and religious figure who led the Parliamentarian victory in the English Civil War (1642-1649) and called for the execution of Charles I. As lord protector of England (1653-1658) he ruled as a virtual dictator.

What were the basic characteristics shared by Enlightenment writings?

Enlightenment writings shared several basic characteristic. First, by a confidence in the powers of human reason. This seld-assurance stemmed from the accomplishments of the scientific revolution which provided a model for scientific inquiry into other phenomena. Also, embracing human understanding and the exercise of human reason also required confronting the power of Europes traditional monarchies and the religious institutions that supported them. Enlightenment thinkers recognized a great debt to their immediate predecessors. Third, Enlightenment thinkers sought nothing less than the organization of all knowledge. The scientific method, by which they meant the empirical observation of particular phenomena to arrive at general laws, offered a way to pursue research in all areas - to study human affairs as well as natural ones.

In what ways does this embody the philosophy of Neo-Platonism?

For Vasari, when artists returned to consider nature, in imitation or emulation of their ancient forbears, a rebirth occurred in the arts. Renaissance artists first imitated nature, then equalizing nature, and finally surpassed nature. Fidelity to nature meant artists mastering "naturalism" in the rational representation of perspective, foreshortening, chiaroscuro, and the knowledge of anatomy," pleasing both the eye and the mind, creating a beautiful form." By improving on nature, Vasari suggests, Italian Renaissance artists corrected nature's imperfections by working with the canons of proportion, by selecting the best aspects of nature, and, by achieving graceful or idealized beauty. When artists surpassed nature, according to Vasari, they responded to their concetto (conceit), an idea, or image of beauty, partly innate in the mind of the artist art (invenzione) and partly derived from previous study of nature and art (imitazione). Therefore, Vasari's concept of beauty derives from two principles: the ideational, a concetto to create an image of beauty, and the realistic, a current idea about how an image of beauty can be conceived Vasari's The Toilet of Venus visually represents his theory of beauty. Furthermore, Renaissance poets such as Baldesar Castiglione, Angelo Poliziano and Pietro Bembo adhere to Petrarch's and Dante's models of female beauty, such as Laura and Beatrice, and assimilated the poets' Neoplatonic aesthetics. For them, a beautiful female image reflected a "celestial beauty which leads the poet or philosopher upward to the experience of divine or heavenly beauty. " A beautiful woman, is the most beautiful object one can admire, and beauty is the greatest gift God bestowed on His human creatures. And so, through her virtue we direct our souls to contemplation, and through contemplation to the desire for heavenly things." Thus, Vasari's aesthetics derives from the philosophical and poetical Renaissance Neoplatonic notion of spiritual beauty. For Vasari Neoplatonic spiritual beauty meant the manifestation of vivacity, radiance, and grace in the image perceived through reason and sight in order to move the human soul and delight the spirit.

Philosophes

French word meaning "free thinker." a person whose reflections were unhampered by the constraints of religion or dogma in any form.

Who commissioned Leonardo's works?

Friars of S. Dominic, at S. Maria dell Grazie & Francesco del Giocondo

What did Leonardo do besides paint?

Geometry, arithmetic, play lyre, relief work, draw, architecture

How does Machiavelli use sources? Which ones does he use? (Machiavelli, The Prince)

He does, just not how we do them today. But, he does always give credit whenever he references knowledge that was borrowed from someone else. He draws from a variety of examples to demonstrate his points. He cites historical texts and authors, but he also discusses the feats of historical figures to illustrate his points. Machiavelli incorporates not only examples from antiquity but also examples roughly contemporary with his own time.

How does Machiavelli describe the origins of states and the reasons why their rulers are in power? (Machiavelli, The Prince)

He gives brief descriptions of principalities or republics which explains how and why whoever is in power came into power

What criteria did Vasari and Leonardo use for measuring whether a piece of art was successful?

How lifelike/natural it was

Cluny

In 910, a Benedictine Abbey that freed itself from any obligation to local families by placing itself under the direct protection of the papcy. Although it had a wealthy benefactor, this lord relinquished control over Cluny's property, instead ,he and his family were granted special spiritual privileges, this guaranteeing their eternal reward in Heaven. This arrangement would set a new precedent for the relationship between monasteries and powerful families for centuries to comes, as Cluny began to sponsor other monasteries on the same model. Cluny established a network of Clunaic clones across Europe, each one preforming the same elaborate round of prayer and worship which Cluny became for and each one entirely free from the control of local lords.

To what ends could an education of the sort described here be put? (Petrus Paulus Vergerius)

Making the most out of your life. Not wasting (literally any) time and learning all that you can because 1. What else would you do? 2. Knowledge is what enables you to be anything of importance 3. To further develop and progress the knowledge that currently exists and 4. To be able to be an active and effective/helpful citizen

Is "morality" irrelevant to Machiavelli? (Machiavelli, The Prince)

No. "He wants them to be morally, socially and politically different from the people who look up to them. He believes that in whatever position the prince presents himself, he will always 'be judged honorable, and will be praised by everyone.' Even though there is a hierarchical difference between a prince and his people, human nature connects them. Human nature is not devoid of vice, manipulation, lies and betrayal. Thus, the people only respect a ruler who does not 'act entirely up to his professions of virtue' as they are aware of the fact that this will soon destroy 'him among so much that is evil.'"

What are Voltaire's ideas on the various social classes? What are the good and bad sides of each in his opinion? (Voltaire, Candide)

Nobles are portrayed in an unsympathetic light in Candide, particularly in regard to their snobbery and sense of entitlement. This is the case with the Young Baron, who, despite the loss of his family's wealth, still thinks that his birthright makes him better than everyone else. He overlooks Candide's repeated benevolence, refusing to approve a marriage between Candide and Cunégonde simply because Candide isn't of noble blood. The Young Baron exhibits the arrogance Voltaire feels is inherent in all aristocrats, no matter their actual wealth or life circumstance. The characters in Candide with the biggest hearts are those who have the lowest social status. There is, of course, Candide, whose assistance to others isn't limited to a few dollars here and there. He secures a job and housing for downtrodden Pangloss, and he agrees to marry Cunégonde even though he no longer loves her. Cacambo, a glorified servant, remains loyal to Candide even after he amasses his own wealth. Conversely those with money and social status—the Marquise de Parolignac and the abbé, for example—are eager to exploit those "beneath" them for everything they're worth. Through them Voltaire points out that money and position have no impact on goodness, another jab at nobility. Voltaire's Candide is widely acknowledged as a satirical piece of work. There are many different elements that Voltaire depicts through Candide's journey in the novel. One specific area that he focuses on is that of class specifically dealing with marriage. In the very beginning Candide wants to marry Cunegonde but cannot because he is unequal to her class and by the end when she has nothing left, there is still objection to the marriage. Candide is only "seventy one quarterings," of his class and he once kissed Cunegonde, who has "seventy two quarterings," and is the daughter of the Baron of Thunder-ten-Tronckh. This caused him immediate banishment from the kingdom because of the mixing of classes. The difference appears so small but makes the most difference for those of "seventy two quarterings." Even after the kingdom is destroyed and the Thunder-ten-Tronckh family of "seventy two quarterings" is mostly dead, Cunegonde's brother, known as the Baron, clings to the slight difference in class. Candide spends the remainder of the novel searching for Cunegonde after the kingdom is destroyed. Candide even rescues her from slavery and is in debt to him, Cunegonde's brother refuses their marriage. He insults Candide when he says, " 'Would you have the impudence to marry my sister who has seventy-two quarterings! I find thou hast the most consummate effrontery to dare to mention so presumptuous a design!' " (36). The Baron insults one of the only people remaining from his previous kingdom and is willing to practically lose his life rather than let a slight class difference mar his family. This appears to be humorous in that the slightest difference would be easy to overlook if the Baron viewed the larger picture of how much Candide and Cunegonde care for one another. This attitude seems ridiculous in the beginning of the novel and continues to the very end. Cunegonde is no longer the desirable beauty that she began the novel as and Candide barely expresses the same motivation for marrying her by the last chapters. However, Cunegonde's desparation is so great that Candide feels obligated to marry her, except her brother, the Baron, still refuses to allow for the marriage. Candide at this point has established himself and owns a farm. He is a willing and able candidate to provide for Cunegonde, but the Baron still refuses . He states " 'my sister's children would never be able to enter the church in Germany. No; my sister shall only marry a baron of the empire," (82). The Baron refuses to accept the truth of reality and is willing to die than accept the reality. His sister is no longer fit for marrying a baron, because she is undesirable to a man of a lower class than herself. The blindness of the Baron to reality allows for the reader to find his unalterable opinion somewhat funny. This benefit is also an example of the irony in that the upper hand shifts from Cunegonde to Candide by end of the novel. These aspects are appealing because the reader is put at an advantage of the Baron in understanding that it is for his sister's benefit to marry Candide. The reader also experiences a moment of laughter at the outrageousness of the Baron's objections and his willingness to suffer consequences such as death. How far can class systems go in preventing actions? In Candide, the slightest difference in class can be seen as ridiculous because its one tenth of a difference. But when regarded in the scheme of actual life and the truth of current class systems, it is not so funny. Then again, it's partially humorous in Candide because in reality, class in some cultures determines all.

What subjects did Leonardo choose for his art work?

People and architecture

Describe some of the contributions of muslim philosophy, science, medicine, literature, and art

Philosophy: Arabists Robert and Hermann -House of Wisdom (purpose for doing this was Arabic translations of Greek philosophy -Aristotelianism and Neoplatonism (freedom of individuals to choose between good and evil -tried to reconcile Islamic theology with these greek philosophic ideas (this was difficult) -Averroes (called the Commentator) advanced the study of Aristotelian logic by publishing a series of commentaries that sought to purge the Greek philosopher's works of all Neoplatonic influences (this influenced the way Christian scholars read and understood Aristotle -Averroes was exiled for his philosophic ideas and died in Morocco in 1198. Science -Very accurate in saying the Earth must orbit the sun - possibly influenced Nicholas Copernicus who is credited as the first to suggest that the Earth orbits the sun. Medicine -Avicenna discovered contagious nature od tuberculosis and said diseases could spread through contaminated water and soil. -Muslims learned value of cauterization, diagnosed stomach cancer, prescribe antidotes in cases of poisoning and make notable progress in treating eye diseases -recognized infectious character of bubonic plague organizing hospitals Literature and Art -poetry integral to Muslim culture -gardens, fountains, carpets, leather, silks and tapestries, metalwork, glassware, and pottery (a lot of abstract formed design).

Anabaptism

Protestant movement that emerged in Switzerland in 1521; its adherents insisted that only adults could be baptized Christians. The first Anabaptists came from Zwinglianism.

What are the attitudes of the religious figures toward their religious duties and callings? Do any of them take these duties seriously? (Chaucer, Canterbury Tales)

Religious corruption is one of the largest themes in The Canterbury Tales. The main idea in the corruptible characters seems to be that they are all too preoccupied with something secular to spend too much time on faith. -The Friar is more focused on money and horses than taking care of his monastery. He also likes to seduce women, then found them husbands to keep from getting in trouble. -The Prioress is preoccupied trying to be the court lady, instead of trying to help her nunnery. -The Pardoner is proud of his ability to get coin for providing physical pardons for sins, and he even tries to sell his relics to the pilgrims on the way to see a shrine of a martyr. -The Monk who was supposed to pledge his life to poverty instead takes money for forgiveness, refuses to help the poor, and pays other beggars to leave certain areas alone so that he will get all the money.

What is Magna Carta? What general principles did it establish?

The "Great Charter" of 1215, enacted during the reign of King John of England and designed to limit his powers. Regarded now as a landmark in the development of constitutional government. In its own time, its purpose was to restore the power of great lords. -the king could levy no taxes without the consent of his subjects -no free man could be punished until he has been judged guilty by a jury of his peers -no one could be arrested and imprisoned without a warrant -no unqualified person could hold public office It provided a council of barons... eventually known as Parliament. Basically, saying that the King is bound by the law of the land... however the lawgivers considered themselves above the law. It normalized the idea that strong, centralized government was a good idea.

How did the Catholic Church respond to the challenge of Protestantism?

The Counter-Reformation. Pope Paul III created the Council of Trent. It's purpose was to counterattack Protestantism. They also banned the sale of indulgences and tightened discipline for the clergy. However, they kept the ceremonies to show appreciation to God, as well as keeping the idea that the Pope and the priests interpret the bible for the church.

Enlightenment thinkers were often critical of widely held cultural and political beliefs. What was radical about the Enlightenment?

The Enlightenment was radical because enlightenment thought sis undermine central tenets of eighteenth century culture and politics. Enlightenment thinkers also did not hold on to any single political position. Even the most radical Mong them disagreed on the implications of their thought.

The Canterbury Tales Character List

The Narrator - The narrator makes it quite clear that he is also a character in his book. Although he is called Chaucer, we should be wary of accepting his words and opinions as Chaucer's own. In the General Prologue, the narrator presents himself as a gregarious and naïve character. Later on, the Host accuses him of being silent and sullen. Because the narrator writes down his impressions of the pilgrims from memory, whom he does and does not like, and what he chooses and chooses not to remember about the characters, tells us as much about the narrator's own prejudices as it does about the characters themselves. The Knight - The first pilgrim Chaucer describes in the General Prologue, and the teller of the first tale. The Knight represents the ideal of a medieval Christian man-at-arms. He has participated in no less than fifteen of the great crusades of his era. Brave, experienced, and prudent, the narrator greatly admires him. Read an in-depth analysis of The Knight. The Wife of Bath - Bath is an English town on the Avon River, not the name of this woman's husband. Though she is a seamstress by occupation, she seems to be a professional wife. She has been married five times and had many other affairs in her youth, making her well practiced in the art of love. She presents herself as someone who loves marriage and sex, but, from what we see of her, she also takes pleasure in rich attire, talking, and arguing. She is deaf in one ear and has a gap between her front teeth, which was considered attractive in Chaucer's time. She has traveled on pilgrimages to Jerusalem three times and elsewhere in Europe as well. Read an in-depth analysis of The Wife of Bath. The Pardoner - Pardoners granted papal indulgences—reprieves from penance in exchange for charitable donations to the Church. Many pardoners, including this one, collected profits for themselves. In fact, Chaucer's Pardoner excels in fraud, carrying a bag full of fake relics—for example, he claims to have the veil of the Virgin Mary. The Pardoner has long, greasy, yellow hair and is beardless. These characteristics were associated with shiftiness and gender ambiguity in Chaucer's time. The Pardoner also has a gift for singing and preaching whenever he finds himself inside a church. The Miller - Stout and brawny, the Miller has a wart on his nose and a big mouth, both literally and figuratively. He threatens the Host's notion of propriety when he drunkenly insists on telling the second tale. Indeed, the Miller seems to enjoy overturning all conventions: he ruins the Host's carefully planned storytelling order; he rips doors off hinges; and he tells a tale that is somewhat blasphemous, ridiculing religious clerks, scholarly clerks, carpenters, and women. The Prioress - Described as modest and quiet, this Prioress (a nun who is head of her convent) aspires to have exquisite taste. Her table manners are dainty, she knows French (though not the French of the court), she dresses well, and she is charitable and compassionate. The Monk - Most monks of the Middle Ages lived in monasteries according to the Rule of Saint Benedict, which demanded that they devote their lives to "work and prayer." This Monk cares little for the Rule; his devotion is to hunting and eating. He is large, loud, and well clad in hunting boots and furs. The Friar - Roaming priests with no ties to a monastery, friars were a great object of criticism in Chaucer's time. Always ready to befriend young women or rich men who might need his services, the friar actively administers the sacraments in his town, especially those of marriage and confession. However, Chaucer's worldly Friar has taken to accepting bribes. The Summoner - The Summoner brings persons accused of violating Church law to ecclesiastical court. This Summoner is a lecherous man whose face is scarred by leprosy. He gets drunk frequently, is irritable, and is not particularly qualified for his position. He spouts the few words of Latin he knows in an attempt to sound educated. The Host - The leader of the group, the Host is large, loud, and merry, although he possesses a quick temper. He mediates among the pilgrims and facilitates the flow of the tales. His title of "host" may be a pun, suggesting both an innkeeper and the Eucharist, or Holy Host. The Parson - The only devout churchman in the company, the Parson lives in poverty, but is rich in holy thoughts and deeds. The pastor of a sizable town, he preaches the Gospel and makes sure to practice what he preaches. He is everything that the Monk, the Friar, and the Pardoner are not. The Squire - The Knight's son and apprentice. The Squire is curly-haired, youthfully handsome, and loves dancing and courting. The Clerk - The Clerk is a poor student of philosophy. Having spent his money on books and learning rather than on fine clothes, he is threadbare and wan. He speaks little, but when he does, his words are wise and full of moral virtue. The Man of Law - A successful lawyer commissioned by the king. He upholds justice in matters large and small and knows every statute of England's law by heart. The Manciple - A manciple was in charge of getting provisions for a college or court. Despite his lack of education, this Manciple is smarter than the thirty lawyers he feeds. The Merchant - The Merchant trades in furs and other cloths, mostly from Flanders. He is part of a powerful and wealthy class in Chaucer's society. The Shipman - Brown-skinned from years of sailing, the Shipman has seen every bay and river in England, and exotic ports in Spain and Carthage as well. He is a bit of a rascal, known for stealing wine while the ship's captain sleeps. The Physician - The Physician is one of the best in his profession, for he knows the cause of every malady and can cure most of them. Though the Physician keeps himself in perfect physical health, the narrator calls into question the Physician's spiritual health: he rarely consults the Bible and has an unhealthy love of financial gain. The Franklin - The word "franklin" means "free man." In Chaucer's society, a franklin was neither a vassal serving a lord nor a member of the nobility. This particular franklin is a connoisseur of food and wine, so much so that his table remains laid and ready for food all day. The Reeve - A reeve was similar to a steward of a manor, and this reeve performs his job shrewdly—his lord never loses so much as a ram to the other employees, and the vassals under his command are kept in line. However, he steals from his master. The Plowman - The Plowman is the Parson's brother and is equally good-hearted. A member of the peasant class, he pays his tithes to the Church and leads a good Christian life. The Guildsmen - Listed together, the five Guildsmen appear as a unit. English guilds were a combination of labor unions and social fraternities: craftsmen of similar occupations joined together to increase their bargaining power and live communally. All five Guildsmen are clad in the livery of their brotherhood. The Cook - The Cook works for the Guildsmen. Chaucer gives little detail about him, although he mentions a crusty sore on the Cook's leg. The Yeoman - The servant who accompanies the Knight and the Squire. The narrator mentions that his dress and weapons suggest he may be a forester. The Second Nun - The Second Nun is not described in the General Prologue, but she tells a saint's life for her tale. The Nun's Priest - Like the Second Nun, the Nun's Priest is not described in the General Prologue. His story of Chanticleer, however, is well crafted and suggests that he is a witty, self-effacing preacher. Characters from the Five Tales Analyzed in This SparkNote THE KNIGHT'S TALE Theseus - A great conqueror and the duke of Athens in the Knight's Tale. The most powerful ruler in the story, he is often called upon to make the final judgment, but he listens to others' pleas for help. Palamon - Palamon is one of the two imprisoned Theban soldier heroes in the Knight's Tale. Brave, strong, and sworn to everlasting friendship with his cousin Arcite, Palamon falls in love with the fair maiden Emelye, which brings him into conflict with Arcite. Though he loses the tournament against Arcite, he gets Emelye in the end. Arcite - The sworn brother to Palamon, Arcite, imprisoned with Palamon in the tower in the Knight's Tale, falls equally head over heels in love with Emelye. He gets released from the tower early and wins Emelye's hand in a tournament, but then dies when a divinely fated earthquake causes his horse to throw him. Emelye - Emelye is the sister to Hippolyta, Theseus's domesticated Amazon queen in the Knight's Tale. Fair-haired and glowing, we first see Emelye as Palamon does, through a window. Although she is the object of both Palamon's and Arcite's desire, she would rather spend her life unmarried and childless. Nevertheless, when Arcite wins the tournament, she readily pledges herself to him. Egeus - Theseus's father. Egeus gives Theseus the advice that helps him convince Palamon and Emelye to end their mourning of Arcite and get married. THE MILLER'S TALE Nicholas - In the Miller's Tale, Nicholas is a poor astronomy student who boards with an elderly carpenter, John, and the carpenter's too-young wife, Alisoun. Nicholas dupes John and sleeps with Alisoun right under John's nose, but Absolon, the foppish parish clerk, gets Nicholas in the end. Alisoun - Alisoun is the sexy young woman married to the carpenter in the Miller's Tale. She is bright and sweet like a small bird, and dresses in a tantalizing style—her clothes are embroidered inside and outside, and she laces her boots high. She willingly goes to bed with Nicholas, but she has only harsh words and obscenities for Absolon. Absolon - The local parish clerk in the Miller's Tale, Absolon is a little bit foolish and more than a little bit vain. He wears red stockings underneath his floor-length church gown, and his leather shoes are decorated like the fanciful stained-glass windows in a cathedral. He curls his hair, uses breath fresheners, and fancies Alisoun. John - The dim-witted carpenter to whom Alisoun is married and with whom Nicholas boards. John is jealous and possessive of his wife. He constantly berates Nicholas for looking into God's "pryvetee," but when Nicholas offers John the chance to share his knowledge, John quickly accepts. He gullibly believes Nicholas's pronouncement that a second flood is coming, which allows Nicholas to sleep with John's wife. THE WIFE OF BATH'S PROLOGUE AND TALE The First Three Husbands - The Wife of Bath says that her first three husbands were "good" because they were rich and old. She could order them around, use sex to get what she wanted, and trick them into believing lies. The Fourth Husband - The Wife of Bath says comparatively little about her fourth husband. She loved him, but he was a reveler who had a mistress. She had fun singing and dancing with him, but tried her best to make him jealous. She fell in love with her fifth husband, Jankyn, while she was still married to her fourth. Jankyn - The Wife of Bath's fifth husband, Jankyn, was a twenty-year-old former student, with whom the Wife was madly in love. His stories of wicked wives frustrated her so much that one night she ripped a page out of his book, only to receive a deafening smack on her ear in return. The Knight - Arthur's young knight rapes a maiden, and, to avoid the punishment of death, he is sent by the queen on a quest to learn about submission to women. Once he does so, and shows that he has learned his lesson by letting his old ugly wife make a decision, she rewards him by becoming beautiful and submissive. The Old Woman - The old woman supplies the young knight with the answer to his question, in exchange for his promise to do whatever she wants. When she tells him he must marry her, the knight begrudgingly agrees, and when he allows her to choose whether she would like to be beautiful and unfaithful or ugly and faithful, she rewards him by becoming both beautiful and faithful. Arthur's Queen - Arthur's queen, presumably Guinevere, is interesting because she wields most of the power. When Arthur's knight rapes a maiden, he turns the knight over to his queen allows her to decide what to do with him.

What is humanistic about this description of art and the role of the artist?

The artist and the art seem divine/god-like because the art is so close to perfection

What is the purpose of art, according to Vasari?

The imitation and perfection of nature and that progress in art can be measured by how far it achieves this aim.

homage

This fief relationship was dramatized in an act of homage, a powerful ceremony that made the vassal "the man" (in French, homme) of his lord. Typically the vassal would kneel and place his hands tufter in a gesture of supplication, and the lord would cover the closed hands with his own. He would then raise up his new "man" and exchange hiss with him. The symbolic importance of these actions is powerfully clear: the lord (dominus) was literally the dominating figure, who could protect ad raise up his man--but could also discipline and humiliate him.

What does he say the purpose of education should be? (Petrus Paulus Vergerius)

To attain and practice virtue and wisdom and to achieve the highest of rank for moral worth and fame. Education makes you the noblest of men.

What are Machiavelli's stated goals for writing The Prince? (Machiavelli, The Prince)

To give it as a gift to the king, Lorenzo Medici, as his acquired knowledge of antiquity is the best he has to offer since he is poor. He asked that, in return, the king be more aware of the poverty that he and the other peasants live in and obviously do something to help.

Describe how the Protestant Reformation movement was "domesticated."

Two ways: -Its revolutionary potential was muffled -There was an increasing emphasis on the patriarchal family as the central institution of family life. Examples: -every child had to learn the bible in their language -Home was considered a "school of godliness." fathers were expected to instruct and discipline their children, wife, and household servants -godly authorities. Sinning was basically against the law. Public confessions, public shaming, exclusion from church, and imprisonment were ways of discipline. -father was all-powerful figure of household -women now were to be obedient good wives. Celibacy was no longer to religious ideal. Nobody can resist sex so you need to get married early to refrain from sinning. -allowed parents more control of children's wedding. Couples were matched by parents and weddings were planned by parents. This was because it involved legal inheritance of property that they didn't want their kids to have control over.

Who would find this education valuable? (Petrus Paulus Vergerius)

Ummm anyone and everyone? He is basically telling Ubertino (and everyone else that reads it) that you need to start learning as much as you can as soon as you can. Like basically when you're still a baby, because the younger you are, the easier it is to consume large amounts of knowledge. Once you get older, not only have you wasted time, but then it's a lot more difficult to learn things, especially in a short amount of time. However, he never thinks you should stop learning, but when you're older it just takes more patience. He's saying if you listen to his advice, you will excel in life and be extremely thankful once you're older for taking advantage of education in your younger years.

Generally speaking, what does Voltaire think is wrong with European politics, culture, society, and intellectual life? How would he change it? (Voltaire, Candide)

Voltaire was a man of ideas, not a lover of systems, be it for others or for himself. Both in content and in style, Voltaire's philosophical attitudes were influenced by John Locke and England's skeptical empiricism. He ridiculed both the religious optimism of Leibniz as well as the humanistic optimism of Rousseau. He greatly contributed to the lessening of Descartes' influence in France and generally to the elimination of metaphysical concerns. Voltaire's philosophical ideas and ethical and social criticism tended not to be original, but he generally displayed a keen common sense. The originality of his contribution to philosophy was his genius at translating and spreading others' ideas and forming a front of irresistible power. Voltaire believed in progress and in the virtues of civilization, contrary to Rousseau's belief that civilization corrupts man. However, his faith in culture was measured and he did not expect the coming of any golden age. Voltaire perceived the French bourgeoisie to be too small and ineffective; the aristocracy to be parasitic and corrupt; the commoners as ignorant and superstitious, and the church as a static force only useful as a counterbalance since its "religious tax," or the tithe, helped to cement a powerbase against the monarchy. Voltaire distrusted democracy, which he saw as propagating the "idiocy of the masses". To Voltaire only an enlightened monarch, advised by philosophers like himself, could bring about change as it was in the king's rational interest to improve the power and wealth of France in the world. Voltaire is quoted as saying that he "would rather obey one lion, than two hundred rats of [his own] species." Voltaire essentially believed monarchy to be the key to progress and change.

Humanism

a program of study that aimed to replace the scholastic emphasis on logic and metaphysics with at the study of language, literature, rhetoric, history, and ethics. The Humanists also preferred ancient literature to the wiring of more recent authors. Most humanists regarded contemporary vernacular literature as a lesser diversion for the uneducated. They consumed the living latin of the scholastic contemporaries as a cancerous departure from ancient standards of Latin style (this turned Latin into ta fossilize language.) They believed the Humanists curriculum was the best was to produce political leaders.

The "discovery" of the New World had profound effects on the Old World, as well as on the indigenous peoples of the Americas. Describe some of these effects.

gold and silver -the price revolution- land was no longer the basis of wealth and the land owners no longer the dominant economic class. -new plants- potatoes and corn. They could grow WAY more food. The increase of food led to a decrease in food price. Tomatoes, squash, beans, pumpkins, peppers. This increased vitamins and proteins in the European diet which improved their health, and increased height, weight, and strength. More resistant to disease. -drugs- cocoa, tea, coffee- caffeine. Tobacco- nicotine. Coca leaves- cocaine. Poppies- opium and morphine. Hashish- marijuana. Rauwolfia- miltown (tranquilizer). -industrial materials- dyes, wood/trees, salt. Helps with the making of cloth. -new way of learning- they started observing, recording, measuring, and arranging rather than their usual logical investigation and separation into categories because the new discoveries would not fit into categories.

How does Vasari describe the process of making art?

men of lofty genius sometimes accomplish the most when they work the least, seeking out inventions with the mind, and forming those perfect ideas which the hands afterwards express and reproduce from the images already conceived in the brain.

fief

people of the Middle Ages didn't use the word feudalism, they would have understood it as feudalism, which translated to fief. A fief is a gift or grant that creates a kind of contractual relationship between the giver and receiver. this fight would be land, but it could also be the revenues doom a toll or a mill or an annual sum of money. In return, the recipient would owe the fiver loyalty of services of some kind, and might even be subordinate to the fiver, becoming the giver's basal (Celtic word meaning "boy")

What steps did absolutist rulers take to achieve monopoly of power and authority within their realms?

sought control of the states armed forces and its legal system and demanded the right to collect and spend the states financial resources at will.

What were the warning signs of the troubles that engulfed Europe between 1540 and 1660?

unprecedented inflation in prices that began in the latter half of the sixteenth century. disunites inherent within major European monarchies. claims to sovereignty were increasingly made on the basis of religious uniformity.