hinduism midterm

Brahmin

Priests, priestly caste, they are the embodiment of the dharma. Brahmanical orthodoxy is centered around brahmins and darma.

The caste system

"Birth group": jatis. Jatis and varnas overlap to a certain degree, but jatis cannot necessarily fit perfectly into the four varnas. Jati refers to the group into which a Hindu is born, and from which he/she should choose a marriage partner. Jati is like a self-imposed "species" or "kind", they are close knit communities and tell much more about social distinctions among hindus than the varna categories do. Over a thousand jatis. Many Brahmin jatis, all think of themselves as the purest, but hierarchical distinctions even between them... one's status is related to your occupational activities.

Classical period

"Second urbanization", rise of city states, developing infrastructure, promoting trade, new bureaucratic institutions, emphasis on law. Shift eastward of political and cultural power. Erosion of tribal rule, development of monarchy, cosmopolitanism, mingling of all sorts of different ideas around the continent, philosophies/religions combining. New religious focus on conduct and behavior, individual salvation, and renouncer movements.

dvija

"Twice born": second birth is initiation into religious life, into knowledge of sacrifice. Only upper three classes could undergo the ritual to become twice born.

universalization and sanskritization

"Universalization," in which the elite, dominant classes adopt the practices of the subordinate classes and legitimize them by incorporating them into the cultural forms of the upper classes. A corollary of this trend is a process known as sanskritization, in which the lower classes, in order to enhance their social status, adopt the values and practices of the upper dominant classes. Aryan religion, dravidian religion, and aboriginal tribal groups all contributed to the formation of hinduism.

Karma

"to do" or "to act," actions and the consequences of actions. Accounts for why people suffer or do not suffer. Karma determines experience.

The mahabharata

100,000 verses, longer than illiad and odyssey combined, could be the world's longest book. Also a story of ksatriya concerns, a sprawling tale varying in compositional style and full of interpolations

The aranyakas

A loosely defined genre of texts that bridge the concerns of the brahmanas and of the upanisads. Wilderness texts. More emphasize symbolic speculation on the nature of rituals rather than exclusive attention to the performance of the rite itself.

Soma

A sacred plant with intoxicating and possibly hallucinogenic properties, differing from mere alcoholic beverages. The gods drank it in large qualities. Scholars still unsure what this plant actually was.

Atman and Brahman

Brahman: ultimate reality, underlying essence of the world, supreme and unseen, connected to the innermost being of all things in existence. Atman: the self, but it is a synonym for brahman, brahman and atman are one, one must recognize "I am Brahman" to achieve moksa, the Supreme Lord is the innermost self of all beings, must recognize the same ness of atman and brahman.

Vedic deities

Agni (fire) and Indra (god of storms and lightning) most prominent. Prevalence of male gods, some goddesses. Close relationship bw vedic deities and forces of nature

yajña (homa)

All-important ritual sacrifice. These sacrifices were thought to give gods their power, that the vedic gods were dependent on performance of these sacrifices by brahmin. Yajnas thought to maintain the order of the cosmos by providing nourishment for the gods. Essential to the proper functioning of the world, cosmos, and society.

Kṛṣṇa

An avatar of Visnu, worshipped as god of compassion, love

Tapas

Asceticism -- denying yourself comforts, not eating, sitting in same position for really long time, suffering on purpose

Auspiciousness and inauspiciousness

Auspicious: conducive to success. Hindus are very concerned with this idea, deriving from ideas about cosmology, permeates interactions and behavior. Certain time periods are more auspicious than others, day more auspicious than night, particular days of the week are less favorable, during inauspicious times pernicious powers have more capacity to inflict damage. Autumn navaratra: auspicious festival during an inauspicious time, repelling demons. People and places can also be auspicious/inauspicious.

the aryans

Beginning of Vedic Period. From about 1500 BCE, a pastoral, nomadic, cattle-herding people known as the Aryans appeared on the Indian subcontinent. They had a martial ethos based around the horse and battle chariot, cattle raids. Spoke vedic sanskrit. The prevailing view is that they originated from the area of central asia near the caucasus mountains and migrated westward into europe, and eastward into the indian subcontinent. Two battling theses:

Renunciation

Brahmanical renunciation: development of hermitages, first monasteries. Later sadhus: practicing spiritual practice and tapas, seeking liberation while living, dwelling at rivers, mountains, or cremation grounds, in robes or naked, covered in ash

varna: caste

Brahmin (brahmana): priests, they are the embodiment of the dharma ksatriya: ruling class. Expected to offer protection to people, give gifts, study the Veda, had right to bear arms, commission sacrificial rituals, avoid attachments to sensual indulgences Vaisya: tend cattle, cultivate land, trade, lend money, bestow gifts, offer sacrifices, study Vedas. Sudra: lowest class, duty to serve the upper three classes

brahmanism

Brahminical orthodoxy. Strict brahmanical worldview, brahmins at the center, individuals and communities ruled by dharma, strong formulation of personal duty. Castes.

The Untouchables

Candalas -- outside the varna system. Toilet cleaners, leather workers -- these people are socially pollutable, contact with them to be avoided. Had to dress in clothes of the deceased, wear iron ornaments, and eat from broken dishes.

Patanjali's yoga sutras

Codified preexisting yogic traditions into a single system called rajayoga: "royal yoga". Based essentially on the practice of single-pointed meditation: ekagrata. holding awareness on a meditative focus for long periods of time.

Bandhus

Connections. Universe is a web of relations, everything is connected: body/self, ritual, cosmos... upanisads are the "secret connections" -- focus shifts to self-cosmos relationships. Knowledge of the bandhus gives power.

Puruṣa Sūkta (RV 10.90)

Describes the rigid hierarchy of classes/varnas

vedic gods

Deva: gods/deities, they are worshipped, the protect the world, their contributions needed to maintain world order, etc Asuras: Anti-gods, in constant conflict with the devas, they have as much power as a deity but they wreak havoc and use their power for evil Prajāpati: Lord of creatures, protector, creator Agni: God of fire. Indra: God of storms and lightning. Destroys serpent vrtra Soma: Moon god? Varuṇa: God of sky, lord of cosmos, brings rain/etc, maintains rta

The subtle body

Developed in the medieval period: quasi-physical, spiritual body. Composed of nadi (channels along which things flow), cakras (wheels, energy cneters located along the spine and head), prana (our energetic life force understood as breath). Medial body linking physical to ultimate reality, accelerate process of union with god.

The Indus Valley civilization

Discovery and nature: flourished in the northwest of the indian subcontinent circa 2500 bce. Large cities harappa, mohenjodaro. Had sophisticated urban planning, highly developed cities with municipal water works, uniform construction, port cities with docks. They had a uniform material culture and centralized authority. They had a script but it has not been deciphered. May have spoken a dravidian language. Urbanized from 2300-1800 BCE, declined and collapsed circa 1700 BCE.

Dharma

Duty, law. Dharma both articulates the way things are and prescribes how one should behave in relation to the cosmic order. Dharma is understood both as priestly ritual action and as personal and social behavior in harmony with the cosmic order.

dasas

Fought the aryans, means "slaves"

The four goals/aims: purusarthas

Four goals recognized as attractive to human beings/worthy of pursuit. Different values to which people are called; system that recognizes that people are drawn to different things Dharma: righteousness, law, and justice Artha: wealth, power, and success Kama: sex and sensual pleasure Moksa: liberation

Mokṣa

Freedom from samsara, liberation, freedom from karma, freedom from worldly existence, freedom from the bondage of ignorance into the liberation that comes with the knowledge of the Self or Absolute Reality. Cannot be achieved solely through good karmic acts, must be achieved with liberating wisdom; a penetrating insight into truth, the self, absolute reality.

Nirvāṇa

Freedom from samsara, liberation, freedom from karma, freedom from worldly existence, freedom from the bondage of ignorance into the liberation that comes with the knowledge of the Self or Absolute Reality. Cannot be achieved solely through good karmic acts, must be achieved with liberating wisdom; a penetrating insight into truth, the self, absolute reality.

The brahmanas

Genre of vedic sanskrit text that primarily dealt with the power within the recitation of sacred verses, and with the ritual practices of the priestly class (brahmin).

Asoka maurya

He conquered Kalinga (east india), he killed and deported people, left people's lives in ruins, and he felt great remorse. Resolved that instead of ruling through violence, he would rule through righteousness. If he instructed all of his people about righteousness, then people will want to do the right thing, attract people to justice. Asoka's propagaion of dhamma: a "civil religion": General principles of righteousness, social harmony, personal salvation. Recognizes potential value of all "sects" or "religions". Shows respect to brahmins, but does not subscribe to brahmanical political ideas (law of dharma over the king)

The epics (itihasa)

Highly influential genre of hindu literature that emerged at the end of the vedic period: long narratives which grew out of tales of heroic exploits of warriors, knitted together for courtly recitation to ksatriya audiences. Describe social and courtly life in great detail. The texts reflect a transitional period in hinduism. Influential texts in the transmission of hindu religious values.

Hindu rites of passage (samskara)

Hindu orthodoxy prescribes that the whole of life be lived in an orderly manner in which you pass through sequential stages according to your varna and gender, and each stage is marked with a life cycle ritual: samskara. Rites of passage bring together/connect two stages of an individual's life. Most important ones: upanayana, vivaha, householder's samskaras, antyesti

The Dharmaśāstras

Hindu texts regarding dharma. The Dharma Sastras are texts that deal specifically with dharma that have been enormously influential in shaping the values and behavior of Hindus, they came to be regarded as Law Books. They lay out the specifics of social obligations for Hindus, providing a codified attempt to articulate standards of conduct, etc

The hindu universe

Hinduism does not have a single authoritative cosmology. By the time of the upanisads, the notion of a triple world system was well established: the world of the gods (heaven), the world of the ancestors (atmosphere), and the human world (earth). By the puranic period, the system was greatly elaborated, with 7 worlds and 7 nether worlds.

Hinduism/Hindu

Hinduism is an extremely diverse set of beliefs and practices with no single founder or religious authority. Hindus may worship one or many deities, usually with prayer rituals within their own home. The most common figures of devotion are the gods vishnu, shiva, and mother goddess devi. "Hindu" was an ancient persian term referring to people who lived east of the sindhu: indus river. Hinduism includes elements that many of the mainstream world religions would not deem centrally religious, such as works on astrology, medicine, logic and grammar.

Hindu conceptions of time and creation

Hindus accept the notion that time and creation move in repetitive cycles

The hindu calendar

Hindus follow both the solar calendar and the monthly lunar calendar. Solar calendar used for birthdays and sectarian activities, but religious rituals follow the lunar system. In 1957, government of india initiated the use of a National Calendar, sometimes called the Hindu Calendar, to standardize the calendrical system, but people still use differing ones.

Ganges River

Important river, worshipped, rituals occur here (?)

Historical periods

Indus valley period (2500 - 1500 BCE), Vedic period (1500 - 600 BCE), classical period (600 BCE - 600 CE), Medieval period (600 CE - 1500 CE), Modern period (1500 CE - present)

The bhagavad gita's three yogas

Jnana yoga: true knowledge, highest knowledge, knowing everything is one. Self-restraint, concentration of mind, and regarding a brahmin and an untouchable with an equal eye. Involving the study of religious teachings on liberation. Transcendental "knowing" of the absolute. Karma yoga: one should perform one's ordained duty, but renounce attachment to the success or failure of those actions. Renunciation of attachment to causality can result in highest attainment -- action without attachment. Devotion, devotional acts. Selfless action. Bhakti yoga: democratizes access to worship and to moksa. States that all those of unfortunate birth can reach the highest goal if devoted to krsna. Sincere love for and devotion to the divine, however divinity may be conceived, is regarded as leading the devotee to liberation.

Early Vedic culture and religion

Known to us through the rgveda which were hymns to the gods passed down orally. They had a tripartite social structure: brahmana (priests), ksatriya (nobles), and vis (commoners). They were in constant conflict with the dasas. Spread aryan culture and language through conquest and conversion. Believed in tripartite cosmos: heaven, atmosphere, and earth. Believed in cosmic order rta. There was constant conflict between the gods (devas) and anti-gods (asuras). Believed in afterlife: heaven/world of ancestors. The primary gods were agni, soma, indra, and varuna. Intense emphasis on ritual sacrifice (yajna): believed these elaborate sacrifices carried out by priests would lead to gods returning gifts, that they were necessary to maintain balance and order in the cosmos. Key themes: this worldly focus: deifying natural forces, concern about water and health, emphasis on world-maintenance, sacrifices to gods in order to maintain world order. Multiple mythologies, mystical component: drinking soma, theological speculation

Jnana

Liberating knowledge. Changes the perceiver forever. Eradication of conventional distinctions between objects, radical interconnectedness of all beings. Fusion of perceiver and perceived, transcendence of all limits. One merges with the cosmos. Immortality as the experience of the infinite. Knowledge that your mind is not large enough to know -- your mind must be transformed to gain jnana.

The Manusmṛti (Mānava Dharmaśāstra) = The Law Code of Manu

Most authoritative code on Hindu dharma, order, duty

śramaṇas (the Śramana movement)

Movements away from Vedic traditions. Renunciation as rejection of "householder" religiosity and life in world. Wave of teachers and movements. Individuals setting out on a spiritual path that involved giving up everything: possessions, families, names, just wandering in wilderness. Theological division between upanisads and sramana movements. General theology was that life sucks, life is all dukkha (suffering), samsara is the cycle of reincarnation moved by karma and the goal is to get out of it. Tapas: asceticism. Search for spiritual knowledge. Goal of emancipation: moksa/nirvana.

The Vedic samhitas

Oldest collection of hymns in praise of various deities (most highly regarded literary works of the Aryans).

Devī

One of the main deities of Hinduism, the mother goddess, benevolent but also sometimes enraged

Viṣṇu

One of the three main deities of Hinduism, preserver god, protects the world against evil forces. Four-armed, on cosmic serpent

Śiva

One of the three main deities of Hinduism, the destroyer god. erotic/ascetic. Siva linga. Mystery of siva's creative power. Known to create and destroy the universe (in cycles)

Panini and the astadhyayi

Panini is reputed to have lived in northwest india sometime between the seventh and third centuries bce. He composed an extraordinarily sophisticated work of grammar known as the astadhyayi. Lays down the entire structure of the grammar of sanskrit. His morphology remains virtually unchanged. His language is known as classical sanskrit.

Samkhya philosophy

Patanjali didn't follow atman and brahman, his philosophy was based in samkhya which is the philosophy of the bhagavad gita. Not monism, not atman = brahman. Thought universe was comprised of two basic elements: Purusa: multiple individual consciousness, and Prakrti: matter/a single "materiality".

Women in hinduism

Relatively few hymns to female deities in the rg veda, suggesting male-centered nature of aryan society. Wives play crucial roles in vedic rituals. In the ancient vedic period, women were capable of attaining moksa, respected for acting as spiritual teachers, and suitable to take up renunciation. Women had to struggle against inequality and male prejudice; hindu women expected to be obedient and demure and defer to men. Once menstrual periods begin, teenage girls viewed as a burden.

renunciation/renouncer vs householder

Renunciation in the quest for self-realization and the end of suffering in contradiction with duties of householder's way of life, brahminic orthodoxy evolving in accord with these conflicts to present philosophies of self-realization other than sacrifice.

saṃnyāsa/saṃnyāsin

Renunciation, giving up worldly possessions and wandering in search of moksa, divine knowledge, final stage of life

Upanisad (secret connection)

Revealing the unity of all things

grhya

Rites performed in the household; domestic rites. concern the rites that precede conception and follow the birth of a child. Impregnation, quickening of a male child, dividing the hair, birth rites, name giving, exit from the birth room, first eating of solid food, ear piercing (thought to have health benefits), hair cutting in 1st or 3rd year of life...

Purity and pollution

Ritual purity and pollution important concepts, not necessarily hygienic/unhygienic. Rituals about eating/bathing/etc, how to ensure purity.

rajadharma

Royal dharma, the "sacred law for kings". King's role is to enforce dharma -- policy system by which king meets his goals. Subordination of the political power to brahmanical authority through dharma. Violence necessary to uphold dharma -- about proper use of violence. What does it mean to be a good king. The crucial "political theology" of brahmanism -- Establishes functional sources of legitimacy; Orthodox brahminism affects kingdom policy

Rta and cosmic order

Rta: translated as "the right way," overarching orderliness to the workings of the cosmos that controlled human life, seasonal changes, etc. Later rta became less used and known as dharma.

Veda

Sacred literature, sruti which is "what is heard," oldest texts of Hinduism. Brought by the Aryans, written in vedic sanskrit, revelations brought by the gods, there are 4 vedas.

Sanskrit

Sanskrit holds a privileged place in hinduism bc vedic sanskrit is the language in which the vedas are composed; much of the finest and most influential religious literature of hinduism is composed in sanskrit. Belongs to the Indo-European family of languages. early form of vedic sanskrit brought by indo-aryans, language of the rgveda and the vedic corpus. Vedic sanskrit yielded to classical sanskrit. Classical sanskrit began to diminish in spoken use from the first century; sanskrit prayers still recited during religious rituals, still one of the 22 official languages of india. Structure of the sanskrit alphabet: made up of 49 phonemes.

Siddhis

Siddhis, achievements, are magical powers attained through yoga. A less noble, but still sought result of yogic practice. Mental mastery of objects of sense gives one power -- knowledge of the future, telepathy, invisibility, levitation

The sphota theory of language

Sphota means "bursting forth" and refers to how meaning is conveyed through sound. Sphota is the invisible and inaudible vehicle through which meaning bursts forth the instant a word is voiced and heard by a listener (this is why sounds vary with regional accents or speed at which they are conveyed etc but people who speak the language still understand them). Sphota arises in the mind of the speaker, who conveys it through words or sentences, then when the listener receives the auditory vibrations, the meaning bursts/shines forth in the mind of the listener. The idea is the sphota.

The bhagavad gita

Student-teacher dialogue format. Does not present a simple, unified philosophy. Krsna makes reference to religious and philosophical ideas that were in circulation at the time of its composition, skillfully fusing them into a conglomerate that suits the sensibilities of a wide variety of religious orientations. Offers paths that reconcile the quandary bw choosing life in society or away from its demands. Introduces the three paths to self-realization. Rise in classical hinduism, move away from vedic sacrifice. Markedly widened the parameters of what constitutes legitimate hinduism. Centrally defining.

aryavarta

The Indian subcontinent. Generally includes the countries of pakistan, bangladesh, and india, although nepal, bhutan, and sri lanka are often included. India consists of 29 states. The indian portion of the subcontinent is roughly divided into north and south india by the narmada river and the vindhya mountain range.

The Upanisads

The Vedic canon. "Texts of the Hindu tradition which search for the foundation of the world and the true nature of the self." Texts of speculative philosophy, framed as conversations bw a disciple and a teacher. Cornerstone of the Indian philosophical tradition that developed. The primary concern of the upanisads is with the nature of absolute reality (brahman), the true nature of the individual self (atman), and the relationship between brahman and atman. secret teachings for students. Exercises meant to stimulate thought and prompt further reflection.

The alvars and the nayanars

The alvars were itinerant bards who sang hymns to visnu, whereas the nayanars expressed their devotion to siva. There were 12 alvars, 63 nayanars.

vedanta

The end/the essence of the veda (upanisad also called this). Today the most influential of hindu philosophies Advaita: non-dual vedanta: sankara most important thinker. We live in a state of ignorance or illusion. We are atman, as pure subjectivity/pure consciousness, but this atman is identical with brahman. Brahman is being, consciousness, joy. If we are able to see clearly and gain true knowledge, we will attain moksa. Method is about hearing, thinking, and meditating on texts. Visistadvaita: qualified non-dual vedanta: the world is not illusory, it is simply the outer expression of god. The individual self is distinct from god, who is its inner essence Dvaita: dual vedanta: individual self and god are distinct and separate. Material nature is separate from both.

Mantra and the theology of sound; om/aum/pranava

The sacred utterance: aum/om, is said to be brahman as sound. Meditatively voicing/hearing aum could reveal the nature of brahman. Mantras are utterances believed to derive from the single source, the absolute brahman. Every vedic syllable is an elaboration upon/expansion of aum. Every vedic sound and verse is thus a mantra, an instrument through which brahman sacrificially differentiates itself. A mental vibration. Through mantra the world is made manifest, through mantra the world is reabsorbed. Sound as sacred revelation, certain sounds such as om are expressions of ultimate truth.

Ātman

The self; but atman is brahman, must realize that the true nature of the individual self is the same as the true nature of absolute reality.

the four stages of life (asrama)

The student (sisya): in this religious childhood, a boy is paired with a guru (teacher of spiritual truths). The boy takes up residence with his instructor in a hermitage and leads an austere life of formal study of at least one veda for a certain period of time. After this he can decide to remain as a student/teacher or return to householder. The householder (grhastha): this stage begins with marriage. It embodies the creative expression of the self or absolute. This is the stage that supports and upholds dharma. Unlike the renouncer and the celibate student, the householder is expected to pursue the legitimate goal of kama (sensory pleasure), particularly dealing w love and sexual gratification. Kama provides the family unit with cohesion. Other goal: artha: skill, attainment, power, or wealth. The householder needs to pursue these two goals. Kama sutra, artha sastra. The forest-dweller (vanaprastha): when the householder's children have children, tradition recommends entering a period of retirement in which one takes up residence in the forest. The elderly male is encouraged to give all of his wealth and possessions to his wife and children and live in a hut in a forest, learning from sagely renouncers and reading scriptural texts. Can be accompanied by wife, does not need to abandon household fire. This is a transitional stage, beginning towards the pursuit of moksa. The renouncer (samnyasa): final recommended stage of life, where the elderly man bids their spouses and others goodbye, perform their own death rites, burn their sacred threads, abandon the household fire, and wander the world in pursuit of moksa. They are expected to renounce all of their material possessions, don rag robes, and carry a bowl into which householders may place food. May take the form of severe asceticism.

Hatha yoga

The yoga of force. Elaborate system of difficult postures and breath exercises. Focuses on the perfection of the body through the "fire" of yoga. Self awakens to its identity with the absolute, manipulation of the subtle body

Key prototypical characteristics of Hinduism

Veda duty, law (dharma) god (deva) ritual (yajña) worship (pūjā) devotion (bhakti) renunciation (saṃnyāsa) liberation (mokṣa) reincarnation (saṃsāra) ethical retribution (karma) self (ātman) and ultimate reality (brahman)

yajnavalkya

Vedic sage, in the upanishads, welcomes participation of women in Hindu religion (as evidenced by his conversation with maitreyi

Late Vedic Period

Victory of king sudas, establishment of kuru state, dependent on increasingly complex sacrificial rites, canonization of rgveda, sanskritization, expansions of ritual cult, increase in brahmanical authority, increasingly rigid social hierarchy (born into your class), only upper three classes can become "twice born" by being initiated into vedic learning/rituals.

Vedic rituals

Yajna: vedic sacrifices. These sacrifices were thought to give gods their power, that the vedic gods were dependent on performance of these sacrifices by brahmin. Yajnas thought to maintain the order of the cosmos by providing nourishment for the gods. Essential to the proper functioning of the world, cosmos, and society. Asvamedha: horse sacrifice. One of the grandest rituals, only done by the most powerful of kings. Finest horse picked, roams free for a year, when it comes back it's killed and has fake sex with the queen, then its cooked and eaten Agnicayana: 12 day ritual commissioned by a patron to obtain vitality, offspring, or even immortality

Eight limbs of yoga

Yama -- ethical restraints, nonviolence, honesty, not stealing, celibacy... Niyama -- discipline, cleanliness, calmness, tapas, study, devotion Asana -- posture practice Pranayama -- breath control Pratyahara -- withdrawal of senses from sense-objects, pulling your senses back inside yourself; not focusing on sensory information Dharana -- concentration of the mind on an object of focus Dhyana -- meditation, levels of consciousness, higher consciousness, zen state Samadhi -- absorption, eliminates the object of concentration, pure state of concentration on nothing at all, complete freedom

magadha

city In the east, sramana movements centered here

the three debts

debts to gods (solved by yajna), debts to teachers (repaid by learning the veda), debts to ancestors (solved by having children)

Bhakti

devotional worship of a personal god.

The indo-european (aryan) migration thesis

dominant thesis. Says the Aryans were a light-skinned, indo-european people, who migrated into the indian subcontinent in waves. They carried with them the vedas. The vedas tell of the aryans conquering the darker-skinned dasas and dasyus, but there is scarce evidence of a violent overthrow. According to the aryan migration thesis, a mingling of aryan and dravidian cultures took place. Aryan cultural elements such as their language sanskrit eventually became dominant in the north, but dravidian cultural elements endured with more resilience in the south. Support for this thesis includes current language divisions and that the vedas do not describe an urban culture

Antyesti

final sacrifice. A person's last samskara. Final sacrifice in the vedic career of a twice-born hindu, in which the final oblation is oneself. Dying person fed water from the Ganga (sacred river), verses are chanted. Upon death, body is washed, hair & nails cut, laid on bamboo stretcher, carried toward cremation grounds, ashes disposed into ganga, mourning period.

Marriage and the pativrata

for hindu women, marriage serves as their entry into spiritual life. Through marriage a woman would be ushered into her husband's family and there begin her life of austere service and learning. A wife's pativrata: the ascetic dedication to her husband

Investiture with the sacred thread (upanayana)

for male adolescents from brahmin (8 yrs old), ksatriya (11 yrs old), and vaisya (12 yrs old) varnas. The upanayana is said to grant the person a second birth, and this birth is an initiation into the world of the sacred knowledge of sacrifice. It leads the initiate through the threshold that separates those that "do not know" From those that do. Only those who have crossed this threshold will have access to the study of the veda. The ritual contains symbolism of childbirth, renunciation, vedic learning, and sacrificial oblations.

Gupta dynasty

golden age of classical hinduism, development of sanskrit literature and temple literature. Largest dynasty conquers the north. Patrons of brahminical culture, apparent acceptance of political theology of rajadharma. Establishment of sanskrit as language of learning.

Indus Valley religion

hard to know bc have not deciphered writing. belief in some form of afterlife, cult of the feminine, goddesses widely worshipped (lots of goddess statuary), some continuities with myths/beliefs in modern hinduism (temples, altars). Representations of hindu deities -- proto siva

kaivalya

isolation, aloneness, ultimate goal of raja yoga, leads to liberation/transcendence

Vowed ascetic observances and auspiciousness for women

it is a cultural obligation for hindu women to cultivate saubhagya: auspiciousness as it relates to married women and their concerns. The term derives from a woman's sexuality and fertility, as well as her erotic nature and vitality, but extends to her domestic duties and household, and particularly to the well-being of her husband and children. Vrata: a particularly comment assortment of ascetic practices performed by women to enhance one's spiritual power. One commits to some sort of personal deprivation or austerity for a fixed period of time. Fasting, etc

Ānanda

joy

Householder's samskaras

large number of samskaras are prescribed for householders, they concern the rites that precede conception and follow the birth of a child. Impregnation, quickening of a male child, dividing the hair, birth rites, name giving, exit from the birth room, first eating of solid food, ear piercing (thought to have health benefits), hair cutting in 1st or 3rd year of life...

The ramayana

made up of 8 books known as kandas, numerous variations of the story, took shape bw 500 BCE and 300 CE. Story begins in North Indian kingdom. About prince Rama, his life

mauryan dynasty

maghadan dynasty, ruled by asoka the great, conquered east india, End of the mauryas: history falls back into darkness. Empire dissolved fairly quickly, did not have advanced infrastructure, ruled in large part by asoka's personality/personal loyalties, following his death empire falls quickly. Last king assassinated by his brahmin general

Marriage (vivaha)

marks a girl's entrance into spiritual life, and beginning of the householder stage for both. Householders are responsible fro the regular performance of religious rites. Marriage is arranged, union of families, not for love

Śrauta

most ancient. Performed for the benefit of social or cosmic good.

kundalini

primal energy located at base of spine, serpent power

The cultural diffusion hypothesis

proposes that aryan civilization, whose sacred language was sanskrit, and where the vedas originated, developed close to the harappan civilization, and due to its social and political stability, the vedic/aryan culture diffused into neighboring lands. This thesis suspects the aryan migration thesis of being a white-supremacist ideology and a colonialist paradigm.

Sati and the status of widows

sati (good, true), the hindu woman "goes together' with her husband in his final sacrificial offering; their household fire is extinguished together. Through sati, a woman is said to avoid entry into widowhood and is believed to cleanse her husband of the consequences of his karmic misdeeds, thus guaranteeing him a favorable rebirth. The alternative is widowhood, where remarriage was forbidden, obliged to spend the rest of their lives without any other marital relationship. Widows are regarded as inauspicious, and prohibited from certain rituals.

yoga

spiritual discipline or ascetic technology, general term for many bodily/mental practices that lead to emancipation.

Saṃsāra

the repeated cycle of rebirth. You are reincarnated, your soul transfers into a different body to experience your karma.

Śruti and smrti

the four genres of vedic literature (samhitas, brahmanas, aranyakas, and upanisads) are referred to collectively as sruti. These texts were divinely perceived as opposed to passed down "remembered". All other religious literature is referred to as smrti: these texts are "remembered": literature composed by human beings and passed down through centuries.

gunas

three "qualities" of prakrti that can be manifested Sattva: light, purity Rajas: energy, activity Tamas: darkness, torpor

Ayurveda

traditional hindu knowledge of life. Grounded in a complex philosophy and theory of bodily science. Addresses illness, bodily constitution, physical health etc

Brahman

ultimate reality, underlying essence of the world, supreme and unseen, connected to the innermost being of all things in existence

svadharma/varṇāśramadharma (varṇa-āśrama-dharma)

varna of social classes and stages of life. You know your dharma based on where you fall in both of those categories.