HIS 380 Midterm ID Terms

The Treaty at Pittsburgh (1775)

Meaning: " The Treaty of Pittsburgh was a meeting between Indians and Colonists to reach peace between the two groups. At the treaty, the process was slow and painstaking middle ground diplomacy. The purpose of the treaty was to have the Indians remain neutral during the American Revolution, instead of siding with Britain, with whom they had better relations. Significance: The treaty didn't create lasting peace and it wasn't upheld by settler colonists. In 1777, Indians were massacred by settlers, causing Indians to turn against the Americans. Texts to Connect: Richard White, "The Contest of Villages", The Murder of Cornstalk

Reconcentrado Policy (1896)

Meaning: A policy during the Spanish American war in Cuba in 1896, implemented by General Weyler (THE BUTCHER) of Spain. It was the first wave of the Spanish ""Reconcentration Policy"" that sent thousands of Cubans into concentration camps in order to reduce support for the Cuban rebellion. General Weyler understood very quickly that the key to a Spanish victory over the insurgents was to strip the guerrillas of their abilities to live off the land and camouflage themselves in groups of civilians. To this end, he began a policy of moving Cuban civilians to central locations where they would be under the control of the Spanish army. In addition, he put the entire island under martial law.. Under Weyler's policy, the rural population had eight days to move into designated camps located in fortified towns; any person who failed to obey was shot. The housing in these areas was typically abandoned, decaying, roofless, and virtually uninhabitable. Food was scarce and famine and disease quickly swept through the camps. Significance: By 1898, one third of Cuba's population had been forcibly sent into the concentration camps. Over 400,000 Cubans died as a result of the Spanish Reconcentration Policy. The policy generated severe anti-Spanish feeling in the United States which helped propel it into war in 1898. Texts to Connect: Walter Johnson, "Tales of Mississippian Empire" ,

Boxer Rebellion (1900)

Meaning: A violent anti-foreign, anti-colonial, and anti-Christian uprising that took place in China between 1899 and 1901. It was initiated by ""Boxers"", for many of their members had been practitioners of the martial arts, such as boxing. They were motivated by proto-nationalist sentiments and opposition to Western colonialism and associated Christian missionary activity. They rebelled against all imperial powers involved. To meet this emergency McKinley dispatched 5,000 troops from the Philippines. Significance: This rebellion made a mockery out of Hay. Impacted Hay's Open door policy. The foreign powers all banded together to quell the rebellion. Texts to Connect: Warning of Danger to American Markets in China"

The 2nd Industrial Revolution (1870s)

Meaning: Advancements in manufacturing and production technology enabled the widespread adoption of technological systems such as telegraph and railroad networks, gas and water supply, and sewage systems, which had earlier been concentrated to a few select cities. The enormous expansion of rail and telegraph lines after 1870 allowed unprecedented movement of people and ideas, which culminated in a new wave of globalization. Andrew Carnegie shows how the gilded age's economic growth and its foreign policy went hand in hand: he chose to go into steel production in large part because he saw US tariff and protectionist policies as a huge advantage for him. He kept overproducing even when he was flooding the market, and was rewarded for his capital by pushing out competition The Burlingame-Seward Treaty of 1868 & Immigration New industrial revolution needed huge amounts of labor (especially the railroads), but the harsh treatment of new immigrants created new diplomatic issues Seward negotiated the Burlingame-Seward Treaty of 1868, which declared that China and the US "cordially recognize" the free migration from one country to another as an inalienable right Capitalists loved this -- low-cost laborers for firms, not popular in the American working class, though, and it drew ferocious nativist backlash For Seward, the most important part of the Treaty was that it protected US trade in Chinese ports and reinforced US merchant rights in China, cemented "most favored nation" status, allowing the US to get rid of all that excess production (steel especially) Significance: As the US exploded with export goods, people recognized the importance of finding new overseas markets. Thanks to state power, firms could deal with all this surplus (important example: expanding the Navy) Immigration as foreign relations: Seward making diplomatic arrangements with China for immigration Texts to Connect: Request for Annexation of Santo Domingo, Need of Latin American Markets, Support for new and Larger Navy, Importance of Overseas Markets, Influence of Sea Power upon History, Before Restriction Became Exclusion

Lewis and Clark Expedition (1803-1806)

Meaning: After Jefferson bought Louisiana from Napoleon, he ordered an expedition for the exploration of the newly-gained land. Meriwether Lewis and William Clark. Jefferson ordered the two to take note of the land's agricultural makeup and waterways, as well as record the encountered Indian tribes and their culture. Significance: The expedition's goal was to find a path for commerce, which failed as there is no Northwest Passage. The expedition allowed for the exploration of the Midwest and the path to the Pacific Ocean. Texts to Connect: President Jefferson's Secret Message to Congress on Westward Expansion, Thomas Jefferson, Instructions to Meriwether Lewis

The Barbary Coast War of 1801-1805

Meaning: After instances of piracy were conducted by the Barbary States and made commerce difficult, Jefferson sent a US Naval fleet to the Mediterranean. Significance: The US won the first war and established themselves as a worrying and strong power. Texts to Connect: History of the United States of America during the Administrations of Thomas Jefferson

Andrew Jackson's Diplomacy in Asia (1830s)

Meaning: Andrew Jackson believed that commercial expansion is linked to continental expansion and as a result, protected US trade in Asia. In Kuala Batu, Malay pirates boarded the US ship Friendship, which was carrying cash and opium. The pirates seized the goods and ship, as well as killed several members of the crew. In response, Jackson sent Commodore Downes to the East Indies to be a threatening figure, a practice of gunboat diplomacy. There, he plundered the town and killed civilians. Following the event, Jackson became more active in East Asia and sent Edmund Roberts to negotiate treaties of friendship and commerce. Roberts was not very diplomatic with his dealings in China, yet he signed treaties in Siam and Muscat. Significance: Jackson's policies in East Asia gave the US economic access to Asian markets and showed the US's strength in the Pacific theater. Texts to Connect: Sec. of Agriculture Jeremiah Rusk discusses the importance of overseas markets, Minister to China's Warning of the Danger to American Markets in China, Secretary of State John Hay, Open Door Notes

James Polk (1845-1849)

Meaning: As President, James Polk started the war against Mexico and gained half of Mexico through the Guadalupe-Hidalgo Treaty. Polk wanted to intervene in the Yucatan province but manifest destiny hit a wall there. Significance: Under Polk's presidency, the US expanded with the acquisition of Mexican land such as Texas, New Mexico, and California after the war. Through this expansion, the US now had a path to the Pacific Ocean, which made trade with Asia more accessible. Texts to Connect: John Quincy Adams, Letter of Opposition to the Annexation of Texas, Henry Clay, "Raleigh Letter" on the Annexation of Texas, "War for Slavery," Liberator, "'Our Country, Right or Wrong,'" Liberator, John C. Calhoun, Conquest of Mexico, Congressional Globe, Brian DeLay, "Independent Indians and the US-Mexican War,"

The Farewell Address (1796)

Meaning: As Washington leaves office, he wrote a farewell address with the help of Alexander Hamilton and delivered it to Congress. He gave advice and parting wisdom after declining to run for re-election. Significance: In his address, Washington warns against creating factions and political parties and meddling in foreign affairs. Texts to Connect: Treaty between France and the United States, Paris Treaty

The Great Struggle in Spanish America (1810s-1820s)

Meaning: As unrest increased in Spanish provinces in America, different opinions on the matter arose. Henry Clay, a representative, recognized the independence of Spanish provinces in a speech to Congress. Clay had an idea for a hemispheric system of republican trade, which would involve Latin American markets. John Quincy Adams supported the movement for independence, but would not get America involved. He believed that involvement would corrupt America and warned of interference in his 4th of July Speech. Significance: In his 4th of July Speech, Adams claimed that the US's heart would be with independence movements but that America would not go out in search of monsters to destroy. His speech strengthened America's policy of non-intervention in foreign affairs. Texts to Connect: Henry Clay, "The Independence of Latin America,", Thomas Jefferson to John Adams, on the revolution in South America, Caitlin Fitz, "The Hemispheric Dimensions of Early U.S. Nationalism...""

Asa Whitney and Manifest Destiny (1800s)

Meaning: Asa Whitney was a former trader in China and the original planner of the transcontinental railroad, which fueled the idea of ""Manifest Destiny."" Manifest Destiny refers to the idea of westward expansion, as the US is destined to expand and spread democracy and capitalism. Whitney believed that a transcontinental railroad would revolutionize the entire commerce of the world and place the US at the middle. Significance: Whitney's idea of Manifest Destiny fueled the desire of westward and economic expansion. Through expansion, the US grew in size and strength, making it an economic power comparable to European powers. Texts to Connect: President Jefferson's Secret Message to Congress on Westward Expansion

Alfred Thayer Mahan (1890)

Meaning: Authored The Influence of Sea Power upon History in 1890, which argued that the US needed a dominant navy to project power globally, which would be followed by commercial success, which would be followed by political supremacy. Gave lots of concrete logistics about how the US should do it, and the book was incredibly popular and influential Significance: Another representation of the importance of the Navy for securing US trade. Mahan later influenced Theodore Roosevelt. Texts to connect: Influence of Sea Power upon History

Buffalo Bill's Wild West and Congress of Rough Riders (1890s)

Meaning: Buffalo Bill's Wild West was a touring cowboy show, which the soldiers fighting in Cuba were named after. The Congress of Rough Riders, led by Theodore Roosevelt, was the first voluntary cavalry in the Spanish-American War. The Battle of San Juan Hill was a key battle in the war and ended with US victory. Significance: The Rough Riders helped establish Theodore Roosevelt's reputation and helped the US beat Spanish forces in Cuba. Texts to Connect: Walter Johnson, "Tales of Mississippian Empire", William Seward's vision of an American empire, 1850 & 1860, Monroe Doctrine

Opium War Diplomacy (1839-1842)

Meaning: China had a serious opium problem as the British imported a lot of opium into China. When they tried to keep out opium and abolish the trade with Britain, Britain brought their navy, leading to the Opium Wars. China was defeated decisively, which resulted in the punitive British-Chinese Treaty of Nanjing, in which Britain forced China to open 5 new ports and accept extraterritoriality on them, as well as low tariffs and protection. Hong Kong became the territory of Britain as well. Significance: Asa Whitney profited egregiously on this trade as well as Britain. Texts to Connect: Sec. of Agriculture Jeremiah Rusk discusses the importance of overseas markets, Secretary of State John Hay, Open Door Notes

George Dewey (1898)

Meaning: Commodore George Dewey received a telegram about fighting Spain in the Philippines. He made it to Manila in 3 days. And Sank the entire Spanish fleet in Manila. Battle of Manila Bay (1898) during Spanish American War. Significance: First major engagement of the Spanish-American War, battle was one of the most decisive naval battles in history and marked the end of the Spanish colonial period in Philippine history. Texts to Connect: Soldiers' Letters from the Philippines, To the Person Sitting in the Dark

Thomas Paine's Common Sense (1776)

Meaning: Common Sense was a pamphlet written by Thomas Paine as a piece of propaganda during the American Revolution. Paine attempted to persuade colonists to support independence by using 'common sense' in his argument. Paine believed that America is better off without England, as Europe is economically dependent on America. Significance: Paine advocates for a republic, as republics promote commerce and commerce promotes peace. Common Sense worked as a piece of propaganda and caused many colonists to support the Revolution. Texts to Connect: Declaration of Independence, Federalist Papers

Cuban War of Independence (1895-1898)

Meaning: Cuban rebels "insurrectos" were fighting against Spanish colonial powers, with war breaking out in 1895. They fought for political and economic freedoms, and a large trigger for the war being the US placing a 40% tariff and tanking their economy Significance: Led to the Spanish-American war in that with the Cuban sugar trade collapsing, US capital interests (the Sugar Trust) wanted McKinley to seize Cuba Texts to Connect: S. O. Thacher on the Need of Latin American Markets to Avoid Strife at Home,

Philippine-American War (1899-1902)

Meaning: Emilio Aguinaldo, a leader of the Filipino nationalist movement who eventually went on to become the first president of the nation. He led the Filipino rebellion against Imperial Spain (1896-1898). During the Spanish-American War (1898), he was brought back from his exile in Hong Kong by the Americans as part of the American strategy to rally the Filipinos against Spain. He fought alongside Americans, believing that Americans would leave the Philippines to form an independent, sovereign nation after the war. When Americans took possession of the islands as part of Treaty of Paris, Aguinaldo felt betrayed. The insurgents in the Philippines islands formally declared war against the U.S. in 1899, which went on until 1902. Significance: It was a brutal war with more than 200,000 dead; trench warfare and racism played an important part during the war. The Philippines only gained full independence from the U.S. in 1946. Texts to Connect: Soldiers' Letters from the Philippines, To the Person Sitting in the Dark"

Filibusters (1850)

Meaning: Groups of private mercenary armies from the US, without official government backing, went into Latin American countries with the intention of assuming power over the local governments. Narciso Lopez, a soldier from Venezuela, was funded by Americans and tried to take over Cuba three times, each time failing and ending up getting executed after his final attempt. William Walker, the grey-eyed man of destiny, brought an army of 58 men, nicknamed the immortals, and took over Nicaragua. He then re-legalized slavery and the slave trade. Cornelius Vanderbilt opposed Walker and prevented any commercial support and then raised an army to overthrow him. Significance: Filibusters served as a way for the US to gain territory without governmental approval. Texts to Connect: S. O. Thacher on the Need of Latin American Markets to Avoid Strife at Home, Walter Johnson, "Tales of Mississippian Empire"

Caleb Cushing and the US - Chinese Treaty of Wanghia

Meaning: In 1844, President John Tyler dispatched Caleb Cushing to negotiate a treaty on behalf of the Americans. Cushing arrived in Wanghia with the U.S. navy and extracted basically the same deal Britain received from the Treaty of Nanjing. America received: Extraterritoriality, which meant that U.S. citizens could only be tried by U.S. consular officers Fixed tariffs on trade in the treaty ports The right to buy land in the five treaty ports and erect churches and hospitals there The right to learn Chinese by abolishing a law which hitherto forbade foreigners to do so The U.S. received most favored nation status, resulting in the U.S. receiving the same beneficial treatment China gave to other powers such as Britain, and received the right to modify the treaty after 12 years Significance: Cushing's forces were not actually strong enough to force a treaty. China, however, was exhausted from its war with Britain and was willing to avoid war at almost any cost (this treaty is therefore often considered to be an example of hitchhiking imperialism/ gun boat diplomacy).

Manifest Destiny turns South (1850s)

Meaning: In Yucatan province, Mayan Indians were revolting against local powers and James Polk wanted the US to get involved. Polk believed that if the US didn't interfere, then European powers would, thus citing the Monroe Doctrine. John C. Calhoun disagreed with Polk, believing that since Yucatan abolished slavery, it would strengthen the free states, thus the US shouldn't interfere. Significance: The debate around the Yucatan province highlighted the tensions around slavery and free and slave states. It also applied the Monroe Doctrine in a new context, twisting it to apply to the situation. Texts to Connect: James Monroe, Message to Congress, 1823 (Monroe Doctrine)

The Monroe Doctrine (1823)

Meaning: In his message to Congress, James Monroe introduced the Monroe Doctrine, a warning to European powers not to interfere in the affairs of the Western Hemisphere. The two focal points of the doctrine were non-intervention in foreign affairs and non-colonization by European powers in the Western Hemisphere. Significance: The Monroe Doctrine became the backbone of US foreign policy for the next 40 years, as the US served as a protector for Latin American countries in the Western Hemisphere and influenced decision-making in foreign affairs. Texts to Connect: Thomas Jefferson to James Monroe, on the Monroe Doctrine, James Monroe, Message to Congress, 1823 (Monroe Doctrine)

Yellow Press and the Generation of 1898 (1890s)

Meaning: It is a myth that the yellow press (Pulitzer and Hearst) drove people to war. They drove the population to a frenzy about the USS Maine in order to sell newspapers. The People's popular US solidarity with Cuban people was widespread. It was also a myth that the people are who drove them to war. In actuality, it was the WASP people elites that drove the US to war. There was a push to war that came from the urban elite in the north. Because the urban elite thought they were under attack from the working class. They felt under attack by mass societies and new women---it was a severe crisis of manhood. They were also referred to as the Generation of 1898. The Generation of 1898 wanted to war to fight in, like their fathers, as it would fix the lazy men of the time. Significance: Agitation of the elites is what drove people to war, not the yellow press Texts to Connect: Soldiers' Letters, 1899

Jefferson's Embargo (1807)

Meaning: Jefferson created an embargo banning all U.S trade with foreign countries to show how other countries rely on the US. Jefferson thought that Napoleon would reward him with the Spanish Floridas. Jefferson's fifth embargo act empowered the military to seize any person that looked like it was for trade. It was argued that this was the most repressive piece of legislature in US history. Significance: Jefferson's embargo failed. He wrote that the embargo's intention was the important part because he wanted to send a message rather than actually hurt trade. With the embargo Jefferson acted like an empire at home---thus his empire for liberty failed. Texts to Connect: Caitlin Fitz, "The Hemispheric Dimensions of Early U.S. Nationalism...""

John C. Calhoun (1850s)

Meaning: John C. Calhoun was a senator from South Carolina who was a supporter of the slave power. Calhoun's support for slavery caused him to disagree with the US-Mexican War, as Mexico abolished slavery and the states incorporated into the US would be free states. This would diminish the slave power and upset the balance of free and slave states. Significance: Calhoun's beliefs heightened tensions on the issue of slavery, anticipating the Civil War. Calhoun was a major figure for the slave power and advocated for it. Texts to Connect: John C. Calhoun, Conquest of Mexico, Congressional Globe, "War for Slavery," Liberator, 1846

John Hay (1899-1900)

Meaning: John Hay was the Secretary of State under both McKinley and Roosevelt. Hay was responsible for negotiating trade terms with China; he asked for formal assurance that opportunities be left open for the US. Hay wrote three Open Door Notes, in which asked that the trade doors remain open. At the time, European imperialists were looking to dismember China, but Hay did not want the US to miss out on trade in the Asian markets. Hay argued that China must be regarded as a sovereign nation. Hay flipped the power balance in East Asia and placed the US as the dominant power, which worked due to the Opium War treaties. Significance: ​​Hay got trade had to remain open within Asia, showing how the US had the power to shape the way relations are conducted. Texts to Connect: Secretary of State John Hay, Open Door Notes, Minister to China's Warning of the Danger to American Markets in China

John O. Sullivan (1850s)

Meaning: John O'Sullivan was an American columnist who coined the term ""manifest destiny"" and promoted the US expansion. O'Sullivan was involved in the plot to filibuster in Cuba and wanted the US to annex Cuba. Significance: O'Sullivan's idea of manifest destiny articulated American belief in expansion and motivated political policy of annexation and fighting wars for territory. Texts to Connect: William Seward's vision of an American empire, 1850 & 1860, Andrew Johnson's Argument for the Purchase of Alaska

Le Pays d'en Haut (Pre-independence)

Meaning: Le pays d'en haut, also known as the Upper country, was the geographical middle ground where Indians groups and settlers would engage in trade and diplomacy. The area was filled with different Indian tribes and no European power could exert control over the land. Gift exchange was the central mechanism for middle-ground diplomacy and wampum was a common gift. Significance: In Le pays d'en haut, American settlers struggled with their relations with the Indians. The different types of diplomacy used led had different levels of success and helped the US find success in peace talks. Texts to Connect: Richard White, "The Contest of Villages"

USS Maine (1898)

Meaning: McKinley sent in the Maine in January 1898, with the Secretary of the Navy (claiming it was just for observation purposes) Then, it mysteriously exploded in 1898. In all likelihood it was an internal boiler combustion, but the American populus all blamed Spain ("remember the Maine, to hell with Spain") Significance: Gave the US an excuse to fight Spain and if not annex it, then to get the sugar trade back in friendly hands Texts to Connect: S. O. Thacher on the Need of Latin American Markets to Avoid Strife at Home

Nicaragua (1850s)

Meaning: Nicaragua was a strategic location for US commercial expansions. The US partnered with Britain to build a canal across Nicaragua, as both countries were desperate to speed up trade. The two sides signed the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, which gave both control over the canal. Cornelius Vanderbilt was put in charge of the canal, but his work was interrupted with Filibuster William Walker seized power in Nicaragua and legalized slavery. Vanderbilt was upset and dumped his stock and lowered his prices, before re-buying. This led to Walker being disposed. Significance: Nicaragua was another point on the map for the US to use for commercial expansion. The Transcontinental Railroad had not yet been built and the US was eager to trade in Asian markets. Texts to Connect: Sec. of Agriculture Jeremiah Rusk discusses the importance of overseas markets, S. O. Thacher on the Need of Latin American Markets to Avoid Strife at Home

William Seward and his Global Reconstruction (1861-1869)

Meaning: Seward was Lincoln's primary opponent in the new Republican party, and after winning, Lincoln offered him the Sec State position, even though he had very few qualifications. Seward's post-war strategy for global power is the much more important part, he matured past his initial mistakes Significance: "The Seward doctrine": Had been a previous manifest destiny believer, but once taking power, changed his focus to capturing global, especially Asian markets (wanted to pivot out of Monroe's hemispheric message). Seward argued that: "Political supremacy follows commercial ascendancy." & "The empire of the seas... alone is real empire." Seward was also wary of territorial expansion due to his racism (didn't want racial mixing). The Dominican Republic (Santo Domingo): After the civil war, Seward explored the Caribbean looking for new economic opportunities- Seward wanted Cuba (shocking) because he wanted to lock down such a strategic location for the US, for both naval and trade purposes. Didn't work out, so he turned to the DR instead. Didn't get it under Lincoln or Johnson, but then when Grant came in, Seward petitioned it as adhering to the Monroe Doctrine for national protection (which is not exactly true) reinterpreting "don't colonize" and "don't intervene" as "go expand". "Seward's folly:" purchased Alaska as a way to get into Asia (people didn't get the point at the time, so they called it his folly) Texts to Connect: Tales of Mississippian Empire, Vision of an American Empire, Argument for Purchase of Alaska, Argument for Purchase of Alaska, Request for Annexation of Santo Domingo

Teller Amendment (1898)

Meaning: Teller and Platt Amendments. In April 1898 Senator Henry M. Teller proposed an amendment to the U.S. declaration of war against Spain which proclaimed that the United States would not establish permanent control over Cuba. Other countries thought that the US was after a land grab. US Senator Henry Moore Teller was a big proponent of Colorado US sugar beet and he did not want to compete with the Cuban sugar trade. And because of this he did not want Cuba to be annexed. President McKinley was boxed in by Teller: he wanted the US to look uninterested in CUba even though he was very interested. Significance: This amendment allowed the US to frame themselves as anti-imperialist. But then they had the ability to take the Philippines. The Philippines was the third largest sugar producer. If Teller denied Cuba as a colony then he could take the philippines. Dewey took Manila before the first battle commenced in Cuba. 5 days after the Teller Amendment congress declared war on Congress. Texts to Connect: S. O. Thacher on the Need of Latin American Markets to Avoid Strife at Home

The Chesapeake Incident (1807)

Meaning: The USS Chesapeake was a US warship heading to the Barbary coast for trading when the British Warship HMS Leopard overtook the ship after the two exchanged gunfire. The British impressed four sailors, as they needed soldiers in their war against France. Significance: The indicident led to an uproar and calls for war against Britain. Jefferson tried to diplomatically threaten the British into settling the matter, but failed. This led him towards economic warfare and his Embargo of 1807. Texts to Connect: Caitlin Fitz, "The Hemispheric Dimensions of Early U.S. Nationalism...""

Creek War of 1813-14

Meaning: The Creek war was a civil war within creek society. Many creek Indians allied with Britain in the war of 1812. It was a regional war between opposing Creek factions, European empires and the United States, taking place largely in today's Alabama and along the Gulf Coast. Tecumseh was a Shawnee chief who led the Pan Indian confederation against US expansion. The Creek Indians tried to fight against the US, but were outgunned and they fled to the Floridas, which was Spanish America. Andrew Jackson led forces against the Creeks and pushed them into the Floridas. After doing so, Jackson turned on the Creeks that helped him. Significance: There were creek Indians involved on both sides. The creek war was ended by the treaty of Fort Jackson in 1814. The treaty turned over 23 million acres from the Creek nation. The Creek diplomats protested that the treaty of Fort Jackson was invalid. The treaty of Ghent invalidates Andrew Jackson's fort Jackson. As a result of the Creek war all of the creek Indians fled to Spanish florida. Texts to Connect: Thomas Jefferson to James Madison, "Empire for Liberty,", President Jefferson's Secret Message to Congress on Westward Expansion

Declaration of Independence (1776)

Meaning: The Declaration of Independence was a document written by Thomas Jefferson, a delegate to the Continental Congress, to declare the independence of the colonies from British rule. The document outlined the colonies' reasoning for their decision and the injustices committed by King George III. Significance: The document signified the beginning of the American Revolution and the following formation of the United States of America. The document claims that every man has a right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. Texts to Connect: Common Sense

The Essex Decision (1805)

Meaning: The Essex Decision was a ruling made by Great Britain in 1805, regarding the capture of the American merchant ship, Essex. The decision called upon the Rule of 1756, which stated that neutral nations in wartime were only permitted to carry goods that they were permitted to carry in peacetime. Essex was ruled to have violated the Rule of 1756. Significance: This led to a sharp increase in British seizure of American ships by the same reasoning and was one of the leading causes of the War of 1812. This also prompted Jefferson's embargo banning all U.S. trade with foreign countries in order to prove a point that other countries rely on the US. Texts to Connect: Caitlin Fitz, "The Hemispheric Dimensions of Early U.S. Nationalism...""

The Federalist Papers (1787-1788)

Meaning: The Federalist Papers were a series of documents written by Federalists Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay. The purpose of the papers was to persuade Americans to support the Constitution and a new central government. Federalist 3 said that one National government is better for safety, Federalist 10 said that republics can control factions, Federalist 11 said that a republic is more beneficial for trade, Federalist 14 called for an expanded republic, Federalist 64 defines the role of the President (treaties and age), Federalist 70 says that Executive branch should be one man with energy. Significance: The Federalist Papers helped gain support for the adoption of the Constitution. This led to the creation of a central federal government. Texts to Connect: Declaration of Independence, Common Sense, James Madison on the Virtue and Necessity of a Large Republic

Haitian Revolution (1791-1804)

Meaning: The Haitian Revolution was sparked by the French Revolution and lasted 12 years with the Haitians finally winning independence. Toussaint L'Ouverture was a key figure during the revolution and used diplomatic action to negotiate with the French. Significance: The Haitian Revolution was the largest and most successful slave rebellion in the Western Hemisphere. As a result of the Revolution, Haitians ended slavery and French control. Texts to Connect: Henry Adams, three chapters from History of the United States of America during the Administrations of Thomas Jefferson

Indian Country (1775-1776)

Meaning: The Indian Country was the land populated with Indian tribes, which included le pays d'en haut. The Indian Country required middle-ground diplomacy, which figures such as George Morgan and George Rogers Clark tried their hands at. Morgan was more understanding of native culture, while Rogers Clark was violent and ill-tempered. Significance: The Indian Country was a difficult land to navigate but peace was procured at a peace council at Fort Pitt. During the peace talks, White Eyes, an Indian from the Lenape tribe, declared the independence of his tribe; a revolutionary claim. Texts to Connect: Richard White, "The Contest of Villages", James H. Merrell, "Declarations of Independence: Indian-White Relations in the New Nation", Treaty at Fort Pitt, Murder of Cornstalk

Seminole War of 1817-18

Meaning: The Seminole Wars (also known as the Florida Wars) were three related military conflicts in Florida between the United States and the Seminole nation. The war began with General Andrew Jackson's excursions into West Florida and Spanish Florida against the Seminoles after the conclusion of the War of 1812. Seminoles refused to vacate a town in west Florida, as they were not part of the Creek nation, and thus, Fowltown marked the beginning of the Seminole War. Secretary of War John Calhoun ordered General Jackson to lead an attack against the Seminoles to vacate them from the land. In doing this he also authorized Jackson to enter Spanish Floridas. Jackson could not catch up with the Seminoles, so instead he pivoted to the Spanish and seized the capital city Pensacola of Spanish west Florida. Significance: The governments of Britain and Spain both expressed outrage over the ""invasion"". However, Spain was unable to defend its territory, and the Spanish Crown agreed to cede Florida to the United States in the Adams-Onís Treaty of 1819. When it became clear to congress that Jackson had taken the Florida's congress was furious. Henry Clay called Jackson a threat to constitutional government. Texts to Connect: Thomas Jefferson to James Madison, "Empire for Liberty,", President Jefferson's Secret Message to Congress on Westward Expansion

Louisiana Purchase (1803)

Meaning: The US wanted to acquire Louisiana from Spain, but Spain traded Louisiana to Napoleon's France. Napoleon sold Louisiana to the US for 15 million dollars. Significance: The purchase doubled the size of the US and prompted westward expansion with the expedition of Lewis and Clark. Texts to Connect: Frederick Jackson Turner, "The Significance of the Louisiana Purchase", Thomas Jefferson, Instructions to Meriwether Lewis

White Man's Burden (1899)

Meaning: The White Man's Burden was a poem written by Rudyard Kipling in 1899. Kipling promoted imperialism and tries to connect with the Americans through race. Kipling was a British imperialist who claimed that all white men must civilize the native, non-white people. Significance: The poem as a whole tries to persuade the US government to annex the Phillipines. It also helped the racialization of the Philippine-American War. Texts to Connect: Paul Kramer, "Race-Making and Colonial Violence in the U.S. Empire: The Philippine-American War as Race War,"

The Carrying Trade

Meaning: The carrying trade was part of US trading practices during the Seven Years War (1756-1763) between France and Britain on who will be the greatest power of Europe and the world. Normally countries do their own trade however the countries at war were seizing each other's ships. Because of this, the US would make trips carrying other countries' goods. The US became the biggest Maritime trader. The British Rule of 1756 was a policy passed by Great Britain that prohibited trade during war that would be prohibited during peace. Because countries practiced mercantilism at the time, this was an effort to limit the US's ability to trade. However, Americans believed that free ships should have free reign, and that they should have independence to trade with whomever. Significance: The US then began Broken Voyages which was a loophole under which American traders brought goods from French and British Caribbean colonies to the US and reshipped them as American goods. This ultimately led to the Chesapeake incident of 1807. Texts to Connect: James Monroe, Message to Congress, 1823 (Monroe Doctrine)

Isolationist Myth (1890s)

Meaning: The notion that the US just ended up with colonial power unintentionally is a false narrative- the US was not truly isolationist. ​​​ Significance: The book that most effectively challenged this isolationist myth was The Tragedy of American Diplomacy by Willian Appleman Williams. Overseas US empire was not a break from its history, it was a natural continuation of it. Texts to connect: Tragedy of American Diplomacy

Clayton-Bulwer Treaty of 1850

Meaning: Treaty between US and Britain, negotiated in response to attempts to build the Nicaragua Canal (canal that would connect the Pacific and Atlantic). Britain held territorial claims but the US had treaties with Nicaragua and Honduras. Both parties would not have exclusivity. Significance: Four points: 1.) It bound both parties not to ""obtain or maintain"" any exclusive control of the proposed canal, or unequal advantage in its use. Guaranteed the neutralization of the canal. 2.) It declared that the parties agreed ""to extend their protection by treaty stipulation to any other practicable communications, whether by canal or railway, across the isthmus which connects North and South America."" It stipulated that neither signatory would ever ""occupy, or fortify, or colonize, or assume or exercise any dominion over Nicaragua, Costa Rica, the Mosquito Coast or any part of Central America"", nor make use of any protectorate or alliance, present or future, to such ends. Texts to connect: S. O. Thacher on the Need of Latin American Markets to Avoid Strife at Home, Walter Johnson, "Tales of Mississippian Empire"

Adams-Onís Treaty (Transcontinental Treaty) (1819)

Meaning: Was a treaty between the United States and Spain in 1819 that emerged from the outrage that Spain had for Andrew Jackson's excursions into West Florida during the Seminole war. The treaty was made between John Quincy Adams and Luis de Onís, the Spanish minister to the US. The treaty ceded Florida to the U.S. and defined the boundary between the U.S. and New Spain. Significance: It settled a standing border dispute between the two countries and was considered a triumph of American diplomacy. It came in the midst of increasing tensions related to Spain's territorial boundaries in North America against the United States and Great Britain in the aftermath of the American Revolution; and also during the Latin American Wars of Independence. Florida had become a burden to Spain, which could not afford to send settlers or garrisons. Madrid decided to cede the territory to the United States through the Adams-Onís Treaty in exchange for settling the boundary dispute along the Sabine River in Spanish Texas. The treaty established the boundary of U.S. territory and claims through the Rocky Mountains and west to the Pacific Ocean, in exchange for the U.S. paying residents' claims against the Spanish government up to a total of $5,000,000 and relinquishing the US claims on parts of Spanish Texas west of the Sabine River and other Spanish areas, under the terms of the Louisiana Purchase. Additionally this treaty is the foundation of the Monroe Doctrine. This transcontinental treaty foreshadowed the focus of transcontinental power. Texts to Connect: Caitlin Fitz, "The Hemispheric Dimensions of Early U.S. Nationalism""

US-Mexican War (1846-1848)

Meaning: Was an armed conflict between the United States of America and the United Mexican States (Mexico) from 1846 to 1848. It followed in the wake of the 1845 American annexation of the independent Republic of Texas, which Mexico still considered its northeastern province and a part of its territory after its de facto secession in the 1836 Texas Revolution a decade earlier. The War was ended with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo Significance: Helped to fulfill America's ""manifest destiny"" to expand its territory across the entire North American continent. Texts to Connect: John Quincy Adams, Letter of Opposition to the Annexation of Texas, Henry Clay, "Raleigh Letter" on the Annexation of Texas, "War for Slavery," Liberator, "'Our Country, Right or Wrong,'" Liberator, John C. Calhoun, Conquest of Mexico, Congressional Globe, Brian DeLay, "Independent Indians and the US-Mexican War,"