Hist 142 Final

Cimarrón

1590s (late 16th century), Panama. Used to refer to domestic cattle that had drifted away to graze in the mountains, now describes runaway slaves in Panama, they sometimes raided nearby towns to help with setting up palenques; helps pirates with learning the terrain/jobs to receive benefits from looting. Example of African resistance.

Fernando de Medina

1595, Bolivia. His wife Beatriz was cheating on him with a man named Tovar. The people in the community found out and began to gossip about the situation. This offended his honor so in order to restore some of his honor he killed his wife. Shows how an elite family's sense of honor hinges on the way women conduct themselves sexually -- even more important is the perception of this conduct. The upper classes believed that honor is what separated them from lower classes, so this is also a representation once again of the social stratification in Spanish America. Also represents gender roles of Spanish America and the double standard women faced in their sexuality

Beatriz de Padilla

1650s, Guadalajara, Mexico. Mulatta slave that showed contempt for other slaves by marrying white man, Diego Ortiz, who was a priest. Controversial when she marries and moves in with white man; slave owner who is very harsh and inherits her husband's land but big controversy his family didn't want a black woman running his land and blames her for his death saying she poisoned him. SIGNIFICANCE: Women of color can use their bodies (beauty, sexuality) to raise status, gives them agency; wife of a well-to-do priest; she was able to use body to raise ahead and raise her ranks in society that was designed to keep women like her out of high ranks.

Sor Filotea

1691. Pseudonym for the Bishop of Pueblo while Sor Juana Ines de la Cruz was writing. She critiqued Sor Juana and told her to stick to prayers instead of writing and education. She incited Sor Juana's letter that defended the rights of women with quotes from Plato, Socrates, etc. Shows how women's power was not accepted or respected; her response defending women's rights is one of the first of its kind and is an act of women rebelling against society that stifles their free-thinking

Catarina Maria

1696, Mexico City. Told the chief justice in her town, that someone had raped her in her sister's house. She lost her virginity and the man didn't end up proposing. The man doesn't deny the force. Claims she was never an honorable woman to begin with. He was trying to discredit her and defend his honor and manhood. The court agreed with Juan. The judge warned Catarina to not tempt and to live decently before married. The significance is that it shows how Indian women were viewed in society. Shows how man's word was more valid than a woman's. Also shows how a woman's honor revolving around chastity and marriage was not reserved to those in upper and middle classes -- the lower classes also had the same notion

Don

16th century to present day in LatinAmerica. People of higher nobility, they earned the right to be called Don from New World exploration. It was an honor that many strove to achieve which was very hard to achieve at first but as time passed the title of Don became less and less prestigious to the point where it is basically just a sign of respect to respected members of the community. Was a tool used to further create hierarchy in colonial Latin America. The powerful connotation is still seen today in pop culture, art, and music

Taki Onqoy

1560s, Peru. An indigenous movement in which natives (taquiongos) were taken over by Huacas and forced to renounce Christianity and speak on behalf of the Huacas. After doing so they would be spiritually pure. Taquiongos preached of a pan alliance that would banish the Spaniards. In order to return to pre-conquest abundance all things European had to be rejected (including paying tribute and completing mita). Put power in hands of masses; passive, spiritual resistance natives couldn't be punished for. Taquiongos became moral guardians, boosting status of some natives to that of priests. The movement shocked colonial order and officials tried to get it under control

Juan Santos Atahualpa

1742, Gran Pajonal, Peru. Quechua Indian who claims to be the heir to Incan throne. Led a rebellion against the Spanish, particularly the Franciscan friars, mixing nativists messages with Christianity. His message was that he didn't want to rebel against Christianity, he just wanted to reclaim Peru for the indigneous people. Despite his victories, the Spanish refused to negotiate. When he traveled to Andamarca to wait for more indigenous support, it never came. Shows how Christianity had made its way into native culture. Shows how people in Andes didn't believe in the causes for a violent rebellion yet. It also shows how Spaniards didn't respect the natives because of their refusal to negotiate with Atahualpa.

Francisco Bártoli

1742, Gran Pajonal, Peru. Spanish commander in charge of the Spanish army that was trying to defeat Juan Santos Atahualpa. Built fort above jungle after Indians had taken over most of Gran Pajonal to help them attack but instead Indians attack him unexpectedly and siege the fort. Atahualpa tries to negotiate with Bartoli and tells him to surrender and retreat into highlands, but he decides to wait for reinforcements that never come. Bartoli tries to flee a month later during the night but he and his followers are caught and massacred SIGNIFICANCE: Atahualpa gains the fort -- a huge strategic location. Shows lack of respect toward natives by refusing to negotiate.

Santiago Vásquez de Caicedo

1742, Peru. A Franciscan priest sent by the Spanish Crown that went to see Juan Santos Atahulpa and is treated like a guest: when he approaches the hut with Atahualpa the indigenous people surround him but he says he's coming peacefully. Atahualpa tells Caicedo to tell the viceroy to flee because the British are coming to aid Caicedo (a lie). Caicedo returns to colonial leaders and tells them about growing rebellion. Emphasized that Atahualpa was not interested in harming the Church or her representatives, just the Spanish people.

Gran Pajonal

1742, Peru. Location where Juan Santos Atahualpa travelled from Cuzco and declared he was a true heir to the throne to natives 200 years (circa 1760s) after the debacle with taquiongos (people who were possessed and renounced Christianity). He promised that once he took his throne in Peru, then he could drive out the Spaniards, particularly the Franciscan friars who set up missions and either peacefully/forcefully converted people. Lowland jungle region where Atahualpa first came and set up camp. By 1743 rebels controlled all of Gran Pajonal. Not one religious mission remained here after 1752. A symbol of indigenous resistance success.

Andamarca

1750s, Peruvian highlands. Atahualpa and indigenous people. What: Atahualpa attempts to start rebellion in mountains so he enters Andamarca. Here he captures priests and many natives proclaim their loyalty to the Inca, but no one else ever came and rebellion didn't happen SIGNIFICANCE: Atahualpa ventured here to give Spaniards a show of his power, but rebellion didn't catch, showing that not all indigenous people supported rebelling against the Spanish

Manuel Valdivieso

1784, Ecuador. Took advantage of real pragmatic, a nobleman from Ecuador. His daughter wants to marry Juan Jaramillo, a white man of relative wealth called Don, Valdivieso still thought that he was unworthy of marrying his daughter b/c son of commoners and of low birth despite having 'Don' title from several generations ago. Prime example of a man using the real pragmatica and it shows the how the title don became less respected over time.

José María Morelos

Another priest who takes over this insurgent cause, very different than Hidalgo, comes from a poor family and is a casta, joins revolt in October 1810, spent most of his time organizing and carefully strategies his plans, often used makeshift weapons and did hand-to-hand contact b/c they were too poor for real weapons, made social justice a big part of his campaign, declares the abolition of slavery and the casta system; royalist forces in Spanish defeat Napoleon and Ferdinand is back as King, suddenly the reason for fighting has no legitimacy; 1815 - royalist forces captures Morelos, executed for treason

Corregidores

In Spain and Spanish American. Introduced in the mid-16th century until mid 19th century. Representatives of the royal jurisdiction over a town. Used their post as a way to extract labor from the Indians. Knew how to work the system. The funneled money towards their own endeavors and funneled labor to their friends as well. They were amongst lots of scandal and corruption. Sometimes confiscated Indian goods and would sell them to outside people to make a profit; gave many bribes/threats. The corregimiento system was sleazy and corrupt. They played a pivotal role in controlling the lives of Indians in Latin America. Shows exploitation of Indians and corruption and scandal that surrounded most Spanish policies.

Palenques

started in 1670s in Panama, runaway societies, ranged from tiny bands who survived less than a year to very powerful cities that functioned as little city-states that could survive for generations; relied on remoteness to discourage people from trying to find them; had many false paths to prevent people from being able to get there; many were economically self-sufficient but still needed some things to establish the village - sometimes they would trade with trusting people or get slaves to smuggle goods. SIG: Shows how slaves not just passive victims, use a variety of tactics within and outside the law, and shows the extremes they will go to earn what they believe as a fundamental right...freedom.

Puerto Cabello

strong fortress between mountains and coast in Venezuela; June 30, 1812 - prisoners inside led mutiny and took over fort and Bolivar watched in horror as they bombarded the town with cannons; took away one of country's most important weapon strongholds and defensive fortress, made independence even more difficult, big setback

San Jerónimo

the convent where Sor Juana spent her adult life, working as a librarian and accountant in order to get close to all the books. This is where she did most of her writing. Entered the convent in Mexico City in 1669. Sor Juana entered the convent to continue to educate herself and used it as an outlet for her writing. However her free-thinking was stifled eventually showing how convents were a contradictory place of benefits and limitations of women

Simón Bolívar

undisciplined Venezuelan, spent time in Spain when he was 17, walked around in full Spanish soldier uniform and freely spent money, falls in love with Maria Teresa Rodriguez, came from wealthy land owning family of elite Venezuelan, Jan 1803 she died from disease, he goes to Spain to flee memories of her but returns in 1810; curacas formed local juntas (still loyal to the king) and went to London to gain revolutionaries but told not to talk to Miranda because of his revolutionary ideas, he tries to get Miranda to join Venezuela forces anyways; Miranda cares about popular support so even Mulatos can join his insurgency, creates 'Venezuelan Patriot' newspaper to gain support; 1811 - Miranda takes place in Venezuelan Congress and in a week has a declaration of independence on the 5th of July; first Latin American nation to declare independence; Bolivar in charge of republican army; turns in Miranda to Monteverde in return for his own freedom; 1813 - his troops are taking cities back after getting supporters in Cartagena; 1819 - finally forces viceroy of new Granada to flee and never come back, had to be a republic. His efforts resulted in the independence of many Latin American countries.

Huacas

1440s-1600, Peru. The spirits of the Earth according to the indigenous religions. The leaders of the Taki Onqoy movement claimed that these Huacas were the spirits possessing them and telling them to renounce European religions and customs. According to these "priests", the Huacas were angered by the intrusion of Christianity, and unless all the native people renounced European ways then the Huacas would destroy everything. Huacas put power in hands of masses since anyone could be taken over. They started a passive resistance because it wasn't the native's fault they were being taken over. Shocked the colonial order and officials tried to get it under control

Reparto de mercancías

1530s in Spanish America. Also called the repartimiento. Corregidores imported goods from Europe, bundles that were useless. The workers had no choice but to buy them at jacked up prices from the corregidor. This becomes a major grievance for the workers because if they didn't have the money, the Corregidor would place them in jail. This system was completely legal. Shows corruption in corregidor system. Was a major grievance among Indians and made them hate their corregidores. Contributing factor of Tupac Amaru rebellion.

Alonso Enriquez de Guzmán

1530s, Peru. He was a Don in the New World and a personal acquaintance of the Spanish King. He was very broke. He went to Peru to get rich off of the conquest during Spaniard's infighting in 1530s. Arrives on verge of civil war between Spaniards (Pizarro vs. Almagro) and gets in the middle of it pitting both sides against each other. He acts as an ally to both sides to make money. He gets filthy rich and then returns to Spain. Shows how people can abuse the system and use the conquest for their personal advantage. Laid path for other Spanish noblemen who could go to New World to get rich then return to Spain and live a life becoming of their title

El Pípila

1810, anonymous indigenous guy who became known throughout Mexico as a hero of the day that risked it all for the first major victory (at Guanajuato), hoists stone on his back and uses it as a shield so he can go forward to where the Spanish were fighting from and lights it on fire. Helped give boost morale of the movement by leading to the first major victory.

Plan de Iguala

1821, treaty that finally brought independence to Mexico, reconciled 2 interests of criollos, formed not a republic but a constitutional monarchy with a Roman Catholic background where people would enjoy equal political and social rights

La Amistad

1839, means "friendship" in Spanish, ship that was purchased to take part in illegal slave trade; captives sailed from Africa to Cuba to sell slaves but revolt occurred, ship that Cinque revolted on. Became a major moment for abolitionists in the US, and also shows that slaves were not passive victims of slavery, just like indigenous people were not passive victims of conquest and slavery.

Coartación

A court that decided whether or not a slave could buy their freedom, regardless of a masters sayings. This was common in the 1780's in the rural Caribbean plantations as well as the urban areas. The courts determined the slave's worth. The slave master had to allow the slave to pay what he is worth according to the court. The coartacion gave the slaves a legal out which allowed whites to justify the slavery practice.

Real Pragmática

A law that required permission from a woman's father to get wed passed in 1776 in colonial Latin America. Legal right of the father of the bride to permit (or prevent) marriage. If couple got married without consent, daughter could be disowned and cut out of inheritance. Reinforced patriarchal society. Father could decide based on status of suitor if they could marry or not which protected bloodlines and preserved social hierarchy

Francisco de Miranda

Americano (term encompasses all races/backgrounds in America, regional identity) patriot, spent most of his life overseas, in the US during the war of US independence (met Thomas Paine), also in France during French Revolution and became a general, then moved to England and decided to move back and establish enlightenment ideas in Venezuela (1806); expected Venezuelans to give support but they all fled out of fear; local militia attacked Miranda and forced him to retreat, enlightenment revolution failed, SIGNIFICANCE: showed how enlightenment ideas that were popular in US and France weren't going to be successful in Spanish America in 1806, ahead of his time - by 1810 society changed; look below; secretly plans his own escape to Spain - declared a traitor to Venezuelan cause and given over to Monteverde by Bolivar, spent rest of life as a prisoner in Spain

Battle of Ayacucho

Ayacucho, Peru - place where viceroy of Lima fled to but gets captured; December 1824 - Bolivar wins final victory in Peru. because Spain was forced into an unconditional surrender of all its Spanish claims in the Americas. It freed Peru and ensured independence for South America.

Hidalgo

Wide range of people of noble birth from Spain and also including some people of low rankings; high people started being called Don to distinguish status. Hidalgo comes from hijo de Algo, which means son of something. In Spanish America. Way to establish social class and hierarchy.

Martín de Olivar

He was the man who taught Sor Juana Ines Latin in Mexico City in the 1660's. He helped her master the language in only 20 lessons and was witness to her extreme learning style, as she would cut her hair if she did not learn fast enough. Helped shape Juana into the prodigy she became and developed her into an example of women's resistance. Also because his lessons were easily mastered by Sor Juana it proved the fact that she was a genius even though she was a woman

Vicente Guerrero

Mexican Revolution, leads after Jose Maria Morelos dies, of African descent (significant) negotiated terms of surrender for Spain 1810s-20s. Founding father of Mexico and later serves as president of Mexico (2nd pres. of Mex). Impacts national consciousness of a man of African descent being a leader for independence; shows how struggle was more than just an elite criollo cause and considered a national hero of Mexico

Army of the Andes

San Martin's army, leads army up the Andes towards Peru, made up of any Americano (slaves, Indians, etc.), 3000 miles of difficult terrain, changes course and decides an amphibious attack would be more effective, 1820 - finally set sail to Lima but viceroy has already fled, declares independence in Lima in 1821 by San Martin. Real beginning of struggle for independence in Peru, also keeps that all americanos

Sor Juana Ines de la Cruz

She was born in a Mexican hacienda in 1651 and began to write at an early age. She wanted to go to college because she was desperate for knowledge at the age of 8. She was educated by Martin de Olivar in Mexico City. She soon entered a convent to challenge her education as there were little opportunities for women. She was a librarian in the San Jeronimo convent so she could receive more knowledge from the books. She was criticized by her male counterparts for not knowing her place. She challenges the role of women in society by calling out Sor Filotea and asserting her intellect. Was a huge contributor to Mexican culture and shows what women could accomplish in colonial Latin America. Her case highlights opportunities and limitations of women in convents.

Felipe Edimboro

Sold to a British man in Florida, but was purchased by Francisco Sánchez, who was the largest landholder in Florida at the time. Felipe worked for Sanchez for 20 years, and he was his most trusted slave. Sanchez even put Felipe in charge of running the plantation. He eventually marries one of the slaves, and wanted to purchase his own freedom. However, in 1794, he tells Sanchez he wants to purchase his freedom, but Sanchez does everything in his power to obstruct this and said he would need 1,000 pesos compared to his 250 pesos. He asks for a coartación, but Sanchez said that he must have stolen the money because he could have never had the time to make that money. He creates this narrative based on the stereotype of black attitude. The court allowed Felipe to purchase his freedom for a slightly higher price. This shows how slaves could use everything at their disposal toward purchasing their freedom in a slaveholding society. In the bigger picture, slaves suffered, but at the same time, they found ways to adapt and withstand and resist the system (example of using to coartaction to their favor)

Agustín de Iturbide

Spanish Viceroy appointed by Ferdinand to end Guerrero's insurgency, previously dismissed in 1816 for corruption and abusive authority, 1822 - Guerrero and Iturbide sign Plan de Iguala, crowns himself constitutional emperor of Mexico, declares to respect future Mexican constitution, promised a limited monarchy but quickly became very authoritarian, before long Congress tried to block all laws that Iturbide made, he says he will get rid of Congress and form decrees, peacefully steps down after much resistance in March 1823; enemy to hero to power hungry man, returns to Mexico from Europe after a year to come back as a soldier to unify and defend Mexico; 1824 - tried as a traitor and executed upon return. Shows how a man went from enemy to hero to power hungry. Start of independence for the rest of Latin America.

Luis de Olivera

Spanish priest who found the taquiongos in his parish in Huamanga, Peru in early 1560's. Priest who witnessed the beginning of the "cleansing revolution" which he believed could take over anyone. Said Huacas were sweeping onto indigenous people and seizing them, forcing them to renounce religion. He discovered an indigenous way to resist without violence and an example of spiritual resistance.

Society of Rational Gentlemen

secret society of educated americanos joined by San Martin in 1812, (1810s) in Argentina, he teaches them to fight and they join the insurgency. Started the momentum for San Martin's revolution.

Casta paintings

These paintings captured the racial hierarchy within the three main racial groups in the late 17th century (I read 17th and 18th centuries) in New Spain. The full blood Spaniards were at the top. The Spaniard, Indians, and blacks had different categories for the children and all of the mixed offspring. Blacks involved with whites become violent showing domestic violence. Breeding humans like livestock, as many of the casta names were animal names. Keep people in their place and defined. Showed and reinforced the racial hierarchy in colonial society in Latin America. Depicted how the ruling class wanted things to be but wasn't effective because people have agency

Cristóbal de Albornoz

Who: Spanish priest What: dispatched to punish and arrest taquiongos; he exiled and publicly whipped leaders of the movement before they were forced to confess their sins and to serve the Catholic church as penance for their blasphemy When: late 1560s to early 1570s Where: Peru - Huamanga and Cuzco Sig: Shows the tug of war between religions - Spanish trying to exert control through Christianity and indigenous people resisting through spiritual means

Asháninka

This was Juan Santos Atahualpa's main audience during his movement in Peru circa 1742. Indigenous people living in the Peruvian rainforest. Greeted Atahualpa warmly and joined his cause because he participated in/appreciated their customs. Other ethnic groups from the region joined as well and soon all Franciscan missions were abandoned as Indians left to join Santos and attack the Spaniards. Group of indians who would leave Spanish missions in the jungle, allowed for the mobilization of his rebellion

Jornal

Throughout the colonial period: 1600s to early 1800s. Urban centers throughout Spanish America. The quota system that determined how much a slave had to pay to his master. Slaves could keep what was left over for themselves. Significant that slaves can earn money for themselves and purchase their own freedom. Gave slaves physical mobility that they wouldn't have normally. Especially beneficial for artisan slaves.

"War to the Death"

Venezuela, 1813 Bolivar declared this against Spanish Authority. Did so with the intent of forcing creoles to choose between independence and submission to colonialism, any americanos vs. europeans. Reached Caracas and established second republic, with himself as military dictator, but it soon collapsed w/i a few months because he failed to win the favor of non-white venezuelans. Bolivar will kill any European in his way but will never kill an Americano - generates sympathy. SIG: Redefines from being a civil war between loyalists vs. revolutionaries to a war between Americanos vs. Europeans

Cinque

West African man, living in Sierra Leone, rice farmer and trader in early adulthood, enslaved by his own people to settle debt, brought to Cuba and put on La Amistad to be sold into slavery; him and other men grabs machete knives, makes way to deck from below, leads armed rebellion on the ship (1839), gives 2 options: Spaniards can sell them back to Africa or everyone dies on the ship; Spaniards agree to sail back but secretly go to the US instead of Africa; sold into slavery in Connecticut but they were taken illegally in the first place, Amistad slave case taken to Supreme Court (1841); Supreme Court rules that they should be set free and return to Africa; SIGNIFICANCE: shows us that slaves were not just passive victims of slavery, they too resisted from the moment that they are captured and they do this throughout their entire slave lives, from the beginning slaves resist and have agency

Grito de Dolores

Who: Hidalgo and his supporters What: a call to arms where they storm the nearby city of Guanajuato When: 1810 Where: Guanajuato Sig: first public declaration of Mexican independence, el pipila becomes hero of the day, shows that this movement identifies more with the indigenous people from the conquest rather than the Spaniards

Pedro Armendáriz

Who: Spanish officer in charge What: in charge of execution of Miguel Hidalgo; angry when none of his men fire at the priest for his crimes so he calls out two soldiers specifically to execute the priest by putting their barrels directly against Hidalgo's chest; then sends Hidalgo's head in a bag and sent to Guanajuato where rebellion started When: July 30th, 1811 Where: Chihuahua, New Spain (Mexico) Sig: shows people sympathized with Hidalgo's cause rather than a brutal officer; also showed what Spanish would do to anyone who rebelled; execution of priest increased awareness about the Mexican conflict around the world, gaining more sympathizers

Guayaquil

in Ecuador, 1822- In between Colombia and Peru, meeting between San Martin and Bolivar, opposed to San Martin's vision for Peru, Bolivar wanted it to be a Republic; San Martin - heads back for Europe and Bolivar decides to take over Peru. San Martin abandons cause for independence, paves way for Bolivar to take Peru as his vision and not that of San Martin

Yanga

leads Maroon society in Mexico and revolt against Spaniards, cocky and arrogant; fled his master and spent 30 years as a fugitive in the mountains (1570), had a group of followers called yanguicos; lived outside of reach of Spanish authorities in a well establish place - they were there to stay; takes captive, shows him his face, and tells the man to go to Herrera and dare him to come; 1609 - spotted Herrera's troops heading to their village, they go to protect but dog reveals them hiding behind bushes - starts the armed rebellion, Herrera finds the village completely abandoned, asks for peace but Yanga refuses, continues the chase; Herrera finally gets Yanga agree to a truce in Y's favor - he is the new governor of the town, no Spaniards allowed in town, all his men are emancipated; SIGNIFICANCE: how under capable leadership slaves can maintain an active guerrilla campaign and win freedom under a system that is meant to keep them under oppression; Not passive victims, use many strategies to rebel against system that was meant to go against them, extremes to which Africans are willing to go to gain freedom

José de San Martín

leads this cause in the southern part, born in frontier region (around Argentina), high ranking individual in Spanish army, suffered from chronic tuberculosis, as close as you could be to a Spanish w/o being born there, he just wanted Americanos ruling Americanos, joined secret society and quickly gained high ranking in it and gains a lot of respect, starts arming and training the rational gentlemen and they led the revolution right there in Buenos Aires, strategically decides to take Peru, okay with a constitutional monarchy, 1810s/20s

Miguel Hidalgo

questions idea about who should rule Mexico, not a typical conservative priest, educated by Jesuits, entrepreneur, used intellectual savy to head university and become a large land holder; a controversial member, fired for teaching controv. issues; Hidalgo moves to Dolores in 1803 and helps the town; loyalist who supported the King but didn't like idea of the ad hoc rule; participates in secret meetings to create their own gov't, gets caught but continues; despite getting initial support, people drop out and a bounty is placed on his head, by this point the movement is hard to stop; planned to go to Mexico City but changing plans and goes to Guadalajara, captured by Spanish forces here, condemned to death; 1811 - Chihuahua, gave candy to executioners, all the soldiers there didn't want to kill the unarmed priest so they all missed; SIGNIFICANCE: his death represents ultimate act of patriotic sacrifice across the world, serves as a cry to other criollos to stand up, hurt peoples religious, showed how brutal tyranny can be in the Americas, raised awareness about Mexico conflict across the world and got international sympathizers