HIST-3113: Final Exam

Byzantines

"Greeks"; Roman + Greek culture. Fielded the Orthodox Christian Church. The Byzantines were centered at their capital of Constantinople. The Byzantines call for aid from the Franks against the Seljuk Turks to start the crusades, but they quickly become distrustful of each other. The Byzantines will eventually ally with the Turks at times after repeated Frankish plundering. Constantinople = main checkpoint for crusaders, and controlling the Bosphorus gave the Greeks leverage over the Franks. The Byzantine engineers were masters of siege warfare, which they taught to the Franks. They were viewed as deceitful, effeminate and distasteful by the Franks; tensions stirred by individuals like Odo of Deuil boiled over into the sacking of Constantinople in 1204 at the culmination of the 4th Crusade. Emperors like Michael VIII Paleologus would attempt to bridge the religious rift between the East and the West, but disagreements over the Nicene Creed, papal primacy and the sacking of 1204 proved to be too much to overcome.

Raymond of Toulouse

"The Count"; also called Raymond of St. Gilles. Leader of the largest of the second wave on the 1st Crusade. Raymond travels overland via the Via Egnatia; his troops are accompanied by Adhemar of Le Puy, Urban II's papal legate. Raymond = the most pious of the leaders of the 1st Crusade, and was the most popular/respected by the other leaders. He intended to hold his word to Alexius about returning captured lands, though he insisted on swearing a modified oath of fealty because he didn't feel that holy cities should be turned over as political spoils. Raymond feuded with Bohemund in particular, disagreeing on matters of leadership (e.g. of Antioch), legitimacy/possession of relics (e.g. Holy Lance, etc. Raymond was offered the throne of Jerusalem by his peers, but turned it down, stating that "Jerusalem should not be ruled by a king." He led the rank and file crusaders from Ma'arra to Jerusalem and was finally made the de facto leader of the 1st Crusade. Raymond founded the County of Tripoli after getting screwed out of the throne of Jerusalem by Godfrey of Lorraine.

Truce of God

1027 --> called by Church in an effort to externalize the Germanic warrior culture that was leading to infighting amongst knights. Bloodfeuding between nobles was very chic and resulted in significant collateral damage to peasantry. The ToG started in France and Germany as local bishops prohibited fighting on certain days. Ex. "You cannot fight from Sat-Mon so that peasants can get safely to Mass and go to the marketplace. You cannot fight on holy days and you may only carry weapons with you on days marked in blue on the calendar." Similar to the Peace of God which specified certain places and people which could not be involved in bloodfeud violence.

Council of Clermont

1095 --> Held in Clermont, Southern France. Pope Urban II invites ~300 bishops to discuss Church issues (e.g. renew Truce of God). It was rumored that the King of France was going to be outed for his incestuous affair, so TONS of people showed up --> the council had to be held outside on raised wooden platforms. Urban II delivers an impassioned speech calling for a crusade to aid the Byzantines and retake Jerusalem; people begin to commit on the spot (following the example of Adhemar of Le Puy) and shout "Deus Vult!" Urban II's speech resonated w/ people because: 1. catered to concerns and Christian values of audience 2. a French Pope was speaking to a French audience in French in France🇫🇷 (relatable nature) 3. Urban II = master of giving charismatic sermons 4. he promised that sweet, sweet REMISSION OF SINS We don't have an exact record of what Urban II said, but we have a number of chronicler's version and we can extrapolate.

Inquisition

1231 --> established by Pope Gregory IX in response to the failure of the Albigensian Crusade. The Inquisition was an attempt to persecute/quash the movements of Cathars and Waldensians that were gaining traction in Europe. Pairs of Dominican friars (who specialized in rooting out heresy) would go to villages suspected of harboring heretical populations. Once accused, suspected heretics really only had the choice of confessing: Pleading innocence would only make them seem more guilty (or more heretical) in the eyes of the Church; the earlier a confession was obtained, the looser the penalty would be for the heretic in question. The Inquisition laid the foundation for two movements in the future: 1. The witch trials, which were sparked by the book "Malleus Malificorum," a text that detailed how one could spot and handle a witch. 2. Ferdinand and Isabella's Spanish Inquisition. The Inquisition deepened the persecuting society that was forming amidst Europeans, and enhanced anti-Semitism, as Jewish expulsions were commonplace in nearly every phase of the Inquisition. Explanations for the Inquisition lie in the largescale shortcomings of the Christian faith: as Christians found themselves losing and (ostensibly) out of favor with God, they looked for scapegoats onto which they could project their insecurities. Minorities are targeted as being the culprit for divine dissatisfaction.

Horns of Hattin

3rd Crusade: Saladin lures Guy of Lusignan into an open field battle and Guy's troops leave their fortified position nearby at Acre. Guy's advisors had held a council and most agreed that open war was foolish -- however, a key minority accused these men of cowardice and Guy promptly moved to attack. The Franks are trapped between two hills (the "Horns") and surrounded by Muslim archers so that they could not flee. Saladin's men then burned the dry scrubgrass to pour smoke into the Frankish camp and lower morale further. The Franks had no water, and Saladin's men made a great show of pouring excess water on the ground before them. In desperation, the Franks that had not deserted charged down the hill and were slaughtered and enslaved by the Muslims. King Guy of Lusignan, Reynald of Chatillon, and the True Cross were all captured by Saladin. Guy was offered water in Saladin's tent and, when he shared it with Reynald, Saladin slew Reynald for his insolence. Saladin was then free to ravage the crusader states and enslave the inhabitants.

Simon of Montfort

A French noble and veteran of the 4th Crusade who was known for his brutality. He becomes the leader of the Albigensian Crusade after the death of Louis VIII. He leads the Albi Crusade via deliberate terror after the fall of Carcassone, and his violence is supported by the zealous Bishop Arnaud Amalric (of Beziers fame). He is killed at the Siege of Toulouse by a well-placed trebuchet stone, fired by a group of women. The stone hits him directly on the head and there is much rejoicing at his death.

Oliver of Paderborn

A German chronicler/cleric and our best sources for information on the 5th Crusade. Though he doesn't mention it in his writings, it was Oliver who suggested the ship-borne siege tower used by the Franks at the Battle of Damietta conquer the "Chain Tower" which blocked the harbor. Oliver chronicles the 5th Crusade at the behest of Cardinal Pelagius and Pope Innocent III. It is Oliver who writes of al-Kamil sending food and care to the Franks after their defeat at Mansourah; he bills it as a miraculous occurrence and shows real respect for the Saracen leader.

Geoffrey de Villehardouin

A participant on the 4th Crusade who provides us with a "layman's" view of the disastrous affair. He wrote a chronicle of the expedition, which serves as one of our most important sources on the 4th Crusade as a whole. Villehardouin was "upper-middle class" leadership; not a king, but important enough to be sent on the trip to negotiate amounts for the ships that would carry the Franks. He does, however, omit key details (e.g. the fact that the crusaders were excommunicated by the Pope).

Stephen (Children's Crusade)

A peasant boy from S. France, who carried a letter "from Christ" to the King of France, claiming he was called to start a crusade. The King of France tells him to go home, but Stephen started going around and preaching to other children in France. He's charismatic, and gets TONS of followers from the ranks of the local kids. Together, the kids run away and plan to march to Marseilles -- Stephen believes that the sea water will part for them and they will walk across, Moses-style. Several thousand kids from all social classes head to Marseilles on foot, carrying Stephen in a cart like a saint. The climate is hot and many die or give up, but the survivors are given lodging along the way by citizens and eventually they make it to the coast at Marseilles. The waters don't part (surprise) but the kids keep trying again every day until two men show up and offer them passage in their ships. Stephen agrees and the kids get on...and they're never heard from for 18 years because they were sold into slavery and most died in a shipwreck. Stephen inspired a similar German contingent of children crusaders and was blamed for the deaths of so many kids.

Béziers

A small town in France and the site of a horrific massacre during the Albigensian Crusade. After the atrocities being committed against Cathars under Simon Montfort, the Catholics of Beziers opened the gates of the city to the Cathars and decided to give them sanctuary, rather than allow the crusaders to slaughter them. Simon Montfort's forces surrounded the city, but Beziers prepared for a fight. The defenders made an ill-advised raid on the besiegers...they do not ever get the gate closed again as crusaders pour into the city and kill everyone inside, regardless of Cathar/Catholic. The papal legate Arnaud Amalric famously stated, "Kill them all, God will know his own." After Beziers, towns like Carcasonne surrendered immediately at the sight of crusaders.

Pagans

A term that refers to any of the polytheistic faiths that opposed the Christians during the crusades. Pagans were non-Abrahamic faiths, and there were frequent pockets of pagans within the slavic states around the Latin borders. These pagan communities were deemed heretical by the Church and the Baltic/Northern Crusades were called in conjunction with the 2nd Crusade; Bernard of Clairvaux promised the same crusade privileges (e.g. remission of sin) to those who engaged the pagan slavs. Military orders like the Sword Brothers emerged with the goal of converting these pagans by the sword, though they were eventually routed at the Battle of Saule. The pagans' greatest victory arguably came under Alexander Nevsky at the Battle of Lake Peipus -- Russian troops defeated the combined Teutonic Knights and Sword Bros. and the event is still a symbol of Russian patriotism.

Alexander Nevsky

Alex was a Russian general for the slavic pagan troops during the Baltic/Northern Crusades. His crowning victory came April 5, 1242 --> at Lake Peipus, his troops met the German Teutonic Knights (who at this point had merged with the remnants of the Sword Bros.) and lured the overconfident crusaders onto the frozen lake. Nevsky then brought in his reserves and forced the military orders to retreat onto a thin portion of the ice, which collapsed under the weight of their heavy armor and weapons. The battle was retold in the form of an epic historical film "Alexander Nevsky," released during the rise of the Third Reich. The film glorifies Nevsky's victory as a major point of Russian nationalism and Nevsky was made a saint in the Russian Orthodox Church. The Teutonic Knights in the film are portrayed as VERY thinly veiled Nazis.

Asia Minor

Also referred to as "Asian Turkey" or "Anatolia," this is where the Seljuk Turks found their base of powerand began to expand outwards and threaten the Byzantines. The Battle of Manzikert was fought in Anatolia and was the catalyst for Alexius I Comnenos' letter to Urban II. The Battle(s) of Dorylaeum also occurred here. On the advice of the Byzantine guide Tacitus, the crusaders attempted to cross the Anti-Taurus mountains, which resulted in the heaviest loss of life up until that point and major blows to the horses/weapons/supplies stock of the crusaders. The summer Anatolian climate was murderous for the crusaders who had improper rations, water and attire -- many were forced to abandon cumbersome, sweltering armor on the desert sands. The Ottoman Empire was also birthed from Asia Minor, the relatives of the Seljuk Turks of before.

Muslims (Saracens)

Any member of the Islamic faith. Opposed the Greeks and Franks for the vast majority of the crusades, but got along decently well with the Jews because they did not persecute Jews like Christians did. Franks mistakenly believe them to worship a combination of Apollo, Termagant and Muhammad. Culture is a fusion of Greek + Arab + Persian + Egyptian + Kurdish; very multicultural, but Arabic is a unifying language. The Muslims were very disunited during the 1st Crusade, which largely accounted for the Franks stumbling their way to a victory. Islamic culture was very advanced in terms of science/math/philosophy --> help West rediscover lost science/math heritage via Arabic translations of earlier works. Muslim soldiers were mobile and skilled mounted archers. The Muslims would go on to win just about every crusade venture after they unified against the Franks under Zengi. Great Muslim rulers were often quite merciful and intellectual, despite their portrayal in the West (e.g. Saladin and al-Kamil).

Innocent III

Arguably the most powerful pope to have ever lived, Innocent III called the Fourth Lateran Council; organized the 4th, 5th and Albigensian Crusades; and mentored the wunderkind Frederick II as a child. Innocent III was highly educated and STAUNCHLY opposed to heretical beliefs within Christianity. After being blamed unfairly for the failure of the 4th Crusade (who knew nothing of the diversion to sack Constantinople and condemned/excommunicated those crusaders who had attacked Christian cities), he turned his sights on combatting heresy. Innocent III called Lat 4 in 1215 so as to standardize the Church procedure for launching crusades and raise fervor for persecuting heretics (e.g. Waldensians and Cathars). At Lat 4, he also validated transubstantiation, invalidated Trial by Combat as legitimate judicial proof, and infamously required`

Edessa

Baldwin I goes with Armenian friend, Bahgraht, to the Armenian city of Edessa. Edessa is a Christian city that wants allies against the Turks. Baldwin meets with the ruler and convinces him to adopt him as his legal son and heir --> they put on a single, giant shirt and rub their naked chests together to cement the adoption. Thoros (ruler of Edessa) was then killed by a mob and Baldwin I became the first Count of Edessa and "The County of Edessa" became the first crusader state. Baldwin I encouraged the Franks to intermarry and immerse themselves in the local culture and subsequently jumpstarted the syncretic culture of Outremer. Edessa will be the only crusader state of the four that holds out against Muslim conquest through the Third Crusade

Muhammad

Born in 6th C Mecca into the wealthy Kuraysh merchant tribe. Muhammad was a savvy businessman, and he married Kadijah at 25, a successful caravan owner 10 years his senior. In 610, he received his first vision from the angel Gabriel, who revealed the entirety of the Quran to Muhammad. Gabriel says that God has called Muhammad to be a prophet, like Moses was; he will be the last and greatest, the "seal" of the 28 prophets of Islam. Shortly after, Muhammad begins preaching publicly about his revelations and the polytheistic Meccan community persecutes him because he endangers the pagan commercial hub held within the Kaaba. 622 --> Muhammad is forced to flee to Medina with the rest of his followers on the hijrah, founding the ummah. Muhammad is elected the military, political and religious leader -- he would go on to conquer Mecca and cleanse the Kaaba. Muhammad is the founder of Islam (or revealer); he was mistakenly believed by the Franks to be one of the gods worshipped in the Islamic "trinity" (alongside Termagant and Apollo); he ascended to Heaven at the Temple Mount, giving extra significance to the location of the Dome of the Rock and the Al-Aqsa Mosque.

Baldwin I of Edessa

Brother of Godfrey of Lorraine. He accompanies Godfrey on the second wave of the 1st Crusade until after the Battle of Dorylaeum, upon which he splits from the main army and follows Tancred to Tarsus. He waits for Tancred's small force to capture Tarsus, and then bullies Tancred into giving him control of Tarsus with his *slightly* larger Frankish force. This process repeats all the way down the coastline. Baldwin I then goes to the Armenian city of Edessa on the recommendation of his Armenian friend Bahgraht. He gets friendly with the ruler, Thoros, who decides to legally adopt Baldwin I as his son and heir. They put on a single shirt and rub their bare chests on each other. This is then repeated with Thoros' wife, per some sources. Thoros is torn to pieces by a mob shortly after, who some believe was sent by Baldwin I to obtain the throne. Baldwin I now rules the County of Edessa, the 1st crusader state. He encourages Frankish intermarrying and catalyzes the Outremerian syncretic culture. Baldwin I defended Edessa against Kerbogha for 3 weeks, delaying Kerbogha long enough for him to arrive late to the Siege of Antioch after Antioch had already fallen. Baldwin I was made the second king of Jerusalem following the death of his brother Godfrey of Lorraine.

Fourth Lateran Council

Called in 1215 by Pope Innocent III for a number of reasons, but MAINLY to organize the 5th Crusade. Indeed, Lat 4 would standardize "Crusade Protocol" for the Church on future crusades: the objective = Jerusalem; crusades were advertised via structured preaching about remission of sins and one's vassal obligation to God; non-combatants could buy their way out of crusade duty; etc. To fund the 5th Crusade, Lat 4 increased taxes sixfold --> this was not a popular move. Tournaments were also banned for a period of three years so as to discourage infighting, the potential for sin, and to not blow money on frivolous expenses. Lat 4 also officially established the doctrine of transubstantiation, infamously required Jews and Muslims to wear distinctive clothing, invalidated Trial by Combat as judicial proof, etc. Lat 4 = the high-water mark of the Papacy's power; highest point of power of most powerful pope (Innocent III).

Constantinople

Capital of the Byzantine Empire and the Greek Orthodox Church. The emperor of Constantinople, Alexius I Comnenus, initiated the 1st Crusade with his letter for aid to Urban II. Constantinople was a major checkpoint for crusaders on their way to Jerusalem, and armies would park themselves outside the walls, hoping to receive supplies and rations from merchants while inside. Franks who were let into the city were astounded at its wealth, grandeur and foreign opulence. They detested the inhabitants and craved its riches. Constantinople controlled the Bosphorus, putting it in a place of power over the Franks. Franco-Greek tensions were stirred by chroniclers like Odo of Deuil, and eventually boiled over in the Fourth Crusade with Enrico Dandolo's sacking of Constantinople in 1204 on the 4th Crusade. The Greeks never forgave the Franks, nor fully recovered, and Constantinople fell for the last time in 1453 to Mehmet II and the Ottoman Empire.

Outremer

Comes from the French word for "overseas" and refers to the Latin Kingdom established by the crusaders following the 1st Crusade. Outremer was quadripartite, comprised of: 1. County of Edessa 2. Principality of Antioch 3. Kingdom of Jerusalem 4. County of Tripoli Life in Outremer was largely mundane and multi-cultural, especially during the interludes between the crusades. Surviving artifacts and sources give us clear indication of at least some level of convivencia between the religious faiths. Indeed, many Franks who settled in Outremer intermarried and reared children in multilingual households. As Fulcher of Chartres stated, "Occidentals became orientals." This penchant for friendship, business, etc. across religious lines was not shared by Frankish newcomers, who were unable to understand the harmonious lifestyle. Men like Guy of Lusignan and Reynald of Chatillon were disliked by the Outremerians for their unwillingness to conform to the convivencia. A perfect example of convivencia = Usamah's accounts of eating dinner with Frankish friends, or the accounts of Christians and Muslims interacting in a public bath house. In this way, culinary, cultural and ideological concepts were shared across religious lines.

Church of the Holy Sepulcher

Constructed by Helena, mother of Constantine. She believed it to mark the location of the tomb of Christ and allegedly found the True Cross at the site during the construction. An important pilgrimage site for crusaders/modern Christians. When the Franks take Jerusalem, they are overcome by a holy fervor and prostrate themselves at the Holy Sepulcher to give thanks to God for their victory. Prior to the siege, Fatimid rulers offered terms for the Franks to worship peacefully, but they were rejected.

Convivencia

Convivencia was the other side of the spectrum to the rise of the persecuting society of the crusade period. That being said, it was certainly the exception, not the rule. Convivencia is a Spanish term that refers to the harmonious "living together" of multi-religious communities, especially in places like Spain and Norman Sicily. These cities were hotbeds of cultural exchange and saw Greek/Latin/Saracen "teamwork" when it came to business, friendship, interaction, etc. Muslim-controlled Spain featured multicultural armies, courts, business, etc. All faiths received at least *some* aspect of legal protection; albeit, not always equally. Recreational activities like chess, hunts, meals, and bath houses were often held during times of peace amongst members of different faiths. In the interludes between the crusades, Outremer actually served as a hub of convivencia as well. Outremerian Franks began to intermarry and raise multilingual/multicultural children; they felt more loyalty to Outremer's syncretic culture than they did the Frankish Germanic/warrior culture they had come from.

Damascus

Damascus is the first Muslim city that allies with the Franks in the Holy Land --> they fear Nur ed-Din's expansion and want protection against the threat he poses. On the 2nd Crusade, the kings of the Council of Acre will inexplicably decide to attack Damascus, rather than Nur ed-Din as their wives recommend. Damascus then reluctantly asks for help from Nur ed-Din against the Franks. Franks besiege Damascus and settle into an orchard that provides adequate access to food and water for the army. Muslims use the cover of the trees to launch guerrilla attacks on the Frankish camp. The Franks pull out and move to a section of the wall that is more open, but have no food or water --> leaders begin to squabble over who gets the city and everyone packs up and goes home after 4 days.

Peter Bartholomew

During the "intermission" of Antioch (crusaders are trapped inside by Kerbogha) he claims to have had visions of St. Andrew telling him that the Holy Lance was under the Church of St. Peter. Crews dig fruitlessly for 5 days, but Peter jumps in the hole and finds it instantly -- leads to speculation as to whether or not it's fake. He gives it to Raymond's army and this breeds both resentment from Bohemund's envious troops, and a major morale boost for all of the other Franks. Peter Bartholomew then begins having "visions" claiming that Adhemar's ghost is telling him who should rule Antioch, who should be in charge, etc. Visions are starting to become inconsistent, and people doubt the legitimacy of his claims and of the Holy Lance. He demands an Ordeal by Fire to prove that he is telling the truth: He walks through the flames...and dies horrifically of his burns 12 days later. The Holy Lance is largely discounted after this.

Song of Roland

Earliest known manuscript --> 12th C. An epic Western poem based on a small core of historical fact, but that alters it in order to compensate for heavy Frankish bias. It tells the romanticized story of the destruction of Charlemagne's rear guard within the Roncevaux Pass in Spain. We are provided with a layman's view of the war -- the piece was written to entertain, not to serve as a soldier's manual on combat. SoR provides our first indisputable evidence of shock combat, as well as explores male-relationships, celebrates male heroes, and fuses Christian values with barbarian warrior ethos. SoR would come to symbolize the cosmic struggle between Christianity and Islam.

Richard the Lionheart

Eldest son of Eleanor of Aquitaine. He makes a tenuous truce with Philip Augustus (who was possibly once his lover) to allow them to lead armies on the 3rd Crusade. Richard agrees to marry Philip's sister, Alais Capet, 40 days after returning home. He marries Berengaria of Navarre on the island of Cyprus instead, on the wishes of his mother. The rift between he and Philip deepens. After the conquer of Acre, Richard storms the city and rips down the banners of Leopold of Austria. He scorns Philip, who leaves b/c of illness...and then promptly teams up with Richard's brother, John Lackless, to attack Richard's lands when he gets home. Richard would have to endure the attempts of Philip & John to usurp his throne for the rest of his life. Richard negotiaties a prisoner exchange with Saladin after Acre, but when Saladin is unable to pay the ransom on time, Richard systematically executes 2,700 Turks to send a message and to expedite the crusade. Richard then defeats Saladin at the Battle of Arsuf, because his felt overcoats dampened the Saracen arrows. He signed a 5 year truce with Saladin because neither side had the resources to carry on fighting. On the way home, Richard was forced to travel through Austria in disguise (b/c Leopold doesn't like him) and he was recognized at an inn. He was taken hostage by Leopold and Henry IV. Eleanor of Aquitaine eventually ransomed him and he returned home to battle Philip Augustus until his death from a gangrenous arrow wound in the shoulder.

Alexius I Comnenus

Emperor of Constantinople who, after losing significant chunks of land in Asia Minor to the Seljuk Turks, sent a letter to Pope Urban II. After the Battle of Manzikert, he asked Urban for a small force of elite fighting men to turn the tide of war -- he did not expect to wind up with enormous crusader masses outside his walls. He parked the Pop. Crusades on the other side of the Bosphorus @ Civitote to (wisely) keep them from attacking Constantinople and then provides them with supplies. Learning of the feudal customs of the West, he asked the crusade leaders to swear oaths of fealty to him and promise to return an conquered lands to the Byzantines --> major Frankish leaders agree, except Raymond of Toulouse, who swears a modified version. Alexius gives the Franks vital naval assistance at the Siege of Nicaea, blockading the lake so that the city could no longer import waterborne supplies. He then offered softer terms of surrender to the Nicaeans, rather than turn them over to the ravenous Franks -- they accepted and the Franks felt betrayed. Alexius' daughter = Anna Comnena, who wrote a biography of her father that details the Pop. Crusades.

Margaret of Beverly

English woman who headed to Outremer; after her exploits, she headed home to meet her brother who was a monk @ Acre. Her story is an anomaly because we know about it -- most women were not documented during this time. Margaret shows up at Jerusalem, just in time for a battle. She brings water to front line troops while wearing a pot on her head and is wounded by shrapnel and captured -- she's forced to do labor in the POW camp until some charity-doer ransoms her. Margaret then decides she wants to go to Antioch to visit the tomb of her patron saint and namesake, Margaret. She arrives at Antioch just in time for another battle and ends up looting corpses of Saracens on the battlefield. She leaves for home, but is taken prisoner by a Turk who recognizes her stolen goods and confiscates them. Margaret goes back to Acre to meet with her brother; she dictates her story to him as he is literate and he publishes it. Margaret then joins a convent.

Enrico Dandolo

Enrico Dandolo was the doge of Venice, who had reportedly been blinded on a disastrous trip to Constantinople; this stoked a growing hatred for the city of Constantinople. Enrico and Venice sunk a massive amount of money into ships to transport the Franks on the 4th Crusade to Cairo. However, when the Franks arrived they had no money to pay the Venetians for their service. The two sides struck a deal: Venetian ships would carry the Franks to Cairo if the Franks promised to capture the port city of Zara in the name of Venice on the way. This attack on a Christian city sat poorly with Pope Innocent III, who excommunicated Dandolo and the other crusaders (a fact which Dandolo kept secret so that the crusaders would not abandon the crusade). Dandolo then agreed to support the crusaders' plan to sail to Constantinople to put Prince Alexius IV on the throne, in exchange for support and funding of the crusade. Thusly, Dandolo was quite successful in diverting the Franks to the eventual sack of Constantinople -- a byproduct of Dandolo's hatred for the city.

Excommunication

Excommunication refers to an official decree of banishment from the Catholic Church, often administered by the Pope. The most famous excommunication of the Middle Ages was the Great Schism of 1054 -- the patriarchs of both Constantinople and Rome mutually excommunicated each other from the Church when they could not agree on papal primacy. While excommunication began as a method of dealing with heretics, it blossomed into a political tool as corruption within the Church grew. Otherwise devout Christians could be excommunicated by the Pope if they did not comply with his demands (e.g. Frederick II's crusade) and it became something of a method of extortion.

Louis VIII

Father of Louis IX. Louis VIII runs the second half of the Albigensian Crusade; however, he dies in the middle of the Siege of Avignon. His death forces Blanche of Castile to call off the crusade.

Nicaea

First major battle of the second wave of the 1st Crusade. Frankish army + Byzantine siege engineers vs. Kilij Arslan's Muslims. Nicaea is fully walled and had numerous ways to import goods into the city --> the Franks are unable to cut off imports and starve out the city. Kilij Arslan underestimates the Franks based on the Pop. Crusades and loses an initial open field battle. The Franks get their first siege experience by lobbing Turkish heads over the city walls. Franks also dig under a portion of the wall and sap it, but the Turks rebuild it stronger over night. Alexius I Comnenus shows up with ships and blockades the lake --> Nicaea is now fully sealed off. Nicaea surrenders in secret to the Byzantines, rather than be turned over to the ravenous Franks. The Franks feel betrayed and distrust the Greeks.

Armor & Weapons

For the Franks, the "core" of the military equipment resided in a chainmail hauberk, a conical helmet with a nasal, a high-backed saddle, and a couched lance. This gear was both cumbersome and expensive -- knights required a squire to don their kit and it was wildly ill-suited for the scorching Anatolian climate. Around the 14th C, plate armor emerged alongside specialist armor manufacturers. Because of its immense cost, armor was frequently looted from dead bodies on the battlefield. The onset of English longbows and gunpowder rendered plate armor moot. Additionally, the Franks needed to breed especially large warhorses to compensate for the weight of their armor. Few crusaders could afford these costly instruments of war and most were little ol' footsoldier fellas with a spear. The Saracens utilized more mobile troops, preferring horse archers mounted on mares. They utilized advanced bow technology to weaken their enemy from afar before rushing in to finish them off in melee. This discrepancy between shock combat and horse archers led to asymmetric battles. Better adapted to the climate of the Holy Land, the Saracens would wrap turbans and surcoats to keep the sun from shining directly on the metal of the armor.

Pope Urban II

French Pope who called the Council of Clermont in 1095 and issued the call for the 1st Crusade after receiving a letter from Alexius I Comnenus. An incredibly charismatic preacher who was able to resonate with his audience and whip them into a religious fervor about crusading. He promised the remission sins to those who died on the way to the Holy Land/died fighting the Saracens. This was the biggest selling point for the crusades because it was widely believed that only saints/clergy were destined for Heaven. It is likely that Urban II tried to capitalize on Alexius I Comnenus' call for aid by indebting the Greeks to the Western Church and facilitating a future reunion of the Great Schism of 1054. We don't know exactly what Urban said in his Clermont speech, but multiple chroniclers published version and we can extrapolate these common themes: 1. remission of sin 2. Muslim atrocities against Christians 3. feudal obligations of people as God's vassals Sent Adhemar of Le Puy as his legate on the 1st Crusade and stayed in contact with the leaders via letters; died just days after the Frankish conquer of Jerusalem, before news had yet reached the west.

Fulcher of Chartres

Fulcher of Chartres was a French priest who was present at the Council of Clermont and decided to accompany Stephen of Blois' contingent of Franks on the 1st Crusade as a chaplain. He took notes on that which he observed, which were published in the form of a vast Chronicle of the First Crusade -- our most reliable source on the expedition and a record of everything from notes on Urban II's speech to the capture of Jerusalem in 1099. Though he departed with Stephen of Blois, he was transferred to chaplain duty with Baldwin I, and continued to serve Baldwin I as chaplain until Baldwin I was made king of Jerusalem, and eventually was made canon of the Church of the Holy Sepulcher. His rise through the crusade ranks embodies the idea of "Finding one's fortune in the Holy Land," though it is unlikely that this was present in his mind when he departed. He used the writings of Raymond of Alguilers and the Gesta Francorum to supplement the events he did not witness.

Emicho

German Count who perpetrated the severest damages to Jews of all the crusades. He led a primarily German/French band of crusaders on the first wave of the 1st Crusade. They headed north and started attacking French Jews --> French Jews write to German Jews to warn them, who fast and pray, but don't feel very threatened. Knock knock. Who's there? It's Emicho. He razes Speyer, Worms and Mainz and massacres the Jewish inhabitants of the cities. These slaughters are recorded in grisly detail by Anonymous of Mainz and Solomon ben Samson. Like many Franks, Emicho believed that the Jews were responsible for the crucifixion of Christ and that any non-Christians = enemies (and Jews are closer than Muslims). The Jews do not fight back and even slaughter themselves preemptively, rather than let the Franks kill them. Emicho moves on into Hungary, where is routed and dispersed by the Hungarians. Emicho is largely responsible for cultivating the persecuting, anti-Semitic society of the crusades. *Emicho's troops appear to have been following a goose that they believe was imbued with the Holy Spirit.

Greek Fire

Greek fire originated within the Byzantine Empire. The concoction had a crude oil base and was an antiquated version of napalm. Once lit, the sticky base would adhere to sails, ships, skin, siege towers, etc. and continue to burn. The oil would resist water and attempts to drench the flames would only spread the fire. The Greeks never shared their recipe, but it was eventually stolen by the Saracens, who employed it at the Battle of Jerusalem, the Battle(s) of Damietta, etc.

Heresy

Heresy refers to a belief that the Church deemed contrary to the established doctrine. Pope Innocent II was the pope that took the hardest line against heresy. In 1215, he called the 4th Lateran Council primarily as a vehicle for establishing a systematic way of persecuting heretics. The Inquisition was born, a system of sending Dominican friars into towns suspected of harboring populations of heretics. Those who were accused of heresy were subjected to interrogations and torture for the sake of procuring confessions and conversions. Eventually, accusations of heresy became surefire ways of dealing with personal squabbles: Political rivals, petty jealousies, etc. could be settled be accusing a rival of heresy; if they protested, it only made them look guiltier, and the Church was ravenous to persecute heretics as it was. Famous heretical movements include the Cathars and the Waldensians, who were preaching variations of Christianity that made the Church wildly uncomfortable (e.g. Satan created the Earth). Persecution of heresy on the crusades would take it most gruesome form in the massacre of the citizens of Beziers.

Antioch

Huge, walled city; many water sources inside walls; food is being grown inside --> VERY difficult for the Franks to besiege. Due to numbers, crusaders are unable to fully surround walls, but Turks are unable to fully garrison. Brutal, drawn-out siege --> crusaders are starving and start to desert (e.g. Peter the Hermit and Stephen of Blois). The crusaders banish all women from camp to prohibit immoral behavior and recoup divine favor. Bohemund threatens to leave if he doesn't get control of the city after its capture -- crusaders agree. Bohemund and Tancred chat up Firouz, a recently disgraced tower guard, and convince him to betray the Turks. Firouz opens a window for a handful of Bohemund's men, who open the gate and take the city. Kerbogha arrives with Turkish reinforcements while Franks are still in the city. Stephen of Blois, on his way home, tells Alexius I Comnenus that the battle is already lost and that there's no need to reinforce the Franks, who are now trapped in the citadel. Peter Bartholomew finds the Holy Lance and Bishop Adhemar wields it, alongside visions of ghostly saints. The starving Franks launch a suicide charge on Kerbogha and miraculously win. Bohemund eventually takes over as ruler, but the Principality of Antioch (2nd crusader state) will fall to Nur ed-Din's troops.

Acre

Important port city on the coast of Israel. The first big battle of the 3rd Crusade was Richard the Lionheart besieging the city. Saladin comes in behind and "double sieges" the Frankish camp on the outside of the walls. Conrad of Montferrat arrives and brings a shipload of siege weapon supplies. Muslims utilize Greek fire to combat the siege towers. Biological warfare (e.g. polluting water with corpses) was prevqlent and Richard the Lionheart, Philip Augustus and Saladin all got sick during the siege. Acre surrenders after the Franks sap a portion of wall --> hostage negotiation is established, and Saladin promises to return the True Cross. Saladin is unable to pay, and Richard executes 2,700 Muslim POWs. Acre would be the last Christian stronghold in Outremer, but it was weakened by civil war between Venetian and Genoese traders within the city walls. Eventually, Acre would fall to the Mamluks and the last crusader mainland presence was gone.

Jihad

Islamic Holy War; sometimes referred to as the "6th Pillar of Islam." Muslims largely viewed Jihad as a defensive responsibility at the beginning of the crusades, but gradually shifted to an offensive mindset as the Franks took territory and became a greater threat. The idea of Jihad was an influential force in Zengi's convincing of Islamic troops to finally unify against the Franks. Rules: 1. no jihad vs. fellow Muslims 2. no killing women/children 3. any Jihad must be called by a legitimate authority - this is why Muslims don't fight back in earnest until Zengi calls for it ~40 years after 1st Crusade According to Muhammad: 1. Lesser Jihad: Struggling against enemies of Islam 2. Struggling against ourselves to be better followers of Allah

Conrad III

King of Germany who led the German contingent of the 2nd Crusade. He did not originally want to go crusading, but a combination of social pressure and the promise of remittance of sins coerced him into leading an army. Conrad swear an oath to Manuel Comnenus, but he is unable to control his troops as they pillage Byzantine territory. At Nicaea, Conrad II splits his army in half and takes all of the combatants to Dorylaeum, retracing the footsteps of the 1st Crusade. They are ambushed by Turks at the Second Battle of Dorylaeum and the Germans are wiped out -- Conrad III barely escapes and goes to warn the French to avoid Dorylaeum, He fell sick and recuperated in Constantinople, before joining the failed Siege of Damascus and growing disillusioned with his allies.

Frederick Barbarossa

King of the Germans on the 3rd Crusade and the Holy Roman Emperor. He is a veteran of the 2nd Crusade and is almost 70 years old during the 3rd Crusade. He summons one of the single largest armies in the entire history of the entire crusades and sets off on the Old North Road over land. The trek is arduous, because the Byzantines remember the behavior of the German armies under Conrad III during the 2nd Crusade and refuse to provide Frderick's men with supplies. When the Germans reach the Saleph River, Frederick tries to wade across/ride across on horseback/go for a swim and is pulled under by the current. He drowns. His death rocks the Germans and most turn around and go home. Those who continue move forward under his son, Henry IV, and Leopold of Austria. Frederick's body is pickled in vinegar and carried with the army, which intends to bury him at Jerusalem. The preservatives aren't very effective and they settle for burying him at Antioch.

Frederick II

Known as a "stupor mundi" ("wonder of the world"), Frederick II spoke 6 languages, was a strong patron of the arts, and was King of Sicily. He was the grandson of Frederick Barbarossa (3rd Crusade) and inherited both the HREmpire and Norman Sicily -- which became a hub of convivencia. Innocent III was his guardian/mentor growing up, however the land that he controlled on both sides of the Papal States made the Church leery of him. Frederick II marries Yolande of Jerusalem and then gets the throne of Jerusalem by marriage. 5TH CRUSADE: Keeps promising to show up with a massive amount of troops and never does. 6TH CRUSADE: Fred sets sail (late), but there's a malaria outbreak and he's forced to turn back. The pope loses patience with Fred and excommunicates him...which doesn't really bother Fred. However, he needs to end this crusade fast and get home because the pope wants to invade Sicily. He becomes friends with al-Kamil and the two men forge a peace treaty without shedding any blood -- both sides are enraged with how lenient the treaty is. Fred II crowns himself King of Jerusalem with nobody there and people pelt him with dung as he leaves to sail home. *also conducted a LOT of really unethical science experiments (e.g. "What language will a baby speak if it's left on an island with a mute woman?")

Jews

Largely peripheral in the crusades, the Jews did not fight directly in anyone's army. However, they are partial to the Muslims, as the Muslims are the most tolerant of the major players. Jews were violently persecuted by the Franks because they were closer than the Muslims and still non-Christians; the Franks blamed the Jews for the crucifixion of Christ. Jewish slaughters were perpetrated most famously by Count Emicho's troops on the 1st Crusade in Speyer, Worms and Mainz. A number of sources (e.g. Anonymous of Mainz and Solomon ben Samson) describe the massacres in horrific detail. Jews did not fight back against their attackers and instead allowed themselves to be slain, or even slew themselves preemptively. Due to the disproportionate amount of movable wealth available in many Jewish communities, they were frequently extorted for $$$ to fund the crusades (e.g. Duke Godfrey of Lorraine).

Franks

Latin Christians; Roman + Germanic barbarian culture. Based in Rome/W. Europe. Heavily loyal to the Roman Catholic Church -- Popes will call almost every crusade. Feudal society where crusaders view themselves as vassals to God. Literacy is largely confined to monasteries/clerical chroniclers. The Franks are disunited, selfish, prone to infighting and constantly underestimated the amount of preparation necessary for an undertaking of the crusades' magnitude. They were drawn to these "pilgrimages in arms" because of the promise of remission of sin, feelings of vassal obligation to their holy dominus, the desire to amass wealth (e.g. non-first children trying to work around primogeniture), and the desire to retake Jerusalem. The Franks relied heavily on the Byzantines to learn siege warfare, even though they regarded the Greeks as effeminate and treacherous. They often made side excursions to loot and pillage towns, as well as massacre Jewish communities. They fielded enormous armies of footmen and minorities of knights who employed shock combat tactics. The Franks would stumble their way to success on the 1st Crusade, but lose nearly every other engagement following. They established the quadripartite Outremer in the Holy Land, which lasted until Acre finally gave out to the Mamluks in the late 13th C.

Peter the Hermit

Leader of one of the Pop. Crusades: The People's Crusade on the first wave of the 1st Crusade. A charismatic, self-appointed preacher who took an ENORMOUS number of people who were ready to leave before the official Frankish contingent left. His "troops" consisted of all classes, genders , ages, motives and occupations. They take the Old North Road to Constantinople (~3,000 miles) and are wildly unprepared for the logistical demands of such an undertaking. Peter's gang is the first group of crusaders to arrive outside the walls of Constantinople and a shocked Alexius I Comnenus ferries the Franks across the Bosphorus at Civitote to put a buffer zone between them and the city. Peter's bored crusaders start raiding the countryside and while the camp is left unguarded, Turks swoop in for a counterattack and raze the camp at Civitote. The second wave of the 1st Crusade would later discover the corpses of Peter's forces. Peter had tried to make a failed crusade before; he led the People's Crusade (which failed brutally(: and he would later attempt to desert during the Siege of Antioch on the 1st Crusade.

Dome of the Rock

Located on the Temple Mount, where Abraham allegedly offered to sacrifice his son Isaac (or Ishmael) to God. It also marks the spot where Muhammad ascended to Heaven on his Night Journey to meet with Allah and the other Islamic prophets in order to flesh out the daily responsibilities of Muslims. Also marks the location where Solomon's Temple used to stand. Today, a large, domed mosque stands there. It was alternately pillaged (e.g. Bohemund's troops) and cleansed (e.g. Saladin's recapture) as Jerusalem changed hands throughout the crusades.

Bohemund

Manipulative, ambitious, malicious, envious. Bohemund *is* that bitch. His father confiscated his inheritance following a divorce, so he was inspired to seek his fortune on the crusades -- this led to Bohemund being motivated entirely by political expediency for the whole of the crusades. Bohemund tried (and failed) to capture Constantinople once before the 1st Crusade, but when Alexius I Comnenus asked for aid, he happily proclaimed himself a new man and gleefully went to slay Turks and pillage Land. Disliked and distrusted by nearly everyone, except his own soldiers. He was so paranoid that he thought Alexius I Comnenus was trying to poison him during a feast and at Constantinople and spread the food out to the other men present. Bohemund was ambushed at the Pass of Dorylaeum by Turks, but was saved by reinforcements from Raymond of Toulouse, with whom he would feud. During the brutal Siege of Antioch, Bohemund threatens to leave if he is not granted control of the city following its capture, breaking his vow to Alexius. Bohemund and his nephew, Tancred, convince a Turkish guard, Firouz, to betray the Saracens and open a window for his men. They breach the wall and open the gates, allowing the Franks to take the city. Bohemund frequently made false promises of safety to civilians and, after collecting their wealth, he systematically slaughtered them. He eventually fulfuilled his desire to become the Ruler of the Principality of Antioch. Bohemund is later captured by the Turks and held for many years as prisoner, before dying in a failed attempt to conquer the Byzantines.

Louis VII

Marries Eleanor of Aquitaine and becomes king of France. He quashed a number of vassal rebellions early during his rule and became convinced that he was bound for Hell because of the violence --> 2nd Crusade gives him an opportunity for remission of sins. Pus, his uncle-in-law, Raymond of Antioch/Poitiers, asked for him to come help. He meets up with Conrad III and makes it to Constantinople, despite the locals not selling supplies to his troops. However, his forces are ambushed at the Battle of Mount Cadmus and slaughtered -- Louis VII famously escapes death by climbing a tree. He then decides to sail the rest of the way to Antioch, but there aren't enough boats to take his men. The nobility abandon the rank and file French on land, where they are soon wiped out by the Turks. They arrive at Antioch and Eleanor and her uncle REALLY hit it off. Louis VII wants to go to Jerusalem to complete the crusade, but Eleanor and Raymond want to attack Nur ed-Din at Edessa and Aleppo. Louis VII forcibly brings his wife with him to Jerusalem after she threatens divorce. He decides to attack his ally Damascus at the COuncil of Acre and the siege fails after 4 days. They pack up and go home. Eleanor annuls the marriage and Louis VII loses his land.

Reynald of Chatillon

Marries widow of Raymond of Antioch and becomes prince of Antioch. He is violent and opposed to the Outremerian convivencia that exists fragilely between Franks and non-Franks. He attacks Byzantine Cyprus and loots it, but begs mercy and fealty from Manuel Comnenus when it becomes apparents that he will lose it to the Greeks. Reynald then breaks the truce with Saladin and begins attacking Muslim trade caravans outside his castle. He kidnaps and rapes a female relative of Saladin and triggers the Battle of Cresson Springs. Reynald is captured after the Battle of Hattin and taken to Saladin's tent. When he tries to drink water without being invited, Saladin kills him for his insolence. Many believe that he was directly responsible for the eventual fall of Jerusalem to Saladin because of kickstarting the 3rd Crusade.

Trial by Combat

Method of determining guilt/innocence that dates to the earliest written barbarian law codes. The idea = God will ensure that whoever is "right" will win; you can either fight to the death, or until one party yields and admits guilt. The crusades came to be seen as one big trial by combat --> the crusaders won the 1st Crusade despite their ineptitude because God wanted them to win...this idea became less popular as the Muslims started winning. Exeplified in Song of Roland by Ganelon vs. Charlemagne (who use proxies). Many people doubted the validity of trial by combat, but it was kept around because it was traditional. 1215 --> Fourth Lateran Council rules it is no longer a valid source of judicial proof.

Mongols

Nomadic herdsman who exploded out of Mongolia in the 13th C under Ghengis Khan, who united the warring Mongol tribes. The Mongols were exceptionally mobile, living in temporary yurts and utilizing composite bows made of yak horn and bamboo and flexible armor of overlapping plates. The Mongols were excellent at siege warfare and, though their empire was short-lived, at its peak it was larger than even Rome's. The Mongols were pagan, but controlled members of all three Abrahamic faiths within their borders. The Mongols are mistakenly referred to as "Tartars" by Joinville in his chronicle. The Mongols moved into Europe, defeating military orders in Poland. They would rampage undefeated until they ran into Baybars' Mamluks who were the only ones that were able to halt the Mongol advance. Pope Innocent IV decided that he wanted to convert the Mongols to Christianity to cement an alliance against the Mamluk Muslims. A series of letters, as well as Dominican and Franciscan friars, were exchanged between the Pope and Kublai Khan, the son of Ghengis Khan. Following the assassination of Ghengis Khan's son, the Mongols would snuff out the Assassins sect in retaliation.

Odo of Deuil

Odo is the main French chronicler (and only real source on the disaster that was the 2nd Crusade) and he accompanies Louis VII's contingent over land on the 2nd Crusade. He is present during the Battle of Mount Cadmus and gives an account of Louis VII climbing a tree. He cuts his chronicle short after the debacle in Asia Minor, preferring not to relay the shame of the four-day failed siege at Damascus. He tries to glorify Louis VII as much as possible, but there's only so much you can do. His chronicle ends with the arrival at Antioch. He is HIGHLY biased against the Germans and Greeks, and blames Manuel Comnenus for the failure of the crusade. In fact, he's more complimentary of the Turks than he is of his Byzantine allies. He desires a revenge crusade against the Byzantines for their treachery and sows the seeds for the sacking of Constantinople in 1204 on the 4th Crusade.

King Guy of Lusignan

Outsider who marries Sybilla, the queen of Jerusalem to become king of Jerusalem. The natives of Outremer hate him and his Frankish customs and don't want him to be king. He is baited into open field war by Saladin and chooses to attack rather than be thought of as cowardly. He leaves the Frankish fortifications at Acre with the True Cross and meets Saladin at the Horns of Hattin. Guy is captured, alongside the True Cross, and taken to Saladin's tent. He is treated with civility -- Saladin offers him water and considers him a guest. Guy is a political prisoner for a year before being released. He goes to Tyre, but is shut out by Conrad of Montferrat. After being kicked out, Guy and Sybilla preemptively begin the Siege of Acre, hoping that Franks will show up to join them. Conrad is eventually elected king of Jerusalem over Guy and Guy becomes lord of Cyprus.

Peace Treaties

Peace treaties throughout the crusades were rooted strongly in the idea of quantity > quality. Lasting peace was never truly forged between the factions, as crusade ideology was cyclical: Religious fervor whipped the crowds into a conquering mood, they went to the Holy Land and got more than their fill of the horrors of war, the survivors returned and peace reigned...until enough time had passed that someone influential forgot about the costs of war and whipped the crowds into a religious fervor... Key peace treaty moments: 1. Frankish oath of fealty to Alexius I Comnenus not to attack Constantinople and return lands to the Greeks. This was never really honored by anyone other than Raymond of Toulouse and was utterly shattered with the sack of Constantinople in 1204. 2. Damascus forged the first Muslim-Christian alliance with the Franks in fear of Nur ed-Din. The Franks reneged on this alliance and attacked Damascus in the 2nd Crusade. 3. Reynald of Chatillon broke a peace treaty with Saladin to raid trading caravans...which triggered the Battle of Cresson Springs, the 3rd Crusade, and the eventual loss of Jerusalem. 4. The tenuous three-way treaty negotiations between the Mamluks, Franks and Mongols. The Franks tried to side with the Mongols over the Mamluks and this led to Baybars never forgiving the Franks. The Mamluks would eventually wipe out Acre, the last Latin toehold in the Holy Land.

Pilgrimage

Pilgrimages are essential parts of all of the Abrahamic religions. Pilgrimage = sacred trek to a place of holy significance that one undergoes to deepen their faith and purify themselves in the eyes of their deity. Most pilgrimages hinged around Jerusalem, a three-way holy site, but great temples, mosques and churches were popular destinations as well. Also, burial sites of saints. Early crusaders were thought of a "pilgrims in arms" and the crusade itself was seen as a pilgrimage to Jerusalem --> because of this, all demographics/classes of people went, not just the fit, healthy warriors.

Eleanor of Aquitaine

Queen of France and England and co-leader of the French army on the 2nd Crusade. She marries Louis VII and becomes queen of France. Her uncle, Raymond of Poitiers/Antioch, then asks for her to come help on the 2nd Crusade and she does --> there are reports of her recruiting her own soldiers and riding at the fore dressed as an Amazon warrior woman. Eleanor's vassals make up the rearguard that is ambushed by Turks in the mountains at the Battle of Mount Cadmus) and she is blamed for the disaster. She chooses to sail the rest of the way to Antioch, leaving the rank and file Frenchmen onshore to be slaughtered shortly after by Turks. Upon arriving at Antioch, she gets along REALLY well with her uncle. He is charismatic and flashy in all the ways that Louis VII isn't and there are rumors of an incestuous affair. Eleanor wants to attack Nur ed-Din at Edessa and Aleppo before he can stabilize his base of power; Louis VII wants to go to Jerusalem. She threatens divorce as an ultimatum and he forcibly carries her off to Jerusalem. She councils against attacking Damascus at the Council of Acre, but the kings don't listen. The siege fails after 4 days and the French go home. She divorces Louis VII when she gets home and marries Henry Plantagenet to become Queen of England. Has 3 kids: Richard the Lionheart, John Lackland, and Joan.

Raymond VI of Toulouse

Raymond VI was a descendant of the O.G. Raymond of Toulouse and the Lord of Toulouse. During the Albigensian Crusade, Raymond was blamed by Pope Innocent III because there were pockets of Cathars within his territory and failure to actively persecute them was seen as sympathizing with their cause. Innocent III eventually excommunicated him and Raymond VI becomes a target of the Albi Crusade. Raymond VI is forced to ask for help against the crusaders from Peter II of Aragon, but Innocent III dies and the Albi Crusade loses steam before any real damage could be done. However, despite the fact that no proof was ever found in regards to supporting Catharism, Raymond VI was denied a Christian burial anyways.

Raymond of Antioch

Raymond is the prince of Antioch and hails from Poitiers. He is the uncle of Eleanor of Aquitaine and sends a request to Louis VII/Eleanor to come assist on the 2nd Crusade. Raymond was handsome, charismatic, flashy -- everything that Louis VII wasn't When Louis VII and Eleanor arrive at Antioch, he greets them warmly and has many "long conversations" with Eleanor --> rumors of an incestuous affair arise. He wants Louis VII to attack Aleppo and Edessa to stamp out Nur ed-Din before he can rise to power; Louis wants to go to Jerusalem. Raymond will be killed by Nur ed-Din's forces at the Battle of Inab. He loses Antioch and his arms and head are sent to the Caliph of Baghdad as trophies.

Bernard of Clairvaux

Recuited by Pope Eugenius III to drum up fervor for the 2nd Crusade. Incredibly charismatic, well-loved; the most effective preacher that the Franks know. Franks use him to try and capture Urban II's "lightning in a bottle" from Council of Clermont another time. Bernard embarks on a cross-country preaching tour, deliver sermons and calling for people to take up the cross and recapture Edessa. He convinces Louis VII and Conrad III of France and Germany to commit to leading the armies. Supposedly, his preaching was so successful that he ran out of crosses and tore up his garments to make more. The failure of the 2nd Crusade was blamed almost entirely on him and he felt guilty enough to send a letter of apology to the Pope. He blamed the crusaders' sinful natures and asked that the populace criticize Bernard himself, rather than criticize God. Bernard simultaneously hyped up the Baltic Crusades against pagan Slavs on the Western borders as having the same importance as the official 2nd Crusade. He promised the same remission of sins to people who fought the Slavs, and infused it with the same religious fervor. Additionally, Bernard was deeply supportive of the Templars, and it was his public support that was able to assuage the general doubts about the military order.

Popular Crusades

Refers to any non-numbered crusade. The first wave of the First Crusade = large groups of people led by charismatic, self-appointed leaders; unofficial and VERY unorganized. All are slaughtered/routed by Saracens at some point, which leads the Saracens to underestimate the second wave of the First Crusade. The Pop. Crusades spark heavy anti-Semitism in Europe and illustrate how little control the Church has over the actions of the crusaders Peter the Hermit's: leave on the Old North Road to Constantinople; first to arrive outside walls of Constantinople; slaughtered by Turks at Civitote while camp is left unguarded --> second wave of 1st Crusade will find the bodies of Peter's crusaders. Count Emicho's: causes most damage to Jews of all crusades; raze Speyer, Worms and Mainz to avenge to avenge Christ; they appear to have been worshipping/following a goose that was "filled with the Holy Spirit." Children's Crusade: Led by Stephen and gains traction in France and Germany. Both contingents fail to reach Jerusalem, the French portion being abducted by the slavers William the Pig and Hugh the Iron. Shepherd's Crusade: Led by peasant farmers who believed their simplicity afforded them divine right to rescue King Louis IX and retake Jerusalem. They quickly devolved into riots and killings of clergy and university students and they were put down.

Saladin

Saladin is the nephew of Shirkuh, Nur ed-Din's general. He takes over Fatimid Egypt and rules as a "vassal" to Nur ed-Din, but promptly takes Nur ed-DIn's Damascus after his death. Saladin becomes a legendary figure in both Frankish and Saracen culture, renowned for his mercy, valor, competence, etc. Saladin's war against the crusaders was prompted in earnest by Reynald of Chatillon's attack on trade caravans that were protected under treaty. Allegedly, a female relative of Saladin's was captured and raped by Reynald -- Saladin's honor demanded retaliation. He meant to stage a token raid (no real damage, just to maintain appearances) but the Templars and Hospitallers fought back in earnest out of pride and the Battle of Cresson Springs is fought: War is officially on. Saladin kidnaps Raymond of Tripoli's wife and uses her as bait to lure the crusaders from their fortifications at Acre. Guy of Lusignan takes the bait and the two sides meet for open field battle at the Horns of Hattin. Saladin eliminates sources of water for the Franks and pours smoke into their camps. In desperation, the Franks charge and Saladin obliterates them,. He captures Reynald, Guy and the True Cross. He is compassionate to prisoners (e.g. offering Guy water) but firm -- he kills Reynald for insolence and kills the Templars/Hospitallers because they are too dangerous to leave alive. Saladin captures Jerusalem after negotiation with Balian of Ibelin and cleanses the Al-Aqsa Mosque. He surrounds the Franks outside of Acre during the Siege of Acre, but fails to save the city. He agrees to a 5 year truce with Richard the Lionheart just before his death. Imagery of Saladin is still prevalent amongst Islamic art: Especially after 9/11, Saddam Hussein had himself portrayed alongside Saladin.

Philip Augustus

Son of Louis VII. Richard the Lionheart is technically his vassal, due to the lands he holds in France. Richard was also possibly once Philip's gay lover and is engaged to marry Philip's sister. Philip and RIchard mutually swear not to attack each other so that they can go on the 3rd Crusade, and Ricard promises to marry Philip's sister after he returns home. Richard then marries a different girl and Philip is pissed --> rift starts to deepen between them. Philip goes overland with his army; Richard sails to the Holy Land. Philip is part of the conquest of Acre. After the city's capture, he swears not to attack Richard's lands and goes home,, claiming illness...and immediately teams up with John Lackland and attacks Richard's territory. Philip and John will continue to try to usurp Richard's claim to the throne; Richard's mother, Eleanor of Aquitaine, will desperately try to stop them. Richard is captured while returning from the 3rd Crusade and Philip tries to bribe King Henry IV to keep Richard locked up. After John ascends to the throne, Philip starts attacking Joh in turn. He wins decisively at the Battle of the Bouvines and takes lots of land from John's territory.

Nur ed-Din

Son of Zengi, who inherited his father's lands in Syria (Aleppo). Nur ed-Din was immensely pious and constructed a number of mosques during his time as ruler. Nur ed-Din was weak at first, as he attempted to consolidate power, and the women of the 2nd Crusade advised their husbands to snuff him out before he could become a legitimate threat. Instead, Conrad III, Louis VII, and Baldwin III decided to attack their ally Damascus at the Council of Acre and allow Nur ed-Din to stabilize his base of power in Aleppo and Edessa. The ruler of Damascus reluctantly agreed to side with Nur ed-Din against the crusaders. He immediately attacked the Principality of Antioch and . rushed the crusaders led by Raymond of Poitiers/Antioch at the Battle of Inab during the 2n Crusade. This was a huge morale boost for the Muslims and served to further unite them in a shared cause against the crusaders. It was his dream to build a single, unified caliphate, but Fatimid Egypt stood in his way. Saladin, the nephew of Nur ed-Din's general, eventually takes and inherits Egypt and rules it while *technically* owing allegiance to Nur ed-Din. Nur ed-Din is incredibly nervous about Saladin and after his death, Saladin takes Nur ed-Din's base of power in Damascus.

al-Kamil

Son of al-Adil, nephew of Saladin, and the man who led the Egyptian army to reinforce the vital Chain Tower at the Battle of Damietta on the 5th Crusade. At his father's death, al-Kamil inherits Egypt, mid-5th Crusade. Al-Kamil loved philosophy, math, theology and was VERY educated and refined. Al-Kamil was defined by his mercy and willingness to negotiate with the Frankish enemy throughout his reign. Outnumbered in the 5th Crusade, Al-Kamil was unable to directly engage the Franks and has to offer peace terms due to the lean times in Egypt --> reject by Cardinal Pelagius. Later, after sinking the crusader fleet, al-Kamil offered peace again --> similarly rejected by Cardinal Pelagius. Finally, al-Kamil engages the Franks at Mansourah, where he opens the sluice gates to the swollen Nile and allows the Frankish camps to be flooded. When the trapped Franks are forced to surrender, Oliver of Paderborn writes of how al-Kamil sent food and care to the crusader POWs. At this point, Pelagius was forced to beg for peace and al-Kamil drove a much harder bargain. However, al-Kamil did promise to return the True Cross...but when the time came to return it, the Saracens realized that they didn't know where it was. Al-Kamil befriended Francis of Assisi on the 5th Crusade and Frederick II on the 6th Crusade. Though he was unable to reach peace during his negotiations with Francis, the two men found great respect for each other and a myriad of cultural ideas were shared. Frederick II and al-Kamil WERE able to reach a peace treaty on the 6th Crusade without shedding any blood...something that enraged both of their respective sides because of the treaty's leniency.

Schism of 1054

Split between the Eastern Orthodox Church (Byzantine) and the Western Roman Catholic Church (Frankish). The Latin version of the Nicene Creed added "filioque" ("and the Son") but Greeks used the original version without "filioque" --> Franks think Greeks were disrespecting Jesus by not including it. Disputes also arose because of papal primacy -- is the patriarch of Rome superior because he traces his leneage back to St. Peter? Latin vs. Greek language Mass, etc. Patriarchs of Constantinople and Rome mutually excommunicate each other and Church never gets back together, despite a few attempts on the behalf of individuals like Michael VIII Paleologus.

Assassins

The Assassins were a shadowy sect of murderers-for-hire based in their stronghold in Masyaf. Their castles contained closely guarded libraries brimming with occult source material. They were an offshoot sect of Shi'ite Islam in Syria, and they maintained a neutral status throughout the crusades, assassinating key targets on both sides (e.g. Saladin; Conrad of Montferrat, maybe at the request of Richard the Lionheart; Raymond III of Tripoli; etc.) Because of the secrecy surround the Assassins, it is difficult to get good sources about them. However, Jean de Joinville writes of his experience with them with a mixture of awe and horror. The Assassins truly believed that better things awaited them after their mortal lives, so they would not hesitate to sacrifice themselves. Indeed, they followed the orders of their master, the Old Man of the Mountain, so diligently that the Old Man ordered them to jump to their deaths just to prove their obedience to Joinville. The Assassins leapt to their deaths without hesitation. It is believed that the Old Man would get the Assassins high on hashish (hence the name, "hashish-ens") and then tell them that their hallucinations were representations of the holy paradise that awaited them. The Assassins murdered the son of Ghengis Khan, at which point the Mongols made a point of bringing the Assassins sect to an end.

Cathars (Albigensians)

The Cathars were a heretical sect of Christianity that arose within the Byzantine Empire --> spread to the Balkans. Their base of power was the town of Albi, hence the moniker "Albigensians." Cathars possessed a very dualistic set of worldviews: God was comprised of pure spirit, there was no physical element to him. Conversely, Satan was responsible for all physical matter, including the Earth (which he created) and Adam and Eve. Subsequently, anything material was inherently evil -- Adam and Eve did not even have souls at first, but rather were granted them by God. Similarly, Jesus never existed in a material body on Earth because this would have made him imperfect. Having children was one of the worst sins you could commit, as you were trapping a pure soul in a sinful mortal body. The ultimate goal of Catharism was to free one's soul from the cycle of transmigration on the physical plane. Our best source on the Cathars comes from Inquisition records. After the Pope excommunicated the Cathars, Dominican friars were sent to villages suspected of heresy. Pope Innocent III eventually called for the Albigensian Crusade and Cathars were systematically butchered under Simon of Montfort's troops. The massacre at Beziers epitomizes the cruelty and bloodthirst of the crusade -- all were killed, regardless of gender/class/religion. "Kill them all, God will know his own."

Just War

The Christian equivalent of "Jihad," Just War was an attempt to reconcile sacred violence against a traditionally pacifist Christian religion. Augustine of Hippo created the idea of a war that conforms to God's laws --> St. Thomas Aquinas then systemized those ideas into the modern concept of Just War in the "Summa Theologica": 1. must be called by a legitimate authority (e.g. Pope) 2. just -- must be a fight for the greater good 3. must be done in the spirit of love for the enemy; you must be merciful when the enemy surrenders (4.) try diplomacy first; war = last resort (5.) don't harm innocents and limit collateral damage The Franks will only comply with a few of these requirements: they will brutally slaughter innocent citizens of captured cities with glee in the Holy Land.

Hospitallers

The Hospitallers were a military order that originated, as the name suggests, as a hospital order that cared for the sick and wounded. Eventually, a branch of the Hospitallers was inspired by the Templars and began fighting -- they would consequently inspire similar hospital-fighter-monks like the Teutonic Knights of Germany. The Hospitallers were one of the two most important military orders in Jerusalem (alongside Templars) and they built castles throughout the Latin Kingdom in an effort to preserve the crusader states (e.g. Krak de Chevaliers). Like the Templars, the Hospitallers were elite fighters and the two were executed alongside one another by Saladin out of respect, following the Battle of Hattin. The Hospitallers would be some of the last men standing during the 1291 Siege of Acre by the Mamluks. The Hospitallers would not be violently oppressed like their Templar peers, but eventual suspicion and disillusionment would emerge as the military orders were unable to protect the Holy Land despite the vast sums of money being donated by Christians.

Templars

The Knights Templar emerged in Jerusalem after the 1st Crusade to provide safe passage for Christian pilgrims. They were the first ever military order and would branch out to start garrisoning crusader towns along the frontier of the Latin Kingdom. Initially, the public doubted the organization, but lavish praise of the order from Bernard of Clairvaux assuaged these misgivings. The Templars are represented by the classic red cross on a white background, as well as two knights riding the same horse -- a representation of the poverty in which the organization lived. Life in the order was hierarchical and very strict. "Branch offices" were established back home to recruit members for service in Outremer. Baldwin I gave the Templars the Al-Aqsa Mosque to use as their headquarters and, as the Templars protected pilgrimage routes to Jerusalem, people started donating $$$ to the organization. The Templars started to double as bankers and moneylenders and eventually amassed staggering amounts of wealth -- it was thought that donating to an order would provide salvation. However, as coffers swelled, the public began to think of the Templars as greedy and corrupt. Philip the Fair would persecute the Templars, accusing them of sodomy, heresy, spitting on the cross, denying Christ, etc. 54 Templars would be burnt at the stake, including Jacques de Molay, master of the Templar order. The Templars were the elite fighting men of the crusade armies and they were executed out of respect by Saladin after Hattin. They were also the last men standing in defense of Acre against the Mamluks.

Mamluks

The Mamluks were a sect of Turkish slave soldiers, held and trained by the Egyptians to supplement the Egyptian forces. The Mamluks would fight against the crusaders in some capacity from the 7th Crusade, up until the fall of the Latin Kingdom in 1291. In fact, it was the Mamluks who would capture Acre, the last Christian stronghold in the Holy Land. The Mamluk general Baybars would take over as the first Mamluk sultan after the assassination of Turanshah, the Egyptian leader. The Mamluks and Louis IX eventually hash out a peace treaty to end the conflict of the 7th Crusade -- and the Mamluks briefly offer the sultanate of Egypt to Louis IX...but nothing comes of it. The Mamluks were not afraid of extending alliance offers to the Franks and would frequently vie for their allegiance in three-way negotiations with the Mongols and Damascus. However, the Franks would not ally themselves with the non-Christians, which ultimately led to the fall of Outremer. The Mamluks under Baybars handed the rampaging Mongols their first loss in battle, halting the unceasing expansion that had been going on. Baybars never forgave the Franks for the failed alliance against the Mongols and would go on to capture Antioch and Krak de Chevaliers before his death. Mamluks often incorporated Frankish hints into their architecture to send a clear message as to who was in charge now. The Mamluk Sultanate would control Egypt and the Mediterranean coast at its height.

Ottoman Turks

The Ottoman Empire was founded under Osman I in Asia Minor, during the confusion from the rise of the Mongols. Like their Seljuk Turk relatives, they began expanding quickly at the expense of Byzantine territory -- they jumped the Bosphorus and took chunks out of Europe. 1453 --> The Ottoman ruler Mehmet II the Conqueror led a force of Turks in the Siege of Constantinople. The stone walls of Constantinople that had withstood so many attacks throughout the Middle Ages were no match for Mehmet's gunpowder cannon. After the city's conquest, Mehmet II refurbished a Constantinople that had fallen into disrepair, making it a multicultural hub of scholarship and artistic works. Mehmet II converted the Hagia Sophia into a mosque and added the now-famous minarets. 1459 --> Pope Pius II calls for a retaliatory crusade against the Ottomans, but it gained no traction because of public disillusionment with Catholic greed and attempts to raise funds. Erasmus specifically RIPS into the Church about how this is a scam. The Ottomans would suffer a major setback at the Battle of Lepanto (1571) when the "Holy League" destroyed their fleet.

Sword-Brothers

The Sword Bros. were a military order which began in N. Germany in 1202; they aimed to convert pagan slavs w/ violence. They quickly developed a reputation for land theft and slaughter and the Pope sent legates to tell the Sword Bros. to chill out a little bit. True to form, the Sword Brothers killed the papal representatives in response. The Sword Bros. would continue raiding pagan villages willy-nilly (esp. Lithuania) until they were eventually wiped out by pagans at the Battle of Saule; the survivors were forced to assimilate into the Teutonic Knights, another German military order.

Teutonic Knights

The Teutonic Knights were a military organization that was primarily German. They were heavily involved in the Baltic Crusades, venturing into the Slavic states to combat the pagans. The Teutonic Knights were headquartered in Marienburg and controlled a large part of the Baltic Coast; though they technically answered to the Holy Roman Emperor, their close relationship afforded them near-autonomy. The Teutonic Knights pioneered the idea of the "reysa," a sort of "early study abroad trip" where young knights would leave home and join the Teutonic Knights at Marienburg for feasting, earning crusade experience and good old-fashioned pagan-raiding. The reysa was an easy way for young knights to cut their teeth; it was a quick way to get remission of sin (since Bernard of Clairvaux had promised the same rewards for the Baltic Crusades and for the 2nd Crusade) and it was something of a rite of passage into knighthood. Their emblem was a black cross on a white background and they were led by a grand master, like the Templars. The Teutonic Knights absorbed the Sword Brothers after the Sword Bros. were wiped out by pagans. The Teutonic Knights pushed deep into Russia with their superior knowledge of siege warfare, but were stopped short at the Battle of Lake Peipus by Alexander Nevsky -- a point of significant Russian patriotism.

Lords & Vassals

The basic social classifications of European society: a lord ("dominus") would take on a vassal through the homage ceremony's mixing-of-the-hands, and would offer perks (e.g. a fief) in exchange for military allegiance and other duties (e.g. paying the lord's ransom contributing to dowries, jury duty, providing housing for the lord, etc.). The lord-vassal relationship was normally for life, but could be broken via exfestucatio ceremony (breaking sticks and throwing them at each other). If a vassal had multiple lords, a liege-lord took priority in military obligations. Vassals often took vassals of their own via sub-infeudation *crusaders begin to see themselves as vassals of the lord, who served as their holy dominus. Kneeling prayer posture comes from "mixing of the hands" in the homage ceremoyny and symbolized the crusaders' loyalty to Christ and need to avenge their lord

Holy Cross/True Cross

The cross upon which Christ was crucified. Believed to have been found by Helena, mother of Constantine, during the construction of the Church of the Holy Sepulcher. The True Cross was carried by King Guy of Lusignan at the Horns of Hattin, and subsequently captured by Saladin, along with Guy --> HUGE momentum swing against the crusaders. The Cross was eventually used a bargaining chip by Saladin and al-Kamil, though it was never delivered because when the time came to deliver the Cross to the Knights Templar, it was revealed that the Muslims did not actually know where it was. In the eyes of the Franks, the loss of the True Cross was on par with the loss of Jerusalem.

Anna Comnena

The daughter of Byzantine emperor Alexius I Comnenus; present at Constantinople during the Pop. Crusades and provides us with documentation on the Pop. Crusades. She referred mockingly to Peter the Hermit as "Kuku-Peter" and was largely distrustful of the Franks at her father's doorstep. Anna was well-educated and made an attempt to usurp her brother's claim to the throne following her father's death. When this attempt failed, she was banished to a monastery where she lived the rest of her life. In exile there, she wrote "The Alexiad," a biography of her father's life and an account of the Pop. Crusades. Though Anna is a talented historian, we know what we know about her largely because of her noble blood -- medieval women did not normally receive such renown if they were not arrested (and court records survived) or they were from exceedingly elite families.

Al Aqsa Mosque

The first mosque built in Jerusalem. The site was originally a refuse heap, but the Muslims cleaned the space and constructed a holy site after they conquered the city. Important pilgrimage site for Muslims. A few hundred yards away from the Dome of Rock, and also constructed atop the Temple Mount. Following the Frankish capture of Jerusalem in the 1st Crusade, Bohemund told the Muslims to wait in the Al-Aqsa Mosque to be spared...the next day, he slaughtered them and the "blood ran up to men's bridles/knees/ankles". The Al-Aqsa Mosque was ritually cleansed by Saladin after he took Jerusalem before the 3rd Crusade. Baldwin I gave the Templars the Al-Aqsa Mosque as their headquarters prior to their persecution under Philip the Fair.

Remission of Sins

The idea that a figure of religious authority was instilled by God with the power to "wipe away" one's sins ad mortal transgressions. This was offered by Urban II to all who undertook the crusade (and died fighting/along the way) and was the most attractive reason to go crusading --> at the time, it was believed that almost everyone who wasn't a saint/clergyman was destined for Hell. The crusades differed from prior expeditions because killing itself became the penance, and a vehicle for the remission of sin. Soldiers in the Battle of Hastings had to do penance for every kill; in the crusades, every kill WAS penance. Eventually, remission of sins was offered by Popes to accomplish personal goals, even against other Christians (e.g. Hussite Wars).

Siege Warfare

The surrounding of a city to blockade the importing of supplies. This was alien to the Franks at first, who had not begun to implement defensive fortifications (e.g. stone castles). To their chagrin, the Franks had to rely on the Byzantine siege engineers at first. Eventually, the Franks developed an appreciation for fortifications and began building stone castles of their own (e.g. Krak de Chevaliers). The Franks' first siege experience = Siege of Nicaea --> lob heads of slain Saracens over the walls of Nicaea as a form of psychological warfare/strong flex on the Turks. The Franks also experimented with sapping walls at Nicaea, but timed it wrong in their inexperience. Siege warfare was brutal and drained the limited supplies of the crusaders, forcing them to eat their animals and leather supplies, resort to cannibalism (Siege of Ma'arra), endure raiding sorties as they traveled further and further away to get water, etc. The Franks often bungled sieges (e.g. quitting after 4 days besieging Damascus) however they did successfully use siege equipment at places like Ma'arra and Jerusalem on the 1st Crusade.

Jerusalem

The ultimate goal of the crusades, and a holy city for each of the Abrahamic faiths. Traditionally, Jerusalem was a multi-religious city and houses sacred sites for all the faiths (e.g. Al-Aqsa Mosque, Church of Holy Sepulcher, Wailing Wall). Jerusalem was believed to be the literal center of the faith world and was subsequently portrayed in the exact center of circular maps called "O-T maps". The city of Jerusalem itself was portrayed as a perfect circle to emphasize its perfection.Changed hands frequently throughout the crusades: Fatimids --> Franks (Kingdom of Jerusalem, 3rd crusader state) --> Muslims (Saladin, pre-3rd Crusade). Ultimately, the Franks would fail to retake Jerusalem in a lasting manner.

Treatment of Prisoners

Treatment of prisoners was grim, just like the treatment of civilians. Prisoners of the Franks were consistently raped, disemboweled, cut open and searched for valuables, deceived and humiliated. The Franks made a practice of beheading a number of conquered Saracens and forcing their remaining compatriots to carry the heads around on pikes. Indeed, on crusade source brags about the morality of Franks who only gored female prisoners with their spears, but did not violate them sexually. Frankish leaders would often hold mass executions of Islamic prisoners (e.g. the slaughter in the Al-Aqsa Mosque, Richard the Lionheart's beheading of prisoners after the Siege of Acre, etc.) Conversely, the Muslims (especially under Saladin and al-Kamil) preferred to take prisoners alive for the most part. When the surrender of Jerusalem was negotiated, the Frankish female prisoners were gleefully deflowered by Saladin's mean. However, Saladin himself provided a model for merciful treatment: He allowed prisoners to leave (e.g Hugh of France), treated noble prisoners well (e.g. Guy of Lusignan) and only executed those whom he felt he had a military necessity to (e.g. Templars and Hospitallers). After the Frankish defeat at Damietta, al-Kamil provided food and water for the trapped Franks.

Zengi

Turkish emir of Mosul who finally gave the authoritative call to wage Jihad against the Franks, and subsequently mobilized the Muslims in a united effort. He took Aleppo and Edessa and inspired Damascus to form a preemptive alliance with the Franks against his expansion. He fought with King Fulk of Jerusalem, John Comnenus of Constantinople, and Raymond of Antioch in the period prior to the 2nd Crusade. Zengi was assassinated by one of his slaves. He was succeeded in Aleppo by his son, Nur ed-Din.

William the Pig & Hugh the Iron

Two men working in collusion with Saracen slavers who offered the French contingent of the Children's Crusade rides on their boats. This was a mistake, as they captured the children and sold them into slavery, and most kids drowned in a storm at sea that claimed 5/7 ships.

Adhemar of Le Puy

Urban II's papal legate on the 1st Crusade, who traveled with Raymond of Toulouse's troops (the largest contingent of the second wave). Adhemar was reportedly the first person to sign up for the crusade after Urban II's Clermont speech, and was the only real binding force between the wildly disunited, squabbling crusaders. Adhemar's greatest contribution came as a beacon of morale, encouraging others with sermons and strategies to "get God back on their side" in times of struggle (e.g. fasting, barefoot march around walls of city, etc.) Adhemar plays a minor combat role in the crusades (with the exception of wielding the Holy Lance on the suicide charge against Kerbogha's forces outside of Antioch) and dies after the capture of Antioch from a typhoid outbreak. He becomes much more "active" after his death -- people begin reporting visions of his ghost telling them who should lead the crusades, who should rule certain cities, telling Peter Desiderius to lead the penitential walk around the walls of Jerusalem during the siege, etc.

Horses

Vital for the crusaders for three reasons: 1. Beasts of burden: Franks had to carry EVERY single item that they would need with them; a strong horse could allow a pilgrim to carry far more equipment/food/money - when horses ran out, Franks used dogs and goats as pack animals, but the animals were ill-suited to the job 2. Shock combat: mounted shock combat was the Franks' bread and butter and their most effective method of combatting the Saracens. Oxen and mules were substituted unsuccessfully when horses were scarce. 3. Sustenance: in many grmi sieges (e.g. Antioch, Jerusalem, etc.) the Franks were forcedc to drink the blood of their animals (or squeeze moisture from their dung) and eventually they would have to eat their mounts. Horses were a blessing and a curse -- they were another mouth to feed and had to be cared for. VAST numbers of horses plummeted to their deaths as the crusaders tried to cross the Anti-Taurus mountains in Anatolia.

Shock Combat

Warfare with heavily-armored riders wielding lances and crashing into enemies. Came to popularity just before the First Crusade (possibly as early as 8th C, but we aren't sure). Song of ROland provides the first definitive proof of the existence of shock combat. This was the most effective style of fighting for the crusaders against the more mobile Saracens. REQUIRES: 1. stirrups 2. high-backed saddles 3. "couched" lances The best way to stop a mounted knight was to kill the horse, which was still unarmored for the majority of the crusades. When horses began to run low during various crusades, Franks would try riding on oxen, donkeys and large dogs into battle to sub-optimal results. *Possibly portrayed in the Bayeux Tapestry (1066, William the Conqueror @ Battle of Hastings) but we don't know 4sure

Food & Water

With crusade leaders trying to corral unprecedented numbers of followers, managing food supplies was the greatest challenge that faced the Franks. Pilgrims needed to carry everything for the journey with them, meaning that all foodstuffs needed to be nonperishable and portable. This led to 1. malnutrition and 2. rampant starvation. The crusaders were initially allowed to purchase rations from the Byzantines, but these privileges were revoked as the distrust between the factions deepened and Frankish raids on Greek Christians increased. The Franks were forced to turn to pillaging to procure supplies which led to animosity with locals. Marketplaces would jack their prices sky-high when a hundred thousand crusaders rode through town, bankrupting the poorer Franks and forcing them to rely on charity of richer crusaders. During sieges, food and water played a critical role: Mounts had to be bled or eaten during prolonged attrition, cannibalism was once resorted to, the lack of water brought the Siege of Damascus to an end after only 4 days, etc.

Francis of Assisi

Young, scrappy Italian "bon vivant" -- lots of carousing, lots of partying. Francis aspired to join a higher class of knights and was an ambitious social climber. When a local war breaks out, Francis joins eagerly and is taken prisoner. He discovers a group of lepers and has a pivotal realization that we are all human, united under God. After meeting the lepers, Francis accepts a life of voluntary poverty and wanders the country, preaching. During the 5th Crusade, Francis heads to Damietta, intending to convert Muslims to Christianity. When al-Kamil approaches the Franks to make peace, Cardinal Pelagius sends Francis -- al-Kamil and Francis really hit it off and Francis preaches to the Muslims. He doesn't get any converts, and his proposed peace treaty is rejected by Cardinal Pelagius, but he and al-Kamil come to respect each other. Francis would found the mendicant order of Franciscan monks where they lived lives of poverty and eventually served as Inquisitors.

Relics

holy objects (e.g. saints' teeth/garments; blood of holy figures; hair of Virgin Mary; slivers of the True Cross; Louis IX's crown of thorns; etc.) that were immensely prized artifacts amongst the crusaders and were capable of inspiring enormous swings in morale and momentum (e.g. finding the Holy Lance inspired the Franks to charge Kerbogha's troops outside of the citadel at Antioch; losing the True Cross to Saladin severely damaged Frankish morale). As exemplified in Song of Roland, these relics started being forged into the hilts of weapons to grant holy favor to the wielder. Relics were stored in reliquaries and shown off in processions, or interred beneath the altars of influential chapels. The legitimacy of relics was often controversial, as shown by the Bohemund vs. Raymond dispute over Peter Bartholomew's finding of the alleged Holy Lance.

Ships

ships were not utilized by rank-and-file crusaders until the 3rd Crusade. Until that point, traveling over land on the Old North Road or the Via Egnatia were the common practices. Key uses of ships on the Crusades: 1. Franks rely on the Byzantine emperor to ferry them across the Bosphorus to continue on their way to Jerusalem - Alexius I Comnenus relies on ferries to put the crusaders on the other side of the Bosphorus and minimize the chances of an attack on Constantinople. 2. Alexius I Comnenus transports a Byzantine fleet onto the lake outside Nicaea to blockade supplies and force a Nicaean surrender. 3. 6 Christian chips dock @ Jaffa during Siege of Jerusalem, carrying material for the siege towers that will allow Godfrey of Lorraine to breach the city walls. 4. Hugh of France boasts of his importance to Alexius I Comnenus and is promptly shipwrecked. The Byzantine coastguard has to rescue him. 5. The nobles within Louis VII's army on the 2nd Crusade abandon their army in order to sail rest of way to Antioch --> French army left behind is immediately slaughtered by Turks.

Holy Lance

the spear that pierced Christ's side while he was on the cross; a hugely valuable relic in the Christian faith. Discovered by Peter Bartholomew during the Siege of Antioch underneath the Cathedral of St. Peter, after its location being revealed to Peter via a vision of St. Andrew. Adhemar of Le Puy wielded the Holy Lance when the Franks charged Kerbogha, who had them trapped in the citadel at Antioch. It was believed to be real by Raymond of Toulouse's army ( who controlled it) and thought to be fake by Bohemund (who envied them). Peter Bartholomew eventually fell into disrepute, died horribly after an Ordeal by Fire to prove his honesty, and the Lance was discounted.