HIST PSY CH.'s 1-3
Girolamo Cardano
Kept detailed autobiography: meticulous details about his activities and psychological experiences including thought process, doubts, and anxieties. He was literate, people were thinking about how people were thinking at this time. Therapeutic techniques: self-inflicted physical pain to reduce more serious psychological disturbances. Estheticism: Catholics believe you can focus on pain more than psychological thoughts. Use physical to counteract psychological . Small pain or irritation would overtake psychological anguish caused by a more serious disturbance. People wonder more about biology and psychology.
Philosophical Orientations
Empiricism: experience is the path to truth. Rationalism: reason is the path to truth.
What Came Before the Dark Ages?
Author: Jacob Burckhardt - Believed that the culture and society of the times declined or regressed into something more survival based.
The First Natural Philosophers (Part 2)
2 Essential Tensions of Western thought: Being (Parmenides) vs. Becoming (Heraclitus) Being (Parmenides): "it"- an unchanging substance of the universe, true no matter what, appearance can change but reality does not. Becoming (Heraclitus): change, soul = ever-living fire, different states of consciousness
Realism
A 19th century artistic movement in which writers and painters sought to show life as it is rather than life as it should be. Introspection is not possible. Direct perception of objects as they are: cannot reflect upon your sensations. No private world of consciousness for introspective observation. observation is inspection of physical objects (if you see a red cherry that is what it is).
Aristotle: Quest For Nature
A Greek Philosopher, taught Alexander the Great, started a famous school, studied with Plato. The Four Fashions of Explanation: 1. Form (impossible to understand) vs. Matter (able to understand) Took away Plato's idea of a form. Form has more than a metaphysical existence. Formal (why's of things): 2. Essential Cause: what a thing is and what it is made of. 3. efficient cause: how a thing works or is made. 4. final cause: the purpose of the thing or event.
Scientific Revolution
A major change in European thought, starting in the mid-1500s, in which the study of the natural world began to be characterized by careful observation and the questioning of accepted beliefs. Revolution of the Heavenly Orbs (Copernicus, 1543): placed the sun at the center of the universe and argued that the Earth moved across the heavens as one of the planets. For those educated, the mysteriousness of nature started to become more understandable and therefore predictable. Outcomes: Earth no longer the center Universe as a machine (wasn't god that moved the heavens but something outside of god). Use of Mathematical regularities (VS natural philosophy): essentialism (Aristotle) was proven wrong. Use of science to improve lives through experimentation not just prayer and devotion.
Confucianism
A philosophy that adheres to the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius. It shows the way to ensure a stable government and an orderly society in the present world and stresses a moral code of conduct. Moral teachings were similar to Socrates, taught through question). Ren (lifelong determination of a human being to become a good person, commitment to personal improvement). Ideal Person (balanced, do right thing despite potential negative consequences). Moral Goodness (love your neighbors, respect authority, avoid chaos, become educated person) Menius (born good or evil?, children are born good and unselfish and society corrupts them). Hsun Tzu ("?, humans are corrupt to begin with and society is required to teach them to be good). Holism (Zheng He Lu): Interconnection among all things Yin and Yang (good and evil, yin is dark, yang is bright and masculine, they are imbalanced with each other, to tame them you need to use reason.)
Reformation
A religious movement of the 16th century that began as an attempt to reform the Roman Catholic Church and resulted in the creation of Protestant churches. Religion as a matter of Individual Conscience. Martin Luther: People became disgusted with the catholic clergy practices. Priests governed people more than the government sometimes, would kill people. Challenged Catholic Church Hierarchy and means by which person could get to heaven. Luther encouraged reading the Bible, often people's first read, could read more than just the bible if learned to read it, could then make decisions for yourself if you could read and write. Question authority. I am my own agent and decision maker. External locus of control. Each individual could have own relationship with god. Opened schools for boys AND GIRLS instead of just for the wealthy. Controversial for girls to be able to read. Result: Promoted individualism and individual freedom, deemphasized ritual and emphasized individual freedom. Emphasis on the State of the Soul. Before was believed that only rich could go to heaven.
Descartes (Part 1)
Background: philosopher Mersenne - colleague of Descartes. Opposed some ideas of Renaissance Naturalism: focused on mechanics. taught that universe was like a clock, every part has its place and role in order to function. Same concept of mind and body. This opposed Newton's ideas, but they were able to reconcile them.
Buddhist Tradition
A way of life, not so much religion. Founder: Siddhartha Gautama. Supreme and enlightened buddha. Four Noble Truths: (1) Dukkha (suffering is inevitable, don't have to suffer permanently, feed emotions with our minds, anxiety/stress is due to holding onto things that change and you can't predict them, lack of satisfaction because expectations are not met) (2) To avoid, know TRUTH (behind expectation and suffering is step to avoiding it) (3) To know Truth, recognize escape (from cravings and ignorance, learning is truth of Buddhism) (4) Act on Reducing suffering By becoming a moral person (look at things carefully/critically, speaking truthfully, attempt self-improvement, avoid being influenced by cravings, practice concentration/meditation) People adopt the middle-way (practice moderation and non-violence) On The Self (separate bodily and mental states. Mental process on feeling also process the body and will die with the body, mental processes (soul) can be born in a new body, our consciousness is an illusion). Nirvana (when you live a good life you are in a state of nirvana, the more good you do the closer you get to spiritual perfect, when you are attached to events you move away from nirvana).
Renaissance
Age of "Rebirth" Reappearance of Humanism: placing importance on human beings and how their lives are lived, curious about mind and behavior. Re-focus on Classical Past: used Aristotle, Plato to expand. Study of Nature: Observation & Experimentation. Dissections of human beings was no longer prohibited. Emergence of Political Ideas (Philosophy). Machiavelli: talked about ways to control people, need to understand their motives and drives and what to manipulate. To a certain degree it is experimentation.
The First Protopsychologists (Part 2)
Alcmaeon: perception and eyes. how it is we see the world. The appearance of the world is different depending on where you start from. Identified optic nerve to brain. Determined sensation and thought occur in the brain. Meant the natural world is discoverable Empedocles: Father of empiricism (theory that all knowledge is derived from sense-experience). Soul = fire, water, and air. soul must be a living entity, proposed physical basis of mental processes. The senses bring in and tell us about the world. effluence: objects emit these (Edicola), seen through sensory ducts (eyes) that the brain interprets Believed our sensors were in our heart. The first psychological theory: perception.
Popper
All scientific hypotheses must be falsifiable. its assertion contradicts data that is possible otherwise. difference between real and false theories. if can't falsify theory, how do you know the alternative hypothesis is supported?
Socrates
An Athenian philosopher who thought that human beings could lead honest lives and that honor was far more important than wealth, fame, or other superficial attributes. Aporia: enlightened ignorance - the more you say you don't know what something is. he wanted to uncover the true nature. Socrates as Midwife (assists in development): the elenchus - method of dialogue, everyone possess a moral truth even if you are unaware of it. Theory vs. Intuition Greeks thought anything virtuous (high moral standards) would give you pleasure. People act wrongly when they are ignorant. Human nature makes a person virtuous. Understanding why you do or don't do something is important. His philosophical Quest: to subject taken-fro-granted ideas to conscious critical observation. (many of these ideas are value based).
Early Christian Tradition
Augustine of Hippo (used religion as way to provide population with sense of optimism, combined stoicism (divine wisdom and human submission) and Neoplatonism (god is there along with Christian faith, moved idea of perfection into religion - god is perfect, denounced the need to look into nature, if god is perfect there is no need to understand nature). The two wills: Caritas (good intentions, virtue). Cupidatas (excessive desire, violence, anger). ×Yin and yang kind of relationship. On Sexuality (cupidatas, leave sex for procreation, promotion of chastity, impure to have sexual thoughts, effected people's development of guilt and shame). On knowing God: Guilt (attributed to cupidatas, we can ask for reparations to alleviate guilt, guilt is related to moral action, shame leads to less moral and prosocial behavior). Psychological disorders came about because of your impure thoughts. By turning inward and inspecting your soul you could come to know god and let him guide your life.
Descartes as a Scientific Psychologist
As Scientific Psychologist: The Path through physiology: L'Homme (the human). The "Beast Machine": humans. Concept of the Reflex arch that worked through spinal column up to your brain. Believed he could explain species by the workings of their insides. Discarded that the heart was spontaneously working, it was part of a machine.
Recovery from Dark Ages
Beginnings of Economic Recovery. Autonomy of the people away from the church. Economic Developments (capitalism, trade). Technological Advances (built clocks, ships, machine like thinking to understand natural world as a machine, we can also discover how the natural world works). The "Black Plague" (Bubonic Plague) Killed nearly 1/3 of the population. Rediscovery of Aristotle & Philosophy. Creation of Universities. Artistic/Cultural works expressing individualism and reflect an awareness/observation of human nature.
Baruch Spinoza
Believed that God had no existence apart from the world, that everything was itself an aspect of God. Idea that God is Nature & Nature is entirely deterministic (all events are determined by causes). Determinism - Free will is an illusion but everything we do is determined by something else. Wisdom & Morality = rational self-control. Tendency to follow impulses and become slaves to our wishes. Trapped by the continual search for gratification. Thus, need to learn more about causes of our own actions to avoid endless search and end the pain that we cause.
Issac Newton
British scientist who defined the laws of motion, discovered gravity, experimented with optics, invented differential calculus and wrote "Principia". made others look for mathematical regularities in nature.
Cartesian Theater: Physiological Version
Cartesian Theater: a place where all aspects of experience come together to provide a unified phenomenal world The penial gland is reflecting on image perceived from the world.
Origins from India
Civilization and settlements on the Ganga and Yamuna plains. Ideas got traded. In the Yamuna Plains there was a focus on human nature and psychological experience. Emphasis on educated people to free themselves of these unpleasant ways of life.
Descartes (Part 4)
Consciousness = a collection of sensations projected on the mind. "Point-like" self Soul = mathematical point located in space, but did not occupy space. Purpose was to think and introspect (examine one's own thoughts and feelings). Language was used to do this.
Introspection in Impressionism: Monet's Haystacks
Consciousness is like a theater, an image we observe, we see it how we want to see it. e.g.; looking at clouds and imposing an interpretation of what they look like. What you see is not necessarily reality. Birth of psychology of consciousness (collection of sensations we project on our mind/perceptions). Soul is a mechanical point but is not occupying any space. Freud saw this as the ego (executor - made connection between external reality and internal self).
The Scientific Revolution
Copernicus' revolution of the heavenly orbs: placed the sun at the center of the universe and argued that the Earth moved across the heavens as one of the planets. Aristotle's universe was inline with Christianity. Blow to human ego that Aristotle and Christianity was incorrect. Copernicus used math to prove this . Things moved as if they had purpose but moved in relation to other parts. People began thinking of humans as biological machines with souls. What is the soul? Is it the purpose of the machine? Are we simply reacting? What distinguishes us from animals? Because we have free-will we have souls, but do we really have free-will?
Descartes Legacy
Created the concept of consciousness, and thus the idea that there could be a science of consciousness, but at the same time made such a science impossible. (how do we agree upon an idea).
Demarcation Criteria
Criteria for determining whether a theory is scientific or unscientific. if theory is good, should be able to conduct research to falsify theory.
Hellenistic and Roman Worlds (Part 3)
Cynicism: The "Dog (kunos) philosophy", living like a dog. Should reject all conventions of life, should live as natural as possible. Do whatever you please when you please and you will be happy. Falling to societies standards is what makes you unhappy. Phusis (nature) over nomos (law).
Influences of Literature
Dante Alighieri (1265-1321): The Divine Comedy (imaginary trip through hell, used stereotyped behavior who would be at these different levels of hell, typical personality traits, study human thought). Geoffrey Chaucer (1343-1400): Canterbury Tales (wrote about individual realistic characters in England, everyday folks, was controversial, represented highly stereotyped members of all levels of society). William Shakespeare (1564-1616): Othello: (wrote about misinformation and how it affects your behavior). Miguel Cervantes (1547-1616): Don Quixote (schizophrenia personality, reality and madness). Noticing everyday people, insight to human nature and emotions, thinking about what human beings are.
Descartes (Part 5)
Difficulties for Cartesian Dualism (the world as being made of two distinct substances: the extended substance which composes the body and the thinking substance which makes up the mind): The Problem of Interaction: Princess Elisabeth's Awkward Question. The Problem of Other Minds: Is anyone else out (in) there? Cartesian Nativism: Non-reality-based ideas: where do they come from if it's not based on reality?
Comte
Father of sociology, positivism. Positivism: a philosophical system that holds that every rationally justifiable assertion can be scientifically verified or is capable of logical or mathematical proof, and that therefore rejects metaphysics and theism.
Hellenistic and Roman Worlds
Hellenistic: period of death of alexander the great and greek life flourished. roads were brought by romans which allowed for exchange of goods and ideas in a quick way. alexander insisted people have a common language in order to communicate ideas and goods. he pushed for a common culture in order for people to not disagree upon things. several large cities emerged that created diversity and economic stability, different goods were being produced. when he died, lands fell into chaos because they were tied to him (hellenistic period) empires were divided into different regions and there was constant war among these different kingdoms. marriage was thought of as a contract when he was alive and shifted to love and life-long faith. social mistrust was at an all time high, people turned inward to feel happy and content.
Descartes as a Scientific Psychologist (Part 2)
Human Soul vs. Animal Body Problem: soul doesn't exist if reduced to physiological processes. Thought made humans different from animals, animals lack rational thought even though they are sensitive to environment. Drew line between simple and self-awareness (brushing teeth while thinking about the day) awareness. Thinking makes human behavior flexible. Animals have preset reflexes and habits of response, but humans can choose what they do. One of the first to think about language, language is critical to self-awareness, animals can not think about future/past b/c they lack language. Language is innate of the mind, spoken language is outward translations of this innate human piece of mind. Because he said these things were mechanical, he was scared of his work being condemned so he abandoned it.
Contributions of Early Arab and Muslim Civilizations
Ibn Sina (philosopher and doctor, took to heart naturalistic philosophy of Aristotle, extended his ideas to recognize the vegetative, sensitive, rational soul). The Book of Healing. The Canon of Medicine. Concepts of the Mind: Theories of Mind, Brain, and Nervous system: Nerve Function: The Animal Spirits Localization of Brain Function: Integration of Faculty Psychology and Galenic Medicine Social Behavior: Personality and Behavior? Virtuous Behavior: Exercising Moderation
Descartes Phase 1: Descartes the Scientist
La Monde (The World): L'Homme (The Human): interested in thought processes, how humans behaved and came to be, suggest children were born into world innocent and the world corrupts them. Went from psychology to physiology. Would go and watch butchers and take the parts they would throw away to dissect. Looked for physical basis of human thought.
Taoism
Lao-Tse: Combines religion and philosophy. Development of Virtue (be kind, modest). Importance of Harmony with Nature (living life simply).
Impact of Scholars and Their Theories
Many of these ideas are the base of the field of psychology. Materialism: everything can be reduced to an atom or element, physical basis. Dualism: the mind and body are separate, independent. Idealism: the practice of forming ideals, especially unrealistically. Humanism: Human element is separated from the divine (god), you are independent from religious institutions. Believed in supremacy of individual and individual goals to benefit the common good. Belief in Free Will Scientific Rationalists: look for mathematical formulas to predict human behavior. Humans, as part of the greater universe, were orderly and predictable (mathematics and physics used to understand nature of human processes). Moral behavior = guided by mechanics (operant conditioning, pursue pleasure as it is rewarded). Note: Niccolo Machiavelli: emphasized importance of self-interest of human action, self-interest is normal and natural (motive to get what you desire), in order to achieve goals have to notice yours and other's weaknesses and negative emotions, exploit other's weaknesses, means to an end. His writings were aimed at anger at political manipulation. Humans are rarely motivated by kindness, motivated by wealth and power.
G.W. Leibniz
Levels of Consciousness: Mind & Body: Psychophysical Parallelism Monads (geometrical point entities in which the living possess some degree of consciousness, serve some greater purpose). Therefore we can measure it. The Threshold Concept: Petite Perception (A sensation (sight, sound, etc) that is perceived but not registered because it is too insignificant, such as the sound of each raindrop hitting a roof) and Perception (look at different types of sensation experiences, little perception that is not conscious, when you attend to stimulus is when you perceive it). Unconscious Mental States: things that we are not aware of that may affect our behavior, background noise.
Followers of Thales - Material Monism
Material monism: all things have a similar origin. Anaximenes (Greek philosopher): air, was the soul, atoms that make up the elemental form. Thales (Greek philosopher): water - blood Anaximander (Greek scientist): Apeiron (boundless) - developed from moisture/fish (humans)
Hindu Tradition: Life Cycle
Mortality and immortality: person is made up of both, mortal = body, immortal = your mind, speech, breath, sight, etc. Actions and consequences: immediate and delayed consequences, dharma = everything happens for reason. If you choose to ignore dharma there will be karma. Caste System: no longer officially in place, the higher you go into hierarchy the closer you are to god like perfection. If you do good in your caste you may be reborn into a higher hierarchy. The higher the caste the purer the soul/more enlightened Women viewed as inferior to men, so they do not advance at the same rate.
Religion Based on Folk Knowledge
Mysticism: belief characterized by self-delusion or dreamy confusion of thought, especially when based on the assumption of occult qualities or mysterious agencies. People needed an understanding of what affected others. Existence of realities beyond reflection or scientific explanations. Accessible by subject of experience. Aspect of popular religion but not scholarly theology. Allowed people to believe there was a connection between God and self (personal) w/o priest as mediator St. Francis of Assisi: Communing with God through Nature, looking for god in nature, explaining things that happen in nature, church originally didn't like him, but his ideas were popular and eventually took on his ideas. The Jesuits: the scholars (37 years to become priest), publish book describing 307 exercises on how to serve god. Islamic Scholars (e.g. Mull Sadara): separate natural science and metaphysics, pulled away from traditional view and focused on self-denial, control of will and emotions.
Descartes (Part 3)
New type of Dualism: Substantial Dualism (two sorts of substances exist: the mental and the physical). Objective World (mechanical world): Res extensa (body-machine, his early work). Made of corpuscles or atoms, possess a property of space and location. Subjective World: Res cogitans (soul, the "thinking thing") Only known through introspection (observation of one's own emotional processes). Focused on the self and Consciousness and Mind. Divided self from conscious experience. The Cartesian Theater: we can reflect on our experiences as a collection of sensations. Important because: Provides a physiological explanation. Image we see is a composite of sensations
Scientific Discoveries
Nicolas Copernicus theorized the earth rotated around the sun. Johannes Kepler established celestial orbits were not circular but elliptical. William Harvey collected evidence about blood circulating in the body and formulated main principle of embryology. Galileo Galilei introduced theory of inertia (inactivity). William Gilbert published theory of magnetism. Robert Hooke reported that life's smallest living units were little boxes known as cells later on. Newton articulated laws of emotion.
Hindu Tradition (Part 2)
On the Mind and Behavior: Most of what we know is distorted by our perceptions, desires, and emotions. Cognitive Processes: help move us beyond our perceptions, emotions, desires. Help us understand our emotions, perceptions, desires. Hearing about Reflecting on Meditating Reality (substantially different than perceptions) vs Perception (leads us to insecurity). State of Mind & Transcendence (brings us to place of security and peace of self and realities). Separate mind and thoughts from reality. Often think our thoughts are true, but these are not reality. Our thoughts affect our emotions. Get rid of impurities that lead to pain and discomfort. Morality: focus on human nature, focus on self-discipline. Illnesses: originate with imbalance in body but psychological complaints also play a role. Mind has power to heal these.
Personality Humors
Personality: choleric - person is bad tempered, irritable Associated humor: yellow bile. Personality: Melancholic - person is gloomy, pessimistic. Associated humor: black bile. Personality: Phlegmatic - person is sluggish, non-excitable. Associated humor: phlegm. Personality: Sanguine - person is cheerful and passionate. Associated humor: blood. In order to fix: may need to counteract the bile. Folk knowledge was popular despite rational thought during this time.
What stays and what goes?
Peer Review Process: suppose to lead to objectivity, make sure good science is done, paper gets sent out to 2-4 peers for review (look at writing, methodology, statistics are reflective of what they are studying), is this an unbiased process? Can be rejected b/c of jealousy, disputes. Can be accepted b/c of friendships, favoritism, person is famous. Impact of Controversy: brings research to public attention, can be about the people who have done the research, controversy built into the findings of research, e.g.; when is it when we help and when is it when we don't study. Social Status, Prestige, & Power: high social status people are more likely to be published, who is doing the funding plays a big part, the research supported with money is the one that gets done, the government is the main funding in today's research, controversial research gets published. Selective Attention: overcoming gender and ethnic bias, white men tend to dominate field of psychology up until the 80's, restrictions put on women as students in 80's, women could not do family and school, still see an ethnic bias, very few POC get PHd, bias toward American PSY - we have more training here, difficult for non-Americans to get published here b/c language barrier. Ethnocentricism: a lot of psychological knowledge is particular to a specific culture and society
"Way of Idea" Creates Introspection of World of Mind
Perceptual Processes: World of Consciousness contains objects, ideas, with their own properties, which can be observed with introspection. Self is a point that knows only the idea, not the object. You impose the red color on the cherries, could look differently to another person. Focused on this invented consciousness.
G.W. Leibniz (Part 2)
Psychophysical Parallelism: Attention and Apperception Monads Sensation, Perception, & Attention: Petite Perception (non-conscious). Perception: Apperception (the mental process by which a person makes sense of an idea by assimilating it to the body of ideas he or she already possesses). Attention: Passive Active
Descartes on the Soul
Reconciliation: Function of soul was to think. Differences: Thought makes human experience different from animals Self-Awareness (complex thinking) vs. Simple Awareness (Habit). Prompts more flexibility in behavior. Allows for language. Abandoning L'Homme.
Hume
Scottish philosopher whose skeptical philosophy restricted human knowledge to that which can be perceived by the senses. he did not believe there is sufficient evidence to justify the confident affirmation that God exists.
Descartes (Part 2)
Searching for Foundational Philosophy. The First Truth: Cogito ergo sum (I think therefore I am). Philosophical Consequences of the Cogito: What's most certain is one's private world of consciousness. Once you are aware of your thinking you are able to discover truths. New type of Dualism - The soul is not born of the body, different entities. Soul became that thinking thing. Soul is spiritual substance.
Descartes Phase 2: Philosophical Psychologist
Searching for Foundational Philosophy. Three Key Works: 1. Rules of the Direction of the Mind (published after his death in 1684). 2. Discourse on the Method of Rightly Conducting one's Reason and Seeking Truth in Science (1637). 3. Meditations on First Philosophy (1641 - perhaps most influential). Began looking at his own mind. 1st psychological investigations reflected on their own mind.
Human nature Hinduism
Six Schools of Hinduism: 1. Yoga: mindfulness 2. Sankhva: dealing with consciousness 3. Vendanata: self inquiry. 4. Vaisheshika: recognize elements of the universe. 5. Nyaya: reasoning. 6. Mimasa: ritual on how to act. self-awareness and discovery is a large theme in hinduism.
Hellenistic and Roman Worlds (Part 4)
Skepticism: Living with aporia (enlightened ignorance, question everything). Three Schools of Thought: 1. Dogmatists: claim to know what the truth was. 2. Academics: can't know the truth but should aim to try to find out what it is. 3. Skeptics: always searching for the truth. There's no good there's no bad there just is, judging brings in challenges, anger, discomfort.
Theologian-Philosophers
St. Thomas Aquinas: Worked to reconcile faith in God's Word with Aristotelian philosophy (reasoning). Clear distinctions between faith and reason (can only use reason to know the world, by separating religion from natural world you could exist with both). Concern to distinguish human beings from animals. Two kinds of "Estimation" (something you are compelled to do vs. something that is under control, e.g.; eat, sleep, drink). Estimation Proper (defines animals, can't decide when they're going to do things) Cogitava (defines humans, rational control, free will, can delay when you will eat, sleep, drink). Two kinds of Motivation: 1. Sensitive Appetite: your senses (what are you going to do with senses? Pursue pleasure and avoid pain). 2. Rational Appetite: seeking higher moral good with reason. Tried to allow understanding of natural world without it being evil, happened because of Arab and Muslim saving ancient documents from being burned.
Hellenistic and Roman Worlds (Part 5)
Stoicism (lack of protest): Fate and Reason (logos), work through philosophy, science, and logic. Foundation of philosophical logic ideas: Therapy of the soul: working away from painful experiences of life: Absolute Determinism: when you are going to die, get married, everything is already pre-determined. Then there is no reason to feel emotion around events. Focus on emotional control. Emotional Control = virtue, if we feel sad it's our own fault, we feel this way. Need to be aware you are having emotion to control them. Syneidesis = personal Consciousness, moving from external to awareness of your own internal, think about human nature in different way started here, understand how an emotion is tied to an event in your life.
Medieval Psychology
The High Middle Ages: Intellectual Renaissance. Recovery of Aristotle and other Greek writers. Appearance of Universities (Scholastic Centers) 12th - 13th centuries. Setting for theologian-philosophers
Replacement of Classical World
The Medieval Replacement: Church, feudalism (dominant social system in medieval Europe) & serfdom (feudal labor). The "Dark Ages". Barter Economy, didn't have money. Lost Greek and Roman Literature. Idea of the Individual (emerged out of this age, bubonic plague targeted not only slaves but everyone, and at this time conflict occurred with catholic church and secularism - separation of state and church, MLK began challenging catholic church)
Periods of History in Western Thought
The Renaissance: period of European cultural, artistic, political and economic "rebirth" following the Middle Ages. The Reformation: a movement within Western Christianity in the 16th-century Europe that posed a religious and political challenge to the Roman Catholic Church and Pope authority in particular. The Scientific Revolution: a series of events that marked the emergence of modern science during the early modern period, when developments in mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology (including human anatomy) and chemistry transformed the views of society about nature.
The Classical Period
The Social Context: empire and war Invasion of Persians but never defeated the Greeks. Divided Greece, set Athens apart from Sparta. Athens thrived b/c they were able to trade since they were on the edge of water. Never really came together Athens became cultural center of the region.
Teaching the Athenian Polis
The Sophists: paid teachers/experts, rhetoric became important (art of persuasion), thought moved from physics to how life should be lived (what is the ought?). Humanism was emphasized Concern with human nature. "Man is the measure of all things". Relativistic Empiricism: able to develop world through senses. What people sense is relative to: level of the person (truth is relative to perceiver), level of the culture (sophists challenged the idea that one culture is right over the other, culture is correct relative to the people of that culture). Level of Metaphysics: there is no divine truth or god-given law, morality is for the culture to decide If everything is relative then you cannot learn the universals.
Ancient Greece: The Archaic Period
The social context: rise of polis (city state in Greece). warfare in bronze age: individual heroes warfare in archaic: the phalanx and polis (group performs better in battle to defeat, coordination) the phalanx (body of troops) and polis (city state): hoplite: heavily armed foot soldier of ancient Greece. democratized warfare: economics less expensive as a team, didn't need to be as good at fighting, eventually applied to government. impact on psychology: egalitarianism: all people are equal and deserve equal rights/opportunities. hominoia: order/unity colonization: settling/establishing control over indigenous people. Arete changed: living up to your full potential, contributing to govt. of one city polis & achieve greater wealth.
Aristotle Structure of the Human Soul
The special senses: seeing, hearing, touching, tasting, smelling. the interior senses: common sense, imagination, memory. Human mind: passive mind and active mind. our senses help us identify the world. common sense is putting all the information from the 5 special sense together to form a picture. your common sense is located in your heart. we use imagination to judge what an object is. we store new and old experience in memory so it comes back easier the next time. passive mind is the potential to think about something, all the information you encounter. active mind is acting on material in the present, actively working on it. semantic memory is in both passive and active mind and this is the meaning of the memory. episodic memory is in memory and it is the episodes you are recording of events.
Aristotle: Psychology
The study of the soul: differentiate between animate objects (souls, in their nature to have souls) e.g.; a body, soul gives body potential for having life and inanimate objects (no soul, e.g.; a rock). soul and body: application of the four causes (form, essential cause, efficient cause, final cause) levels of soul are defined by the function of it. did not believe soul was separate from the body but that they are one when the body is living. Nutritive (Plants): nutrition, growth, reproduction. Sensitive (animals): adds sensation, movement, can sense the world around them, have memory and imagination. Rational (humans): adds knowledge, can reason, power to think. Starts with perception and ends with knowledge of the universe. (this is a modern concept of psychology).
Hellenistic and Roman Worlds (Part 2)
Therapeutic Philosophies of Happiness: Cults began to emerge: e.g.; Christianity. Ataraxia (avoiding the negative) replaces eudaemonia (conductive to happiness). People began to question happiness and life. Downplay cult ideas and move towards a person religion. Epicureanism: life in the quiet garden, retreat from the world: distinguished between different types of needs: natural desires: natural but unnecessary desires. pursue simple life in order to promote survival. greatest good is prevalance (common, universality).
The First Natural Philosophers
Understanding the universe: the physicists naturalism and science: search for the Phusis (most basic element from which all things are made) Thales (greek philosopher): use of naturalistic explanations Mathematics and Dualism (division of 2 opposed ideas): pythagoras and his followers - the proof: hard facts, math. dualism: unlike atoms, must make a clear distinction between body and soul. Pythagorean theorem: formula which can provide the proof that will lead to a particular hypothesis. Conclusion that must be accepted.
Hindu Tradition
Vedas: ritual, oral teachings, metaphors, stories, right way of being. Dharma: ultimate laws of universe, governs people, how things work. Karma: rules of cause and effect, not immediate, comes back at later time. Gods: over 300,00 gods in Hindu that rule the earth, male and female, worship gods in different ways. Reincarnation: there's a cycle of birth and death, souls migrate from one body to another. Doing good you will be reincarnated into higher being.
Plato
Was a disciple of Socrates whose cornerstone of thought was his theory of Forms, in which there was another world of perfection (perfect knowledge). feared questioning because of people killing socrates for the same thing. Cognition: what is knowledge? Pursuit of justice was the focus for his students. knowledge vs. opinion what set us apart from other species is our ability to reason. knowledge is spatio-temporally universal - true if it exists in all spaces and all times. knowledge is justifiable. mathematics as a model: rationalism, to prove existence of knowledge. our senses can trick us and are relative to each person. used his knowledge of geometry using Pythagorean's Theorem. believed logic and reason were the key to truth.
Scientific Revolution (Part 2)
Why did the Revolution occur in Europe? Revolution came out of an illiterate world, few historical documents saved (catholic church burned), they didn't suggest god was creator of all. Spread of Religion in turn spread science, include rational argument and logic that speaker is different than the idea. Separation of Church and State: governments of country must be different from those of spiritual life, separating these allowed people to think about science. Universities as Neutral Spaces: recognize autonomous institutions and est. own curriculum without outside meddling. Tenure process: professors can choose to study what they wish without worrying about persecution. Contrasting authorities of the Book (Bible): many religions interpret it differently, it is being critiqued. Reception of Aristotelian Science: what was once considered the truth was being questioned by readers. Secondary Causation: parts can effect other parts; world is a machine. Public Knowledge & Books: ideas stay in books, don't die with the person.
Entrance into the Dark Ages
Why did the Roman Empire Fall? Disappearance of Literacy and Culture (divided). Classical Disdain for Work: Slaves made manual work unnecessary. Value of autonomy (wage slavery) there was no real autonomy. Reject Technology (Metis) because it was manual labor. No economic thinking; no technology, no economic growth. All about art. Dependence on Slavery.
Plato on Motivation
Why do we act as we do? Disagreed with Socrates that wrong deeds are ignorance rather they are lack of control. Classes of Republic/Parts of the Soul: The Guardians: rational soul, perfect keeps of the perfect form. The Auxiliaries: spirited soul, necessary for guardians to work, support perfection of guardians. Productive Class: desiring soul, most of us fall here, desire what rational souls say they should. rational soul is your most powerful tool. 2nd is your spirited soul, virtues of fame, fortune and power. 3rd is desiring soul. Need to overcome fame, power, and desires in order to think rationally. Good and bad conduct: person as chariot. bad behavior comes from inability of rational soul to control spirited and desirable soul.
Religion Based on Folk Knowledge (Part 2)
Witchcraft: Belief in the practices and arts of witches The Malleus Maleficarum: "The work of the devil", evil eye, manic episodes, exorcism. 80% accused were older women of low SES, icons for using herbs for cures. Why women? Women were weaker than men and could be easily persuaded by the devil. Only witches burned were in America not in Europe. Witches blamed for people getting sick and nasty storms that ruined crops. This idea of witches spread all over the world. As people began to understand mechanics of natural world, the less witches were identified, turned to scientific explanations rather than evil eyes, spells, etc. These people were demonized by catholic church because people believed they had supernatural powers. Human folk tradition, used herbs as natural healers, midwives, counselors for relationships, people would go to them instead of catholic priests which angered the church.
Gutenberg Printing Press
a.Used to spread ideas of the Reformation and the Renaissance b.First document printed was the Bible c.Led to the growth of literacy (people knowing how to read). could spread ideas easier and faster.
Aristotle Vs. Modern Science
believed method of science was to observe and be careful in doing it. would not do experimentation, thought manipulating an environment made it false or unnatural. causality: was natural behavior of the object you are observing. natural behavior: has essences (intrinsic nature), things fall because it's in their nature to fall.
Thomas Hobbes
believed that people are born selfish and need a strong central authority. The Laws of Social Life: Claimed that Spiritual substance is meaningless. Thinking can be done by a machine. Sensations were motions in the body. All knowledge is rooted in sensory perception (simply motions in the body). Advocate for Empiricism (all knowledge is derived from sense-experience). Thought = Language Is Society Natural? What would human nature be like without government? No! The Hobbesian Social Contract: Needs to be constructed around human nature. People are naturally hedonistic, selfish and we need government because we are mechanistic and hedonistic.
Hempel & Oppenheim
deductive-nomological approach explanations as logical arguments using deduction basis in laws of nature covering law model: explanans - particular scientific law used to explain. explanandum - event you're explaining. iron law of explanation: no circular arguments, definition of word cannot contain word in definition.
Goals of Science
describe, predict, control, explain.
Kant
ethics are founded on his view of rationality as the ultimate good and his belief that all people are fundamentally rational beings.
Psychology of the Bronze Age
required people to have a sense of human nature, motives, goals, and culture. Components of the Human Soul: Psuche (psyche): breath of life Noos (nous): clear perception Phrenes: rational planning Thumos: Emotion and action
Zeigeist
historical context made by large/important forces made outside human control (spirit), dominant set of ideas. Shift paradigms based on zeigeist.
Kuhn
paradigms: agreement among members of a community of doing things, agree on goal of scientific endeavors, agree on characteristics that are relevant, approach of understanding. a collective works like constructing a building, a paradigm is the blueprint for how we approach things. shift paradigms relative to zeigeist (historical context)
The First Protopsychologists
questions became focused on "what is life?" Materialism: all mental life can be explained through physical terms of the natural world. The Atomists: all objects are composed of small atoms. Democritus said the soul consists of atoms. Inner experiences are tied to the atoms in our body. Atoms of fire = bodily movement. Tri-centric theory of soul-body functioning: brain (thinking), heart (emotion), liver (needs & desires).
Anti-Realism
the denial of the existence or accessibility of an objective reality.
Ancient Greece: The Bronze and Dark Ages
virtue = the good life living honorably by the warrior's code and achieving immortality through battle. the afterlife: arete: greek act of living up to your full potential. tyche: destroys fate. (goddess of chance).
Plato's Theory of Forms
what is most real and most good is outside the physical realm. Forms as the objects of knowledge: particularly the form of a right angle. Cannot draw a perfect 90-degree angle. use math to get to perfect form. every act represents the perfect form of it. imagining the forms: The simile of the sun: 1. an object 2. the perceiver 3. the light of the sun (reason to help you know the truth) the illumination of the good, enlightenment through reasoning. The metaphor (figure of speech) of the line The allegory (story with hidden meaning) of the cave: when you come back to tell people about the new reality you saw, they do not always believe you bc they can't imagine it but doesn't make it any less real. the ladder of love: people are drawn to love (the good) in some fashion. True beauty = form, we can never truly be there. Physical love: achieve immorality in the flesh, procreate. (most basic and lowest level of pursuit). Wisdom and philosophy: love of rational and higher level thinking. (know the forms, achieve through soul not body). The Guardians: elite few who are perfect, rational thinkers, women could achieve this as well. Could escape allegory of cave, become ruling class.