HIST278 Final

Constitution of 1836

Changes: 1. Presidential terms extended to 8 years, 2. Right to high political office extended only to those with a high annual income, 3. States become department, 4. Central government dominant, 5. Restored clerical and military fueros, 6. Voters qualified by property and literacy qualificiations

Cortes de Cadiz

1810-1813 = The first national assembly to claim sovereignty in Spain. The product of the Cortes' deliberations reflected the liberals' dominance, and the Spanish Constitution of 1812 came to be the 'sacred code' of liberalism. The principal aim of the new constitution was the prevention of arbitrary and corrupt royal rule; it provided for a limited monarchy that governed through ministers subject to parliamentary control.

Mexican War of Independence

1810-1821 = armed conflict and culmination of political and social processes which ended the rule of Spain in 1821 in the territory of New Spain

Congress of Chilpancingo

1813 - result was to formally declare Mexico to be independent from Spain. Endorsed Mexico's Declaration of Independence, and drafted a Constitution.

Juan Alvarez

A liberal reformer, a republican and a federalist, he was the leader of a revolution in support of Benito's Plan de Ayutla in 1854, which led to the deposition of Santa Anna from power and the beginning of the political era in Mexico's history known as La Reforma.

Agrarian Code of 1942

Agrarian reform program during this period permitted the capitalist businessmen to put the cultivable lands on rent to the peasants. This process became popular as "Neolatifundismo", where the landlords gained ownerships of huge private farmsteads and the power to control them as well.

Justo Sierra

Cofounded the conservative newspaper La Libertad, author of Evolucion politica del pueblo mexicano. Secretary of education during part of the Porfiriato. First rector of the national university. Sierra argued forcefully that social and cultural forces, not biological ones, had shaped the Indian's inferior position. Asserted the Indian's educability. Still didn't have many schools in the rural areas where they might serve the Indian/mestizo population

Antonio Garcia Cubas

Combined older cartographic methods with new technologies to illustrate precise geographical coordinates; Drew the Carta general de la Republica Mexicana - the first map published of the Mexican Nation state in 1857

Benito Juarez

During his presidency he is most known fro resisting French occupation of Mexico, overthrowing the Second Mexican Empire, restored the Republic, using liberal measures to modernise the country, and presiding over the construction of 50 new schools and encouraging female attendance.

Constitution of 1824

Enacted in 1924 after the overthrow of Iturbide. Took name of the United Mexican States, was defined as a representative federal republic, Catholicism was the national religion.

Frida Kahlo

Frida Kahlo is one of the best-known artists of the 20th century; her life and work have been widely studied and analyzed for years. She was an enigmatic figure to say the least. Her technique, subject and personality make her art more than unique, incomparable to any other artist of her time, her troubled and hectic life give a twist to her story as a whole. Leading feminist and embraced indigineous culture

Constiutionalists

Huerta's authoritarian and brutal methods of ruling, however, soon united the Constitutionalists, who were now being led by Venustiano Carranza, with Zapata and Villa in overthrowing Victoriano Huerta. Carranza replaced Victoriano Huerta as president of Mexico in 1913 after the U.S. intervention at Veracruz forced Huerta to abdicate

Lucas Alaman

Lifelong devotion to conservative politics and nostalgia for monarchic rule for Mexico. Was the co-founder and life long member of the Mexican Conservative Party, and he consistently defended the centralists organization of Mexico. In 1830 he created the Banco Nacional de Avio, the first bank of Mexico, which provided the country with the financial infrastructure necessary for the burgeoning economy. Created the Natural History Museum in Mexico City and the foundation of Mexico's General National Archive.

Maria Izquierdo

María Izquierdo was a Mexican painter, known for her portraits of dancers, families, acrobats.

Miguel Hidalgo y Castillo

Mexican Catholic priest and leader of early rebel forces in Mexican War of Independence. Grito de Dolores speech. Against government not monarch.

Diego Rivera

Mexican artist employed by Obregon to put up murals to teach people. Mexican artist of the period after the Mexican Revolution; famous for murals painted on walls of public buildings; mixed romantic images of the Indian past with Christian symbols and Marxist ideology. Painted Agraian Murals to help the push for agrarian reform

David Siqueiros

Mexican muralist inspired by the Mexican Revolution. Mexican social realist painter, better known for his large murals in fresco. Along with Diego Rivera and José Clemente Orozco, he established Mexican Muralism.

Jose Clemente Orozco

Mexican muralist of the period after the Mexican Revolution; like Rivera's, his work featured romantic images of the Indian past with Christian symbols and Marxist ideology.

Jose Maria Velasco

Mexican painter who made Mexican geography a symbol of national identity through his painting

Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna

Mexican politician and general who was influential in early politics and government. Originally opposed the movement for Mexican Independence, supporting Iburbide, but then fought to support it.

Guadalupe Posada

Mexico's most famous printmaker.Mexican artist who created the most famous calavera - La Catrina in 1910, which was meant to satirize the life of the upper classes during the reign of Diaz. Most of his work was meant to make a religious of satricial point.

Partido Nacional Revolucionario (PNR)

Mexico's nationalistic government under President Lázaro Cárdenas promotes domestic industrialization through high import barriers.

Constitution of 1857

Modeled after constitution of 1824 in many ways, but represented much more of a liberal victory; First 34 articles of the document spelled out in detail equality before the law and freedom of speech, press, petition, assembly, the mails and education. Also abolished slavery and all titles of nobility. Guaranteed the rights to carry arms, have bail and of habeas corpus. The articles with the most debate were those having to do with religion - the church hierarchy was never satisfied; Everyone had to swear allegiance to the constitution or they would be considered traitors to the state, but if they did they were considered heretics in the eyes of the church; This divided Mexico into two groups and led to another civil war

Vicente Guerrero

One of the leading revolutionary generals of the Independence. At first collaborated with Iturbide but eventually split when Iburbide's policies supported the interests of Mexico's wealthy landowners and continued economic exploitation of the poor and working classes. Called for public schools, land title reforms, industry and trade development, and other programs of a liberal nature. As president, Guerrero championed the causes of the racially oppressed and economically oppressed. He ordered an immediate abolition of slavery and emancipation of slaves in 1829.

Gerardo Murillo

Painter and writer who was one of the pioneers of the Mexican movement for artistic nationalism. The paintings he created during that period generally imitated popular European trends such as Post-Impressionism. Unconventional director of the Art Academy of San Carlos, promoted break from Western tradition and embracing traditional-style arts and crafts. Returning to Mexico when the revolution broke, he founded the radical journalAcción Mundiale in 1916 and became its editor. During that period he became active in the muralist movement along with politically active figures such as José Clemente Orozco, Diego Rivera, and David Alfaro Siqueiros. He was appointed head of Mexico's Department of Archaeological Monuments in 1923 and director of the Department of Fine Arts in 1930.

Lazaro Cardenas

President of Mexico between 1934-1940. He is best known for the nationalization of the oil industry in 1938 and creation of Pemex, the government oil monopoly. His administration overhauled agrarian reform, initiated by the Mexican revolution, and created ejidos in the Mexican agricultural sector, which gave peasants access to land, but did not give individual titles to it. Created the Partido de la Revolucion Mexicana, with sectorial representation of workers via their union, peasants via their peasant leagues, and the Mexican army. FURTHERMORE President of Mexico (1934-1940); General from the Mexican Revolution; brought major changes to Mexican life by distributing millions of acres of land to the peasants, bringing representatives of workers and farmers into the inner circles of politics, and nationalizing the oil industry

Valentin Gomez Farias

President of Mexico in the 1830s and 40s. Federalist spokesmen who contributed to the creation of the Constitution of 1824. During administration he sought to restrict the power of the church and military by reducing the size of the military, abolishing military fueros, secularizing education, nationalizing church properties, and abolishing the role of the state in collecting the tithe for the clergy.

Plan of Iguala

Revolutionary proclamation in 1821 during final stage of the Mexican War of Independence. Stated that Mexico was to become a constitutional monarchy, official religion would be catholicism, and all inhabitants of Mexico would enjoy equal political and social rights. Main figures = Iturbide and Guerrero. Summarised and Religion, Independence and Unity. Disregarded the plan after the fall of Iturbide's empire and adopted the 1824 Constitution.

Jose Maria Morelos

Roman Catholic priest and revolutionary who assumed leadership of rebel forces after the execution of Costilla in 1811. Skilled military leader who relied on guerilla tactics.

Venustiano Carranza

Second revolutionary Mexican president, who took aid from the U. S. but strongly resisted American military intervention in his country.

Jose Ives Limantour

Secretary of treasury who brought order and reason to Porfirian finances; He was the epitome of the Porfirian statesman who would reinvent Mexican society; Advocate of positivism

Labor strike in Cananea

The Cananea Strike, also known as the Cananea Riot, or the Cananea Massacre, took place in the Mexican mining town of Cananea, Sonora, in June 1906. Although the workers were forced to return to their positions with no demand being met, the action was a key event in the general unrest that emerged during the final years of the regime of President Porfirio Díaz and that prefigured the Mexican Revolution of 1910. In the incident twenty-three people died, on both sides, twenty-two were injured, and more than fifty were arrested.

Partido de Accion Nacional (PAN)

The National Action Party (Spanish: Partido Acción Nacional, PAN), is one of the three main political parties in Mexico. The party's political platform is generally considered Centre-Right in the Mexican political spectrum.

Constitution of 1917

The constitution addressed three major issues: land, religion, and labor. It included land and labor reform, and strengthened government control over the economy by permitting the breakup of large estates, placing restrictions on foreigners owning land, and allowing nationalization.The current Constitution of 1917 is the first such document in the world to set out social rights, serving as a model for the Weimar Constitution of 1919 and the Russian Constitution of 1918. Some of the most important provisions are Articles 3, 27, and 123; these display profound changes in Mexican political philosophy that helped frame political and social backdrop for Mexico in the twentieth century. Article 3 forbids the setting up of a list of prohibited books and establishes the bases for a free, mandatory, and lay education; article 27 led the foundation for land reforms;and article 123 was designed to empower the labor sector.

Plan de San Luis 1906

The plan ushered in the Mexican Revolution and the collapse of the Presidency of Diaz. Called for the destruction of Diaz's authoritarian presidency and the re-institution of democracy through violent direct action on the part of the Mexican populace. Went beyond political rights and insisted on labor rights; agrarian demands—distribute to peasants and restore native lands, create agricultural bank

Mexican-American War

War with Mexico which began in 1846 when the US annexed Texas and Mexico challenged the Border. Battles were fought in Texas, and Mexico was invaded from the Atlantic Ocean by General Winifield Scott. Scott attacked Mexico City and Chapultepec. The war ended with the Treaty of Guadalupe in 1848.

Juan Rulfo

Was a Mexican writer, screenwriter and photographer. He is best known for two literary works, El Llano en llamas (1953), a collection of short stories, and the 1955 novel Pedro Páramo.

Bracero program

program established by agreement with the Mexican government to recruit temporary Mexican agricultural workers to the United States to make up for wartime labor shortages in the Far West. The program persisted until 1964, by when it had sponsored 4.5 million border crossings.

Ricardo Flores Magon

a noted Mexican anarchist and social reform activist. Considered an important participant in the social movement that sparked the Mexican Revolution. Co-founder of the Partido Liberal Mexicano (PLM) in 1901. Dedicated to overthrow the Diaz regime, and ultimately the capitalist system, party leaders, including Ricardo and his brothers, were exiled to Texas within a few years. He was one of the major thinkers of the Mexican Revolution and the Mexican revolutionary movement in the PLM. Flores Magón edited the Mexican anarchist newspaper Regeneración, which aroused the workers against the dictatorship of Porfirio Díaz. Followers of the Magón brothers were known as Magónistas.

Francisco Madero

a revolutionary who served as president of Mexico from 1911 to 1913. He was an advocate for social justice and democracy. Madero was notable for having challenged Mexican President Diaz for the presidency in 1910 and being instrumental in sparking the Mexican Revolution. He launched the Plan of San Luis from the United States, in this manner beginning the Mexican Revolution.

Miguel Angel de Quevedo

apostle of the tree, argues for reforestation. Promoted the conservation of Mexicos forests. Promoted the creation of small wooded areas near train stations. His drastic effortsto defend Mexicos forsts were met with violent resistance from campesinos (a peasant/laborer/farmer who owns a small farm) and agricultural officials.

Federalists

autonomy of states; legal equality among the many social and ethnic groups within Mexico; but at the same time did not offer the same types of protection for lands or resources of indigenous people; individual citizenship; favor removing legal protections for corporations such as the religious orders, Indian communities; remove tariff barriers for free trade.

Constitution of Apatzingan

based on the same principles as the constitution of Cadiz but slightly modified to provide the establishment of a republican government. Never really enforced.

Carlos Maria de Bustamante

became president and brought the conservative back into power for the first time since the overthrow of the empire. Was no more able to bring about stability and progress than has his liberal predecessors. Has Guerrero executed.

Fuero

exempted military and clergy from having to stand trial in civil courts, even if they were charged with the violation of civil law; placed military personnel and clergy outside the law and reinstated class inequality.

Conservative

favoured a more authoritarian regime

Liberals

favoured populist representative government

Partido Liberal Mexicano (Mexican Liberal Party)

formed by liberals who were dissatisfied with the way the Diaz government was deviating from the liberal constitution of 1857. They objected to the close workings of the Diaz government and the Catholic Church. The convention produced fifty-one resolutions which called for the organization of the new Liberal Party, propagation of liberal principles, development of means to combat the political influence of the clergy, establishment of means to improve the administration of justice, proposals calling for guarantees of the rights of citizens and real freedom of the press, and proposals favoring complete self-government at the local level. They also called for support for free secular education in the primary schools, the spread of liberal ideas among the lower classes, the establishment of liberal publications, and the taxation of Church income. Founded by Flores Magon brothers.

Vincente Lombardo Toledano

founder of the Confederation of Mexican Workers (CTM), the national labor federation supported by Cardenas

Ley Lardo

in 1856 which saw the forced sale of most properties held by the Roman Catholic Church in Mexico, common lands of indigenous communities, and by municipal and state governments. The enforcement of Ley Lerdo worked to the detriment of the rural masses because it removed the long-standing legal recognition of the Indian communities' rights to own property. Failed to create a new class of small peasant landowners and ultimately abetted the transfer of land to hacendados and some upwardly mobile rancheros

French Invasion 1862-67

in response to President Benito's suspension of interest payments to foreign countries in 1861, which angered the three major creditors of Mexico (US, France and UK). The French invasion resulted in the Second Mexican Empire. After heavy guerilla resistance led by Benito, which had never ceased to exist even after the capital had fallen in 1863, the French were eventually expelled from Mexico and Maximillian I was executed in 1867.

CROM (Regional Confederation of Labor)

is a federation of labor unions in Mexico.It was founded in Saltillo in 1918 at a congress of labor delegates called by Mexican President Venustiano Carranza. The federation, of which Luis Napoleón Morones was a major leader, marked a departure from the traditionally anarchist stance of Mexican labor to a nationalist position.From its inception, the CROM was controlled by a small group of union leaders called Grupo Acción ("Action Group") who supported the post-revolutionary government.

Ejido

is an area of communal land used for agriculture, on which community members individually farm designated parcels and collectively maintain communal holdings. Land grants given to the indigenous people of Mexico. Collectively maintained land used for agriculture, forestry, cattle raising, and at times established for fishing. Grants of land that gave people means of livelihood. If surplus was produced it will lead to its sale. Corn, wheat and beans in Mexico. Also acted as a form of local government with the Ejido Assembly which was made up of all of the landowners within an ejido.

Taller de Gradica Popular

is an artist's print collective founded in Mexico in 1937 by artists Leopoldo Méndez, Pablo O'Higgins, and Luis Arenal. The collective was primarily concerned with using art to advance revolutionary social causes. The print shop became a base of political activity and abundant artistic output, and attracted many foreign artists as collaborators.

CTM (Confederation of Mexican Workers)

is the largest confederation of labor unions in Mexico. For many years, it was one of the essential pillars of the Institution Revolutionary Part (PRI), which ruled Mexico for more than seventy years.

Ferdinand Maximilian

only emperor of the Second Mexican Empire. Attempted to find a middle ground to please both liberals and conservatives, but in turn only alienated both. Eventually Maximillian could no longer withstand the republican siege of Queretaro - surrendered on May 15. He was executed

Jesus Flores Magon & Enrique Flores Magon

other co founders of the PLM party.

Porfirio Diaz

served seven terms as President of Mexico from 1876 to 1911. Diaz is a controversial figure in Mexican history, with the status of villain among the revolutionaries who overthrew him, and something of a hero of capitalism in the business community. The "Porfiriato" was marked by significant internal stability, modernization and national economic growth. This was in part due to heavy investment in mining and railways from American and British business. However, Diaz's regime grew unpopular due to civil repression and political stagnation. His economic policies furthermore helped a few wealthy estate owners acquire huge areas of land, leaving rural people unable to make a living; thus resulting in a shortage of jobs and depressingly low wages for the Mexican peasantry. This directly precipitated the Mexican Revolution which overthrew Diaz.

Cristero rebellion II

the battle between church and state; Catholic Church advocated overthrow of Calles; Catholic guerrillas burned down government schools and killed teachers; VCR(Viva Cristo Rey) movement -1920's conflict in the catholic church -one of the bloodiest conflicts in Mexican history -laws were put in place to forbid priest to vote, restricted church schools -suspended religious services. A rebellion that occurred during the presidency of Calles in which the church rebelled against the crackdown on Article 3 of the constitution.

Agustin de Iturbide

took control of Mexico City in 1821 after Mexican War of Independence. Short reign that emulated the political struggles between liberals and conservative before and after Independence.

Centralists

wanted to conserve many elements of colonial society; ethnic and social hierarchies - mostly located in Mexico city; citizenship but retain colonial privileges for elites; sustained protection for church and communities; maintained fueros (courts) and collecting the tithe for the clergy; promoted tariff protections for the industry - foreign imports.

Pancho Villa

was a Mexican Revolutionary general and one of the most prominent figures of the Mexican Revolution.

Plutarco Elias Calles II

was a Mexican general and politician. He was president of Mexico from 1924 to 1928, but he continued to be the de facto ruler from 1928-1935, a period known as the maximato. Successor to Obregon in 1924-1934;anticlerical; redistributed 1.8 million acres; supported CROM, made Morones the Secretary of Labor; continued education reforms; started the Health and Sanitation Department; in charge at beginning of the Cristeros wars he closed church schools, monasteries, covenants, and all Mexican priest had to register; Calles organized the Partido Nacional Revolutionario(PNR)

Alvaro Obregon

was a general in the Mexican Revolution, who became President of Mexico from 1920-24. His presidency was the first stable presidency since the Revolution in 1910. He oversaw massive education reform (with Mexican muralism flourishing), moderate land reform, and labor laws sponsored by the increasingly powerful Regional Confederation of Mexican Workers.

Emiliano Zapata

was a leading figure in the Mexican revolution, the main leader of the peasant revolution in the states of Morelos, and the inspiration of the agrarian movement called Zapatismo. He formed the Liberation Army of the South and his forces contributed to the fall of Diaz. Lived 1879-1919; a revolutionary leader, charismatic agrarian rebel, and the son of a mestizo peasant; he and Francisco Villa organized massive armies fighting for land and liberty; they embodied the ideals and aspirations of the indigenous Mexican masses and enjoyed tremendous popular support; Zapata confiscated hacienda lands and began distributing the lands to the peasants.

La Reforma

was a period halfway through the 19th c. in the history of Mexico that was characterized by liberal reforms designed to modernize Mexico and make it into a nation states. The major goals in this movement were: 1. Land reform (redistribution of land) 2. Separation of church and state, and 3. Increased educational opportunities for the poor, the majority of the country's population. Most noteworthy reforms were 1. Ley Lerdo (abolishing clerical and communal properties), 2. Ley Juarez (abolishing separate military and religious courts) 3. Mexican Constitution of 1857 (guaranteeing many civil and political liberties including freedom of religion) and 4. The 'Reform Laws' (in which the liberal government of Veracruz during the civil war against the conservative proclaimed complete separation of church and state.)

The Plan of Ayutla

was a plan aimed at removing Santa Anna as dictator of Mexico and to also convene a constituent assembly in order to draft a deferral constitution. The Plan paved the way for the War of Reform (1856-61), which would set up a liberal government under the 1857 Constitution.

Cristero rebellion

was a widespread struggle in many central-western Mexican states against the secularist, anti-Catholic, and anticlerical policies of the Mexican government. Was set off by President Calles to enforce articles of the Mexican constitution of 1917. Sought to eliminate the power of the Catholic Church and organizations affiliated with it as an institution, and also to suppress popular religious celebration in local communities. Seen as a major event in the struggle between church and state dating back to the 19th century, but also as the last major peasant uprising in Mexico following the end of the military phase of the Mexican Revolution in 1920.

Geographic and Exploratory Commission.

was commissioned to carry out the mapping that was needed for the Diaz regime.

Los Rurales

was established as a federal constabulary by the Liberal regime of Benito Juarez in 1961. This mounted rural police force became best known during the long rule of President Diaz. Diaz expanded the Rurales from a few hundred men to nearly 2000 by 1889 as part f his programme of modernization.

Plan of Casa Mata

was formulated to abolish the monarchy in Mexico and to establish a republic. Santa Anna and Guadalupe Victoria signed the Plan de Casa Mata in 1823, as a start of their efforts to overthrow Emperor Iturbide.

Revolution of Ayutla

was the armed insurrection in Mexico led by Liberals that drove Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna from power for the final time in 1855. The Revolution of Ayutla resulted in a new constitution and ushered in the era of liberal change known as La Reforma.

Plutarco Elias Calles

was the first populist presidential campaign in the nations history, as he called for land redistribution and promised equal justice, more education, additional labor rights, and democratic governance. Calles indeed tried to fulfill his promises during his populist phase (1924-26), but entered a repressive and violent anti-Catholic phase (1926-1928). Calles is most noted for a fierce oppression of Catholics that led to the Cristero War, a civil war between Catholic rebels and government forces, and for founding the Partido Nacional Revolucionario (national revolutionary party or PNR), which became the Partido de la Revolucion Mexicana (party of the Mexican revolution or PRM), which eventually became the Institutional Revolutionary Part (PRI).

Mexican muralism

was the promotion of mural painting staring in the 1920s, generally with social and political messages as part of efforts to reunify the country under the post Mexican Revolution government. From the 1920s to 1970s a large number of murals with nationalistic, social and political messages were created on public buildings.

Soladeras

were women in the military who participated in the conflict of the Mexican Revolution, ranging from commanding officers to combatants to camp followers. In many respects, the Mexican revolution was not only a men's but a women's revolution.