History 10 Midterm Study Questions
Discuss the social and economic problems that afflicted Western Europe in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, noting especially those related to the Black Death.
-2/5 of the population died -Farms declined, people fled to cities and the demand for skilled artisans increased. As a result, demand for luxury items such as silks, furs, and jewelry increased. -Peasant revolt in England and France -People reacted to the black death in opposite ways. Some people believed that the illness was a punishment for their sins and became religious fanatics and flagellants, or some people became less religious and turned to sexual rampage. Some thought moderate and temperate living would save them, others indulged in excess. -Some used Jews as scapegoats. -Some used herbal and natural remedies
What were the forces behind european expansion in the 15th and 16th centuries?
-Economic (sugar) -Competition -Desire to convert and spread Catholicism -Unification of Spain; strong militant Catholicism -Muslim control of the Mediterranean
Why was Italy the birthplace of the Renaissance?
Because the Italian city-states had the money to fund artists and even had competing city-states for these artists. Rome also has heritage of Greece and during this time people looked back at Greek and classical works to see how to live a better life.
Analyze the beliefs of John Calvin, especially on the issue of salvation. What were the political and social implications of Calvin's beliefs?
Beliefs of John Calvin (especially issue of Salvation): -Divine predestination -Center of his beliefs, denies the existence of human free will and living as the bible instructs is presumptive evidence that they were among god's elect -Individual's responsibility to reorder society according to god's plan -Believed humans must conform to god's will Political and Social implications/outcome of Calvin's beliefs: -This religious ideology inspired massive political resistance in france, germany, netherlands and scotland -Calvin implements strict moral order-->5,000 refugees from france england and scotland fled religious persecution and moved to geneva -Made early puritans capitalist -Social implication: Made people live good and moral lives to prove that they've already been saved
Renaissance Europe saw the development of the so-called new monarchies. What were the guiding principles and basic tactics of the rulers of England, France, and Spain in their efforts to centralize their states? In what ways were they different? How effective were they?
France: -Charles VII created a permanent professional army in France -used the expertise of an independent merchant-banker named Jacques Coeur to build a strong economy, diplomatic corps, and national administration for France -French Nation Building had 2 political cornerstones in the fifteenth century 1. Collapse of the English empire in France following the Hundred Years War 2. Defeat of Charles the Bold and his duchy of Burgundy. Burgundy was split between French king Louis XI and Habsburg Emperor Maximilian I and Louis XI was free to secure the monarchy and ended his reign with a kingdom twice the size he inherited. Louis successfully harnessed the nobility, expanded trade and industry, created a national postal system, and established a lucrative silk industry. Spain: -The union of Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon changed the divided kingdom of the mid-fifteenth century. -Despite the marriage, the two kingdoms which they came from remained constitutionally separate. -Together, Ferdinand and Isabella could do together what neither was able to accomplish alone: subdue their realms, secure their borders, venture abroad militarily, and Christianize the whole of Spain. -Toleration of religion was to end dramatically under Ferdinand and Isabella. They exercised almost total control over the Spanish church. Jews and Muslims were converted or exiled. -Supported the exploration of Christopher Columbus which led to the creation of the Spanish empire in Mexico and Peru. England: -After England had been in years of turmoil following the Hundred Years War, Edward IV seized power and instituted a strong-arm rule that lasted more than twenty years. He effectively increased the power and finances of the monarchy. -After Edward IV's brother Richard III died, his exiled his son, Henry Tudor, who was supposed to assume the throne, finally became king and ruled as Henry VII. -To bring the rival royal families together and to make the hereditary claim of his offspring to the throne incontestable, Henry married Edward IV's daughter, Elizabeth of York. -He succeeded in disciplining the English nobility through the Court of Star Chamber, which was intended to end the perversion of English justice by "over-mighty subjects" (powerful nobles who used intimidation and bribery to win favorable verdicts in court cases.) The result was a more equitable court system. -He managed to confiscate lands and fortunes of nobles with such success that he was able to govern without dependence on Parliament for royal funds.
Compare and contrast the ideas of Huss and Luther. Why was Luther able to succeed in his revolt, whereas Huss was not?
Huss: -extremist -Supported vernacular translations of the bible and criticized several aspects of the sacrament of Eucharist; Critical or traditional ceremonies and alleged superstitious practices -Believes in christ alone is the head of the church and that only god can forgive sins -Travels to the council eagerly under a safe-conduct pass naively believing he would convince his strongest critics of the truth of his teaching. There he was accused of heresy and imprisoned, where he later died at the stake Luther: Why was Luther able to succeed? -His ideas appealed to people of all classes -Printing press made luther's ideas more accessible and assured they were recorded in all forms -Hymns made his ideas more appealing and those who could not read could be his followers -Political circumstances favored luther and lutheranism -Protection to luther by his local prince meant that luther's ideas took hold before resistance can be felt -Relative weakness of the forces that opposed him; Catholic bureaucracy failing, church needed money (reason for indulgences)
The term Renaissance means "rebirth." In what ways was the Renaissance a "rebirth"?
It was a rebirth of classical learning and a rediscovery of Ancient Rome. Renaissance artists and Renaissance educated looked back to the Classical past to see how to live a better life. For example, Michelangelo looked at ancient structures and applied it to his day.
People tend to think of the Renaissance as an Italian phenomenon, but northern Europe also underwent a renaissance. Compare and contrast the Italian Renaissance with the northern Renaissance. How do you account for the similarities and the differences?
Italian renaissance: -More secular: Competition between Italian city-states and social divisions between city-states account for a more political focus for the Italian renaissance. -More focused on humanism -Attention to human anatomy in art -Painted frescoes Northern Renaissance: -Tended to come from more diverse social backgrounds and to be more devoted to religious reforms -More willing to write for lay audiences -Art focused on color and detail but not humanism -Focus on sciences and mathematics -Printing gave power and influence to elites in both the church and the state who could popularize their viewpoints freely and widely. Both had an artistic center
Describe the criticisms leveled at the church by John Wycliffe and John Huss, and explain why they were important.
John Wycliffe: -Against the secularism of the papacy -Advocated apostolic piety -Believed that personal merit and morality, not rank and office, was the true basis of religious authority. -Challenged papal infallibility, the sale of indulgences, and the dogma of transubstantiation -His followers (Lollards) preached in vernacular, distributed translations of the Bible, and advocated clerical piety John Huss: -supported vernacular translations of the Bible -Critical of traditional ceremonies and alleged superstitions, practices, particularly those accompanying the sacrament of the Eucharist. -Advocated lay communion with cup and bread, and taught that bread and wine after priestly consecration remained bread and wine.
Discuss Martin Luther's personal struggle over the issue of salvation, and explain how it was related to the issue of indulgences and to the ninety-five theses.
Martin Luther struggled with the prevailing idea of the time that salvation can only occur if one lives a nearly sinless life. One way that the papacy tried to reduce people's anxieties due to the sins they have committed is to sell indulgences, in which their time or the time of their deceased ones in purgatory would be decreased. Luther began his public protest of indulgences on October 31, 1517 when he posted the 95 theses to the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg.
What was Elizabeth I's "settlement"? How was it imposed on England? Who were her opponents and what were their criticisms of her?
Nation was more important than religion (politique). Wanted to make one big Church. Opponents were extremists. Spanish criticized her protestants way and refusal to marry Philip II.
Describe court life at Versailles. Some have maintained that the palace and court at Versailles were illustrative of the power, vitality, and security of the "Sun King" while others have viewed it as decadent. What do you think? What evidence supports your conclusion?
The central element of the image of the monarchy was the Palace of Versailles, which was the largest secular structure in Europe. Louis XIV used the physical setting of his court to exert political control. It was a temple to royalty designed and decorated to proclaim the glory of the Sun King (Louis). A spectacular estate with magnificent fountains and gardens, it houses thousands of the more important nobles, royal officials, and servants. Although it cost a lot of money for the king, the estate paid significant political dividends. To emphasize his prominence, he organized life at court around Versailles. I think the court and palace at Versailles were illustrative of power, vitality, and security. WHen the people see this enormous estate, they realize the power and security that the monarchy holds.
Was, as some have claimed, the Thirty Years War, "the outstanding example in European history of meaningless conflict? Explain why or why not.
Wars are always fought for reasons. Although nominally the fighting was over religious issues, the Reformation being in full swing, the reasons the various phases of the Thirty Years War (1614-1648) were fought over the political and economic control of central Europe. The Holy Roman Empire (the last vestige of the ancient Roman Empire in the West) had become mostly Lutheran under the terms of the Peace of Augsburg (1555) and Germanic princes began to force whatever religious convictions they had upon their subjects. The official Catholic government came at odds to the various fifes that were absorbing former Catholic lands. The Thirty Years War thus started out as a German Civil War, and spread to include the dominant powers in Europe at the time. There were 5 phases to the war (see link) and strangely, 300 years later, Germany was also the central player in a series of wars from 1914 to 1945.
What was the Glorious revolution? Why did it take place? What were the issues involved in 1688 that led to the "revolution"?
What was it: The overthrow of King James II of England (James VII of Scotland) by a union of English Parliamentarians with the Dutch stadtholder William III, Prince of Orange. William's successful invasion of England with a Dutch fleet and army led to his ascension to the throne as William III of England jointly with his wife, Mary II, James's daughter, after the Declaration of Right, leading to the Bill of Rights 1689. Why did it take place: King James's policies of religious tolerance after 1685 met with increasing opposition from members of leading political circles, who were troubled by the king's Catholicism and his close ties with France.
Defend BOTH of the following assertions: (a) the reformation was the culmination of the medieval experience; (b) the reformation was the beginning of the modern world
the reformation was the culmination of the medieval experience: -Drew inspiration from the ancient world. Renaissance humanists and artists sought to imitate and revive classical art and lit. forms, reformation thinkers aspired to restore spiritual purity of early christianity. Used gospels to undermine authority of church the reformation was the beginning of the modern world: -divided catholic and protestant, destroyed religious unity of europe, distinguishing feature of the middle ages and weakened the church and the chief institution of medieval society. -Strengthening monarch at the expense of church bodies, furthered growth of the modern secular and centralized state -Protestantism Contributed to growth of political liberty→ a feature of the modern west. Accomplished by providing religious justification for revolution against tyrannical rule -Advanced the idea of equality-->M.Luther held that there was no spiritual distinction between laity and clergy but there was a spiritual equality of all believers: all were equally christians and all equally priests -Reformation contributed to creation of an individualistic ethic-->protestants insisted on individuals rights and responsibilities to interpret scripture according to the dictates of his or her conscience. Piety therefore was not determined by te church but by the autonomous individual whose conscience illuminated by god was the source of judgement and authority -Reformations stress on individual conscience may have contributed to the development of capitalist spirit which underlies modern economic life
How did the views of columbus and De las Casas about Amerindians differ? In what ways did they operate from the same assumptions?
-De las casas-outspoken about the poor treatment of natives, believed that conquests was not necessary for conversation, both wanted conversion -Columbus-felt that the island population seems naive and exploitable
What are some sharp differences in characteristic outlook between medieval and modern Europe? (Differences in characteristic outlook between Renaissance/Reformation and Middle Ages)
-Focus on how to live a better human life in the Renaissance, desire to bring back individualism and humanism -Catholic Humanism: Erasmus- Study life of Christ to live a better life. -New merchant class, no more feudal monarchy -New focus on reason and order -According to Pico della Miranndola: Humans are free to become whatever they choose which is a contrast to the Middle Ages in which people would confess sins and ask for forgiveness -Renaissance has less of an emphasis on faith and religion and more on humans as individuals -Cristine de Pisan marks the first ideas of feminism -Protestantism vs Catholicism: Catholicism enforced a strict hierarchal structure; Protestantism included a priesthood of all believers, allowed for faith outside formal church -Growing sense of regional identity and secular nationalism replaced loyalty to Roman papacy - Humanist instead of scholarly education systems and practices. Calvin established the Genevan Academy -Woman began to see their rights as equals with men now that they had the right to divorce and remarry -Changes in the timing and duration of marriage, family size, and infant and child care
What "system" did columbus establish for the caribbean islands after his second voyage? What impacts did this "system" have?
-He established the hacienda system. -A hacienda was a unit of land owned by persons born in Spain (peninsulars) or persons of Spanish descent born in America (creoles)-- which were labored by natives who had little legal freedom and no legal right to move around -Hacienda economy produced food for the mining regions and leather goods used in mining machinery -In Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, and other islands, black Africans worked as slaves on the sugar plantation because Native Americans were not good at working sugar plantations. This started the idea of slavery as a commonplace in our world.
Define and describe humanism, explain the humanists' interest in classical literature and assess their contributions to modern education and scholarship.
-Humanism marks the shift in attitude that characterized the Renaissance period. Some scholars believe that humanism stresses the dignity of humankind, individualism, and secular values. Others argue that humanists were the champions of Catholic Christianity, opposing the pagan teaching of Aristotle. Others believe it was a neutral form of empirical-minded historical scholarship adopted to promote political liberty and a sense of civic responsibility. -Studia humanitatis is a liberal arts program of study that embraced grammar, rhetoric, poetry, history, politics, and moral philosophy. -Humanism shifted the focus of education. Before, a persons education was focused on training them only for a specific trade. Now, people were learning how to be a good person through their education.
Columbus found the islands he explored to be "thickly peopled," What was his initial attitude toward the inhabitants? How did this attitude change of the course of his voyages?
-Initial attitude: was positive and described them as timid and not warlike, found them naive. Initially discouraged men from taking advantage of the natives. -Changed in attitude- wanted to take possession of the land, no attempt to live in harmony with the natives. Marched in with proclamation and banner claiming the land for spain with no regard to the natives that have lived there for years. Unwillingness to preserve the native people, renamed the islands, viewed them as a workforce to keep them content and happy so that he might use them without force. Believed them to be unintelligent and incapable of doing things for themselves. Viewed them as just another resource he could exploit
How did the Renaissance spread from Italy to Northern Europe?
-Initially stimulated by the importation of Italian learning through varied intermediaries as students who had studied in Italy, merchants who traded there, and the Brothers of the Common Life -The printing press published books that spread Renaissance ideas from Italy to Northern Europe. Germany: -Rudolf Agricola (1443-1485), the "father of German humanism" studied in Italy under the Italian humanists and introduced these ideas to Germany when he returned England: -Visiting lecturers spread humanism to England France: -French invasions of Italy led to the permeation of Italian humanism in France Spain: -Humanism was used to strengthen the Catholic Church in Spain
What are some ways the modern world is linked to the Middle Ages?
-Learning of the classical world was only possible in monasteries in the Middle Ages. Now, people wanted to look back at these texts for themselves. -The Renaissance was a transition from medieval to modern times. Because of a lack of an effective papal leadership which led to secular control of national and territorial churches, there was less of an emphasis on faith and religion during the Renaissance and more on humans as individuals -The practices of the Catholic Church in the Middle Ages (selling indulgences, etc) incited a powerful religious movement against Catholicism and started the Protestant movement, which then led to a counter-reformation of the Catholic church, and incited years of violence in Holy Wars.
What explains the population decline in the caribbean islands after columbus' arrival, and how did spain compensate for this?
-Native people were living in America without experiencing major epidemics until europeans came over. -By the second voyage diseases they have never before encountered started to impact them -Most deadly was smallpox which killed millions of people -Beyond devastation bought by these diseases of bubonic plague, typhoid, typhus, influenza, measles, chickenpox, whooping cough, malaria and diphtheria produced deadly results in more localized epidemics -Highly susceptible because no exposure before they lacked immunity -Helped europeans wipe out a large number of natives-->form of weaponry
Luther's rebellion started against a backdrop of problems. What were the intellectual, social, political, and economic factors that led Luther to challenge the church and explain the rapid spread of his beliefs?
-Northern humanists had set a sentiment of opposition to Rome in the German states which provided a solid foundation for Luther's movement -The belief that one must live a nearly sinless life to be saved led Luther to challenge the church. Instead, he believed that salvation is both a combination of divine mercy AND human good works. Luther believed Christians were left counting their merits and sins and struggled to maintain an inner peace of mind. Instead, Luther taught that faith alone was all that was needed for salvation. -The selling of indulgences of the papacy incited Luther's protests -One of the seven electors who chose the new Holy Roman Emperor Charles I of Spain was Frederick the Wise, one of Luther's protectors. This allowed his ideas to spread.
What led to the infamous Saint Barthomew's day massacre? What did it achieve?
-On august 24, 1572 Coligny and 3,000 fellow Huguenots were butchered in Paris. Within three days, coordinated attacks killed an estimated 20,000 Huguenots throughout France. -The Huguenot Henry of Navarre had just married the kings sister four days before this event. -Coligny had been shot by an assassin but only wounded after the wedding. -Catherine convinced King Charles IX that a -Huguenot coup was at hand and that the crown must align with the Guises to prevent it.
List and enumerate the specific technical developments that made possible the explorations of the 16th century
-The compass *The Caravel (ship used for cargo ships, warships, patrol ships, used to explore across vast open sea) *The Galleon (popular during 1600s, ability to change under different circumstances, used for trading and fishing could withstand gunfire) *Astrolabe (measures angle and altitude, helped sailors measure angle of sun which could be converted to find lat. -Sails/sailing ships -Weapons
Explain why art was so important to the people of the Renaissance, and describe both how it was used and how--especially in the works of Da Vinci and Michelangelo, it reflected the outlook of the period.
-The idea of humanism is seen in Renaissance art as artists in this time focused on precise detail and human anatomy. It emphatically embraced the natural world and human emotions. Renaissance artists gave their works a rational, even mathematical, order. Their art contained perfect symmetry and proportionality reflecting a belief in the harmony of the universe. -Leonardo Da Vinci advised Italian princes and the French king Francis I on military engineering, advocated scientific experimentation, dissected corpses to learn anatomy, etc. A lot of his artwork contained detailed images of the human body. His painting, The Mona Lisa, shows his skill at conveying inner moods through complex facial expressions. -Michelangelo's statue, David, is a perfect example of Renaissance harmony, symmetry, and proportion, all serving the glorification of the human form. He painted Frescoes in the Sistine Chapel which remains the crowning achievement of Renaissance painting. His later works show the passing from the High Renaissance style of painting—which valued symmetry and simplicity—to a new style known as mannerism—which accepted the strange and abnormal, giving freer reign to the individual perceptions and mood of the artist.
A common assumption is that creative work proceeds best in periods of calm and peace. How is it possible to explain the simultaneous political instability and the cultural productivity of the Italian Renaissance?
-The result of the black death had people leave farms and move to cities. It also increased the demand for skilled laborers which increased cultural productivity. -Cultural productivity can come out of instability. For example, people wrote and produced art that reflected political challenges. -Warfare between the pope and the emperor, both the Guelf (pro-papal) and Ghibelline (Pro-imperial) factions weakened each other, therefore strengthening the merchant oligarchies and allowing city-states to be formed and expand. The city states became vibrant, urban societies and created cultural productivity. -During the Italian Renaissance, new products and inventions appeared which allowed for cultural productivity. -Italy became a highly succesful land due to its location. It was the center spot of all trading throughout this time. The cultural productivity grew because of the new items that were either remastered or reinvented to increase its value.
What are the differences between a medieval and a modern monarchy?
-Truly sovereign monarchs begin to consolidate and centralize their power unlike the feudal monarchs of the High Middle Ages who forfeited power to semi-autonomous vassals, towns, and clergy -During the Renaissance, both townspeople and monarchs worked to create closer ties with each other. As towns became more prosperous, kings wanted to benefit from these commercial centers in the form of tribute and taxes. Likewise, the towns wanted the protection that could be afforded by the king. -During the Renaissance, loyal, business-wise townspeople, not the nobility and the clergy, increasingly staffed royal offices and became the king's lawyers, military tacticians, and foreign diplomats. This new alliance between king and townspeople broke the bonds of feudal society of the Medieval world and made possible the rise of sovereign states -During the Renaissance, the powers of taxation, war making, and law enforcement no longer belong to semiautonomous vassals of the Medieval world, but are concentrated in the hands of the monarch and exercised by his or her chosen agents -Monarchies began to create standing national armies in the fifteenth century. The noble cavalry disappeared and was replaced by the infantry and artillery.
Define the term politique. How does it apply as a description of henry of navarre, elizabeth I, and william of orange?
-one of a group of French moderates in the 16th century religious conflicts holding national unity of greater importance than the absolute predominance of a single sect and advocating religious toleration as the policy of the government -Rulers like Elizabeth I who tended to subordinate theological doctrine to political unity, urging tolerance, moderation, and compromise became known as politiques -Henry IV was a politique • He believed a royal policy of tolerant Catholicism would be the best way to achieve peace. • He publicly abandoned his Protestant beliefs and embraced Catholicism, the traditional and majority religion of his country. -The Count of Egmont and William of Nassau, the prince Orange, led the opposition both of whom were considered politiques. They were able to get Granvelle removed from his position in 1564. -Many urban artisans grew hostile towards the Spanish and many joined the congregations of radical Calvinist preachers. -Elizabeth I: Established that the church of England welcomes everybody and would not persecute Catholics.
Why was the Middle Ages termed the "Age of Faith?" Cite some specific examples of the Church's dominance over people's lives.
13th Century Papacy dominance: -Pope Innocent III's reign marked the height of papal power, he enacted the doctrine of "plentitude of power" which gave the authority to declare declare saints, dispose benefices to clergy, and create a centralized papal monarchy with a clear political mission -Under Pope Urban IV, the "Rota Romana" or the papacy's court, was established which tightened and centralized the church's legal proceedings -Pope's claimed right to determine appointments to church offices -Instituted clerical taxes -By 13th century the papal office had become a powerful, political, institution governed by its own laws and courts and had secular tasks and goals - Rome's interests, not local needs, controlled church appointments, policies, and discipline. Royal Challenge to Papal Authority: -Conflict between King Edward I and Pope Boniface VIII over the king's right to tax the clergy in England -Conflict between Philip IV of France and Pope Boniface VIII: prohibited the export of money from France to Rome, which bankrupted the Church The Avignon Papacy: - Clement V was in need of revenue and started the practice of collecting "annates," the first year's revenue of a church office, and indulgences for unreported sins. These indulgences allowed the living to buy a reduced sentence in purgatory for themselves or for deceased loved ones. - Opposition to the Avignon Papacy started the followings of Wycliffe and Huss Great Schism: -Established 3 popes, Pope Urban VI supported by England and Allies,Pope Clement VII supported by France and allies, and Alexander V elected by the council of Pisa Consequences: -Without effective papal leadership secular control of national or territorial churches
Analyze the factors that contributed to the Radical Reformation. What were the general characteristics and specific beliefs of the anabaptists?
Anabaptists Characteristics/Beliefs: -most important radical groups, distinguished themselves by rejecting infant baptism and insisted on adult baptisms since jesus had been baptized as an adult -Conrad Grebel was the founder (favored more literal interpretation of scripture) -Believe in pacifism, refused to swear oaths and non-participation in offices of secular government -Separated themselves from established society in order to live communal lives in the imitation of christ Factors Contributing to Radical Reformation: -Secular authorities perceived the separation from established society by anabaptists as a threat to basic social bonds -People accused Zwingli and Luther of not promoting drastic change, radicals desired more thorough implementation of apostolic christianity -Catholics/Lutherans/Zwinglians all opposed Anabaptism and were persecuted in cities -Movement found a footing in the rural agrarian classes of people -In Munster anabaptists established themselves-forcing catholics and lutherans to convert or leave the city -Implemented old testament theocracy in which polygamy was norm Result: These reforms shocked all of europe and Protestant/catholic leaders attacked munster and executed the radical leaders
What was the outcome of the conflict between Catholics and Lutherans in the Holy Roman Empire?
Conflict: -Attempts to eradicate protestantism -Political triumph of lutheranism in the empire validated that it would remain competing ideology with catholicism -Diet of Augsburg: charles V, and supporters demanded that lutherans revert to catholicism -Schmalkaldic League: alliance of lutheran, produced 2 docs-advocated a moderate form of protestantism -Charles V defeated army assembled by Schmalkaldic league -Protestant leaders went into hiding Outcome: -Charles V realized that protestantism was too deeply entrenched in the holy roman empire to eradicate it -Peace of Passau-1552 -Protestant forces defeated the army of charles V -At this meeting Charles V reinstated protestant leaders and promised lutherans religious freedom -Peace of Augsburg-1555 -Declared ruler of a land would determine its religion -People Discontented with the religious of their region were permitted to migrate to another -Religious freedom did not extend to calvinist and anabaptist
Describe the ways in which the reformation contributed to the further breakup of the medieval world and the coming of the modern age.
Contributed to further breakup of medieval world by education and changing role of family life: -Changing role in women-->protestant reformers favored clerical marriage, opposed monasticism and worked to eradicate model of woman as a temptress *Women should not be degraded but rather exalted as virgins *Wives remained subjects of husbands but new laws gave them greater security and protection *Protestant women gained right to divorce and remarry *Encouraged education of girls in literacy, could read and model their lives after the bible (women finding passages in bible that declare womans equality with man) -Family Life in Modern Europe *Later marriages-able to marry later, to support themselves first independently before creating a family, required parent consent, delayed marriages increasing premarital sex and number of illegitimate children *Arranged marriages-tended to be arranged by parents discussing terms of marriage before the prep for wedding, the couple could legally resist the marriage *Family size- consisting of 2-4 children who survived into adulthood, woman originally producing 6-7 children but ⅓ died as infants, larger household including servants, in-laws, laborers and borders *Birth Control-very few methods other than abstinence, church condemned male withdrawal before ejaculation, church opposed birth control methods *Wet Nursing-hiring wet nurses to suckle newborns *Loving Families-sometimes seemed cold and distant **this all brings us to our modern world and the rise of it, along with the breakup of religion and how people are starting to have their own opinions not just followed by the ideas of the church, able to have their own opinion on god, etc.
Explain the Council of Trent and the specific changes the catholic church made to the challenge of Protestantism
Council of Trent: -Emperor Charles V advised Pope Paul III to call general council of the church to reassert church doctrine; This council included 3 session spread over the course of 18 years due to war, plague and politics -Reforms produced by the council: End of the sale of church offices, Bishops were forced to move to their dioceses, Required bishops to say mass and preach in their dioceses, Seminaries were to established in every diocese in order to better train priests Changes Made to the challenges of protestantism: -Conservatism at the council: Catholic Church reaffirmed its conviction in Good works were necessary for salvation, All 7 sacraments, Transubstantiation, Withholding of the eucharistic cup from italy, Clerical celibacy, Purgatory, The veneration of saints, relics and sacred images
What explains the fact that despite the "golden century" spain never became major trading or industrial enter?
During sixteenth century and described the increase in wealth among spain. All money coming in from the mines in americas was making spain big. However, Spain took the Gold, silver, and bullion and never stored it or turned it into industrial capital. Instead, they spent it immediately.
What kind of settlement emerged from the Glorious Revolution? How did England in 1700 differ from England in 1600?
Elisabeth's religious settlement. Anglican Church and the succession of the crown 1600s English monarchy strong, parliament only for financial support.
What similarities and differences do you see between the systems of government and religious policies in place in England and france at the end of the 17th century?
England Strong parliament power: -Passed petition of grievances and petition of right because they did not want to pay for England's wars -Raised an army and incited a civil war in which the King was executed -After Cromwell's military dictatorship, King Charles who returned to the throne did not care much about being king which increased parliaments power Religion: -Remained Puritan: People were worried that the heir to the throne would be Catholic because James II was married to a French Catholic, so parliament asked him to leave and he did Constitutionalist: -William and Mary could become monarchs if they agreed to the Bill of Rights France -Absolutist -Less focus on religion, French king gives himself power to appoint Catholic bishops, took power away from the church -Restricted parlements -Cardinal Richelieu and Cardinal Mazarin worked to build absolute power -Divine right of kings: doctrine that kings derive their authority from God, not from their subjects, from which it follows that rebellion is the worst of political crimes
How was the English Reformation different from religious reform on the continent? How was it similar? What were the Long term Consequences of the English Reformation?
English Reformation: -Parliament reforms Series of meeting which set the precedent that changes in religion must receive approval of parliament and monarch before enactment -English clergy publically recognized Henry VIII as the head of the church in england -Submission of Clergy-placed canon law under royal control -Henry appointed Thomas Cranmer as archbishop of canterbury-led the convocation in invalidating Henry's marriage to Catherine of Aragon -Henry married pregnant Anne boley Two important pieces of legislation: -Act of Succession-declared the children and henry and anne the rightful heirs to the throne -Act of Supremacy-declared henry the only supreme head of the church in england Parliament dissolved England's monasteries and nunneries England Reformation: Religious -Church of england split from catholicism -Six articles of 1539 -England had to wait for Henry's death until could enact genuine protestant reform -Henry's son Edward VI takes throne at age 10 -Major reforms happen -Clerical marriage -Act Of uniformity -Images removed from churches -Cranmer's book of common prayer imposed on the people of england -Second book of common prayer published -Teaches justification by faith and supremacy of holy scripture -Denied transubstantiation -Recognized only two sacraments: baptism and eucharist -Bloody Mary repealed protestant reforms and imposed strict catholic rule on the people of england -Elizabeth I succeeded Mary and worked out a lasting religious settlement for england
Compare and contrast the views of Erasmus with those of Machiavelli on the nature and predicament of being human. How are these views a reflection of the Renaissance spirit?
Erasmus: -Northern humanist who made clear in his many works that devout Catholics wanted the Church to reform -He prepared short Latin dialogues for his students to teach them good manners of speech and how to live well. He also wrote anticlerical dialogues, and satires on religious dogmatism; this collection of his dialogues was called "Colloquies" -He also published a book of Adages which included over 5,000 contemporary and ancient proverbs -He believed disciplined study of the classics and the Bible was the nest way to reform individuals and society. -He encouraged "philosophia Christi," a simple, ethical piety in imitation of Christ and his apostles. This contrasted what he believed to be the dogmatic, ceremonial, and bullying religious practices of the later Middle Ages. -He made ancient Christian sources available in their original versions, believing that if people would read the pure sources of the faith, they would recover the moral and religious health the New Testament promises. As a result, he translated the New Testament to Latin, Greek, and German. Machiavelli: -He lived through the tumultuous years when French, German, and Spanish armies wreaked havoc on Italy leading him to conclude that Italian unity was needed and that Italian political unity and independence were ends that justified any means. -Humanist because he looked back at how ancient Roman rulers and citizens had heroically defended their homeland and applied this to his own life. -He believed that strong and determined people could struggle successfully with fortune. He scolded the Italian people for the self destruction their own internal feuding was causing. -He became synonymous with ruthless political expediency. -Believed that it was better to be feared than loved as a ruler. Both: -Both of their views are a reflection of the Renaissance spirit because they both emphasize the importance of looking back at classical texts and applying them to his own life. Erasmus believed in studying the original texts of the bible and the classic texts of Christian sources and Machiavelli believed in studying the works of ancient Roman rulers to give Lorenzo de' Medici advice on how to rule Italy.
Why did Protestantism succeed in Germany, parts of France, and England, while Catholicism strongly survived in Italy and elsewhere?
Germany: Succeeded largely became of Martin Luther and his movement and because many people were angry at Rome France: Huguenots were strong in cities England: Henry VIII split the church Catholicism strongly survived in Italy because Rome was the center of Catholicism.
What are the basic truths discussed by Erasmus in his description of the Philosophy of Christ?
In Erasmus' description of the Philosophy of Christ (Philosophia Christi) he illuminates a simple, ethical piety by imitating Christ. He believes that the model for a good human is after the life of Christ and that people should study the life of Christ to live a better life.
How does the Edict of Nantes move in the direction of religious toleration? How does it fall short of toleration? What is the difference between religious toleration and religious freedom?
It allowed the establishment of minor religions as part of the Peace of Augsburg and particularly gave French Calvinists religious freedom(Lutheran, Calvinism, and Anabaptists) but not religious freedom for any other religion. Religious freedom is where people have the right to practise any religion that they want. Religious tolerance is where people do not agree with your religion but they will tolerate it and leave you alone.
Compare and contrast the religious compromises worked out in the Peace of Augsburg, the Edict of Nantes, and the Elizabethan religious settlement.
Religious tolerance. Edict of Nantes gave tolerance for Lutheran and Calvinism. Elizabeth wanted one church. Peace of Augsburg religious tolerance.
How did Louis XVI consolidate his monarchy? What limits were there on his authority? WHat was Louis's religious policy?
Louis XIV continued the policies of the cardinals while pleasing the French nobility, which made France an absolute monarchy. Louis XIV consolidated his monarchy by making the monarchy the most important and powerful political institution in France while also assuring the nobility and other wealthy groups of their social standing and influence on the local level, bringing all groups together. Louis XIV believed that political unity and stability required religious, Catholic, conformity. Louis XIV's foreign policy was to secure France's weak borders while frustrating the Habsburg ambitions that endangered France.
Why did the english king and parliament come into conflict in the 1640's? Does one of them bear more responsibility than the other for the war that broke out? What part did religion play?
Parliament did not agree with the king's financial measures and that fact that they had to fund their wars, and the king's paternalistic rule-- also, they disagreed with his religious policies and distrusted the Catholic influence of his wife, considering they were Puritan. Parliament was insistent on limiting the king's power. The king bears the greatest responsibility for the war, considering he was the first to start building an army against the Parliamentary party.
Explain the Babylonian Captivity and the Great Schism, assess their effects on ordinary Christians and the papacy, and explain how these episodes were ended.
Pope Gregory XI reestablished the papacy in Rome in 1377, ending what had come to be known as the "Babylonian Captivity," a reference to the biblical bondage of the Israelites. However, after Gregory's death, Pope Urban VI succeeded him, and immediately announced his intention to reform the Curia. The cardinals, most of whom were French, responded by calling for the return of the papacy to Avignon. French King Charles V wanted to keep the papacy within the sphere of French influence and supported the return of the papacy to Avignon. This support created the Great Schism. 5 months after Urban's election, 13 cardinals elected Pope Clement VII. -England and its allies supported Urban VI, France and its allies supported Clement VII. -First 2 attempts to end the schism: mutual cession of both popes, or securing the resignation of the one in favor of the other. Both failed as each pope considered himself fully legitimate. -Cardinals representing both popes convened at the Council of Pisa, deposed both popes, and elected a singular pope, Alexander V. However, neither pope stepped down and now there were 3 competing popes. -The Great Schism ended when Emperor Sigismund prevailed on John XXIII to summon a new council in Constance in which the Roman pope Gregory XII also recognized. The council asserted its supremacy and elected a new pope, Martin V.
Describe Luther's political and Social views, explain their religious and practical foundations, and apply them to the situation of the peasant revolt.
Recent tax increases and revocation of traditional rights fueled peasant anger in Germany. This was in line with Luther's view of a corrupt papacy and head its eradication. Therefore, it would seem like Luther should sympathize with the peasants but he did not.
By what stages did absolutism develop in France? How did the policies of Henry IV and Louis XIII contribute to the creation of absolute monarchy?
Slow development 1. Concordant of Bologna- gives French King power to appoint Catholic bishops, took away power from the church 2. Henry IV restricted parlements (legislative bodies in France) 3. Louis XIII and XIV- Louis XIV declared "I am the state" 4. Cardinal Richelieu and Mazarin worked to build absolute power 5. Fronde 1649-53: Uprising in Paris, Louis decided to wipe out parlement after this 6. Builds palaces of Versailles where nobility would live that he had control over 7. Divine right built up
Why was the Thirty Years War fought? Could matters have been resolved without war? To what extent did politics determine the outcome of the war?
The 30 Years' war was fought on the grounds of religious and political opposition. In particular, politics is the domineering facet. A great deal, if not all of the phases of the war were fought over territory. In essence, much of the German effort was aimed at being free of the Holy Roman Empire. Switzerland and other states also got some sought after territory as a result of the ordeal. One can argue, though, that there was religious conviction involved in the collision.
Explain why the Italian Renaissance was marked by a decline in the role of religion in life.
The Medieval time period was characterized by corruption among the papacy which incited opposition towards religion. Furthermore, after Pope Gregory reestablished the Avignon papacy back in Rome, French cardinals wanted it to be reestablished in Avignon, which led to the rise of 2 separate popes. Attempting to solve this issue, the council of Pisa was created and a new pope was elected. However, none of the other 2 popes stepped down, causing the church to have 3 separate popes. This ineffective papacy led to secular control of national and territorial churches, there was less of an emphasis on faith.
What is the connection between the Renaissance and the Middle Ages?
The Renaissance was a transition from medieval to modern times. Because of a lack of an effective papal leadership (corruption such as selling indulgences, Great Schism) which led to secular control of national and territorial churches, there was less of an emphasis on faith and religion during the Renaissance and more on humanism and humans as individuals, which was the prevailing thought in this time period.
Why has the Renaissance often been called the birth of modernity? Do you agree with this characterization? Why or why not?
The Renaissance was called the birth of modernity because -New inventions that occurred during this time- ex: printing press, spectacles -Humanism was a modern/new way of thinking -Modern art such as painting, sculpture, and architecture. I agree with this characterization because the Renaissance allowed the Western world to move away from the strict and "old-fashioned" thinking of the Medieval World.
Discuss the Roman Catholic reaction to the reformation. What steps did the church take to fight protestantism in Europe?
The Roman Catholic church establishes a counter-reformation in response to the Protestant reformation. To fight protestantism in Europe the church met at the Council of Trent and made these changes: -to stop the selling of indulgences -bishops could no longer have several dioceses and not live there -worked to increase education for priests -adapted services for longer hymns and service -stepped up inquisition of heretics and created a list of prohibited books
What were the terms and objectives of the Treaty of Westphalia?
The Treaty of Westphalia resolved the 30 Years War. Many territories received additions of land, while some had a negative turnout. Religiously, rulers had the right to impose the religion of a state, however allowing toleration of other faiths. More importantly, Calvinists received parallel conditions with the Lutherans as stated in the Peace of Augsburg. The main tenets of the Peace of Westphalia were: * All parties would now recognize the Peace of Augsburg of 1555, by which each prince would have the right to determine the religion of his own state, the options being Catholicism, Lutheranism, and now Calvinism (the principle of cuius regio, eius religion). * Christians living in principalities where their denomination was not the established church were guaranteed the right to practice their faith in public during allotted hours and in private at their will.
Explain why and to whom Luther's ideas appealed and how they were spread.
Who did luther's ideas appeal to?: -Protestants against the church -Young humanists -those opposed to governmental authority -Political leaders, seeking religious reform for decade How where they spread?: -Luther and his followers wrote, preached, and sang about a priesthood of all believers, while ridiculing papal laws as arbitrary human inventions, they touched both political and religious nerves -By 1517- German humanists were persuaded enough fully commit to luther's protests of indulgences and the theology that legitimated the, german peasantry believe him to be an ally -Luther began his public protest of indulgences on Oct 31, 1517 posted 95 theses to the door of the caste church in Wittenberg.
Why does it appear that only spain, and in 1492, could be the sponsor of columbus?
Why only Spain: -It was a unified and militantly strong nation, Italy had split so it could not sponsor, Portugal had gone East and around Africa Why only in 1492: -Jews had just been expelled and Muslims had just been defeated in Spain
