history 102

Benito Mussolini

(1883-1945) was a veteran of the Great war and an ex-socialist and an italian politician. In 1919 he organized the National Fascist Party in the city of Milan. Recruitment was especially strong among the unemployed ex soldiers. He evoked the history of the Roman empire. For factory owners and merchants, he promised to fight communist insurgency. For middle class, he promised to restore economic security and national purpose. Mussolini's black shirted street fighters beat up socialists and strikers. In 1922 Mussolini ordered a march of rome to secure national power. When King Victor Emmanuel III refused to use the military to stop the march, the liberal cabinet resigned. On October 1922, the King named Mussolini prime minister. By the end of 1926, Mussolini was the unchallenged ruler of Italy with the title II Duce (the leader).

Ronald Reagan

(1911-2004) he became president of the US in 1981, he accelerated the pace and cost of the Cold Wars arm race. He publicly described the Soviet Union state as an "evil empire" and the US pumped billions of additional dollars into its defense budget. When he proposed to building an elaborate nuclear defense system, it was called "star wars" by its critics.

Kristallnacht

(Night of Broken Glass) on the night of Nov 9, 1938 Nazi gangs destroyed thousands of jewish shops, synagogues, and homes in towns and cities across Germany. Thousands of Jews were imprisoned in concentration camps without trials and the state seized their property. This came to be known as Kristallnacht. Those Jews who could do so emigrated, leaving behind most of their possessions. By the start of WWII in 1939, over 1/2 of jews had fled.

glasnost

(openness) was a policy that introduced unprecedented freedoms. National minorities began to express their dissatisfaction with the Soviet federal system, and dissidents won political office. It was started because Gorbachev wanted to take it a step further from just perestroika and he bolster confidence in this system by allowing public discussion and criticism of the Communist party.

Realpolitik

(power politics) meaning realistic or actual. Politics based on primarily on power and material factors and considerations rather than explicit, ideological notions or moral/ethical premises.

Perestroika

After the death of Chernenko in 1985, Gorbachev emerged as the new Soviet leader, committed to reform in the interests of saving the Soviet system, he implemented an economic program called perestroika. which means (restructuring) and it reduced the size and power of central bureaucracies and introduced limited free-market principles. It aimed to increase production levels while rewarding those workers and factory managers who were able to meet pent up consumer demand for goods and services.

anti-semitism

Antisemitism (also spelled anti-Semitism or anti-semitism) is prejudice against, hatred of, or discrimination against Jews as an ethnic, religious, or racial group.[1][2] A person who holds such positions is called an antisemite. Antisemitism is widely considered to be a form of racism

central Powers

Austrian, Bulgarian, and German force finally eliminated Serbia from the war in 1915- ottoman turkey joined them.

Marshall Plan

Crucial to the overall strategy of revealing Europe's war-torn economies was the implantation of the Marshall Plan, named after American Secretary of the State George Marshall. Beginning in 1947, the US offered massive economic aid to all war-torn countries in Europe, including the Soviet Union and its satellites but the Soviets rejected the offer and prohibited their client states from participating. Soviets rejected the US having supervisory privileges over them and access to the budgetary records of the receiving countries. The additional requirement of the Marshall Plan money be used to purchase American products struck the Soviets as yet another attempt to extend the influence of the capitalist system. 16 European nations all outside of the Soviet sphere of influence, welcomed the American offer. Each received a substantial aid package, supervised by the recently formed Organization for European Economic Cooperation. By 1952, the US had extended over $13 billion in grants and credits (worth perhaps $650 billion in todays money).

Bay of Pigs

Cuban dictator, Fulgencio Batista, banned the Communist party and established close relations with the US in return for military aid and business investment. A youthful reform-oriented opponent of the US influence in Cuba, Fidel Castro, staged a successful revolt against the Batista regime in t 1958. In his subsequent assumption of political power, Castro was able to unite disparate ideological forces: communists, socialists, and anti-Batista liberals who advocated social justice and land reform for the rural poor. in april 1961, a US organized and funded a group of 1,400 Cuban exiles disembarked from American naval vessels at the Bay of Pigs on the Cuban coast. Their assault was short lived, with Cuban authorities arresting sympathizers and Cuban troops quickly defeated the rebel contingent on the landing beaches. In the aftermath of this debacle, Castro proclaimed his adherence to the Marxist-Leninst community of anti-imperialist nations.

Friedrich Engels

Engels, unlike Marx, had a wealthy upbringing. Engels father was a successful textile manufacturer. In 1845, Engels published The Condition of the Working Class in England, based on personal observations in Manchester. Realizing the two shared the same ideas and goals, in 1848 the two wrote The Communist Manifesto.

Francisco Franco

General of Spanish Army and launched a military recolt that son led to a civil war. The spanish civil war became a test case in the ideological struggle between European authoritarianism and democracy. Franco, a conservative Catholic, entered into a tactical alliance with Spain's fascists, known as Falange. By the time the republic fell in 1939, almost half a million Spaniards had lost their lives, in the wale of his victory, Franco imprisoned an additional one million republican loyalists, many of whom were sent to concentration or labor camps.

Queen Victoria

Great Britains midcentury status as the worlds leading industrial power was acheived with in the context of the peaceful political change, Under the monarchy of, Queen Victoria, remained the symbolic heart of the political system real power had shfited to the House of Commons, where two major parties, the liberals and conservatives, vied for leadership. The United Kingdom was already a constitutional monarchy when she came to power. (she was 18) She became a national icon and was identified with strict standards of personal morality. She reigned for 63 years which is longer than any other British monarch and the longest of any female monarch in history- is known as the Victorian Era.

Adam Smith & Laissez-faire

He claimed that natural laws existed in the market place, just as they did in the Heavens and the first law stated that the economy would remain in balance only if the meddling hand of the state were restricted. The rational self-interest in employers and employees would ensure material well-being for all. Under such an understanding for basic economic forces, those who experienced poverty had no one but themselves to blame. Laissez Faire is an economic system in which transactions between private parties are free from government interference such as regulations, privileges, tariffs, and subsidies. It literally means (let it do) or (nointerference.)

Bolshevik Revolution

In 1917, two revolutions swept through Russia, ending centuries of imperial rule and setting in motion political and social changes that would lead to the formation of the Soviet Union. In March, growing civil unrest, coupled with chronic food shortages, erupted into open revolt, forcing the abdication of Nicholas II (1868-1918), the last Russian czar. Just months later, the newly installed provisional government was itself overthrown by the more radical Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin (1870-1924).aunched a nearly bloodless coup d'état against the provisional government. The Bolsheviks and their allies occupied government buildings and other strategic locations in Petrograd, and soon formed a new government with Lenin as its head. Lenin became the virtual dictator of the first Marxist state in the world. His government made peace with Germany, nationalized industry and distributed land, but beginning in 1918 had to fight a devastating civil war against anti-Bolshevik White Army forces. In 1920, the anti-Bolsheviks were defeated, and in 1922 the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was established.

Quintuple Alliance

In France the government of Louis XVIII quickly paid its indemnity and was admitted into an alliance of 5 great states (including: Russia, Austria, Prussia, and Great Britain.) Committed to upholding the territorial and political settlements reached at Vienna, the governments of the restored monarchies cracked down on liberal activists, censored the press, and used their armies to crush revolutionary movements whenever/wherever they emerged.

Giuseppe Mazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi

Italian general who played a large role in history of Italy. Him and Mazzini are two of Italy's "Fathers of the Fatherland" They led a strong nationalist movement that inspired liberal revolutions in Napels, Papal States, Piedmont-Sardinia, Lombardy, and Venetia. Garibaldi was one of the leaders of the movement for Italian unification.

Karl Marx

Karl Marx (18181883 CE) was a German revolutionary philosopher and theorist. Born in Trier, Marx studied law and philosophy at major German universities. Hegel and others influenced Marx's views of dialectics, by which history develops through conflict of contradictory forces. Marx grounded this dynamic in materialism and class struggle. In 1842, he became the editor of a radical newspaper in Cologne, after which he moved to Paris, Brussels, and eventually Britain, where he would spend the rest of his life. His family lived in poverty, but was continually supported by his close and wealthy friend Friedrich Engels (18201895), with whom he wrote the Communist Manifesto in 1848. Marx wrote many other works, most notably Capital, and helped establish the First International in 1864.

William I

King of Prussia (1861-1888) ruled by divine right and that society's natural leaders (landed aristocrats called Junkers in Prussia) should determine the shape of any future national German state. He wished to reorganize the Prussian army as a counter to Austrian power, and the liberals in Prussian assembly- defused to approve the funds to pay for the kings proposal.

Axis Powers

Nazi forces also conquered Greece and Yugoslavia and forced Hungary and Romania to join the Axis (as the German-Italian and Japan alliance was called.) They fought in WWII against the Allied Powers

NATO

North Atlantic Treaty Organization was a formal alliance between North America and Europe. It was presented as a defensive alliance in which all members would regard an attack against one member state as an attack against the entire alliance. Main purpose was to defend each other from the possibility of communist Soviet Union from taking over. Many powerful countries joined NATO by the signing of the doc in 1949: Belgium (where the headquarters were), GB, Italy, Iceland, Luxembourg, US, Canada, Netherlands, Denmark, Norway, and Portugal. In 1950, Eisenhower was nominated and appointed as the first supreme allied commander, this gave the US to be a strong force in the organization. West Germany, Turkey, and Greece later joined in 1955. Now it is known that 26 states had joined together.

Progressives

Progressivism is a broad philosophy based on the Idea of Progress, which asserts that advancement in science, technology, economic development, and social organization are vital to improve the human condition. Progressivism became highly significant during the Age of Enlightenment in Europe, out of the belief that Europe was demonstrating that societies could progress in civility from barbaric conditions to civilization through strengthening the basis of empirical knowledge as the foundation of society.The contemporary common political conception of progressivism in the culture of the Western world emerged from the vast social changes brought about by industrialization in the Western world in the late 19th century, particularly out of the view that progress was being stifled by vast economic inequality between the rich and the poor, minimally regulated laissez-faire capitalism with out-of-control monopolistic corporations, intense and often violent conflict between workers and capitalists; and thus claimed that measures were needed to address these problems

cold war

Rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union for control over the postwar world emerged before World War II had even ended. U.S. presidents Franklin D. Roosevelt and Harry S Truman and Soviet premier Joseph Stalin never really trusted one another, even while working together to defeat the Nazis. This mutual mistrust actually began as far back as 1917, when the United States refused to recognize the new Bolshevik government after the Russian Revolution. Stalin also resented the fact that the United States and Great Britain had not shared nuclear weapons research with the Soviet Union during the war and was unhappy with the countries' initial unwillingness to engage the Germans on a second front in order to take pressure off of the Soviets. Additionally, Stalin was irked by the fact that Truman had offered postwar relief loans to Great Britain but not to the USSR. At the same time, however, both the United States and the USSR did much to prevent the Cold War from escalating, as both countries knew how devastating a nuclear war would be. Truman, for example, kept the Korean War limited by refusing to use nuclear weapons against North Korea and China, aware that doing so would force the USSR to retaliate. President Dwight D. Eisenhower kept his distance from the Hungarian Revolution in 1956, knowing full well that the USSR would not tolerate interference in Eastern Europe. Likewise, the Soviet Union made sacrifices to keep the war "cold" by backing down from the Cuban missile crisis. Many Cold War historians believe that both countries worked hard to keep conflicts limited and used tacit signaling techniques to communicate goals, fears, concerns, intensions, and counteractions. The Cold War had an enormous impact on the United States politically, socially, and economically. In addition to spawning fear-induced Red hunts and McCarthyism in the late 1940s and early 1950s, the Cold War also shaped U.S. presidents' political agendas. Eisenhower, for example, sought to reduce government spending at home in order to halt what he called "creeping socialism" and to save money for more urgent needs such as defense. Kennedy's New Frontier inspired patriotic fervor and visions of new hope in American youth. Even Eisenhower's farewell warning of a growing military-industrial complex within the United States, which would come to dominate American political thinking, proved to be eerily accurate during the Vietnam War era the following decade. At the same time, federal dollars feeding this complex helped produce one of the greatest economic booms in world history. The question as to whether the United States or the USSR was more to blame for starting the Cold War has produced heated debate among twentieth-century historians. For years, most historians placed blame squarely on Soviet shoulders and helped perpetuate the notion that Americans wanted merely to expand freedom and democracy. More recent historians, however, have accused President Truman of inciting the Cold War with his acerbic language and public characterization of the Soviet Union as the greatest threat to the free world. Although conflict between the two powers was arguably inevitable, the escalation into a full "hot" war and the attendant threat of nuclear annihilation might have been avoidable. EVENTS DURING COLD WAR: -truman doctrine -containment -NATO -warsaw pact -Cuban Missile Crisis

Cheka

Soviet's party officials and the secret police- later called the KGB. they ensured that political dissent was swiftly suppressed.

Communist Manifesto

The "Communist League" was formed in London in 1847, when a group of radical workers met up. The League appointed Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, who had just recently joined the League, to write a manifesto on their behalf, soon to be called The Communist Manifesto. There have been many documentations of modern socialism, however, The Communist Manifesto became the most widely read and the most influential. The events of the manifesto took place in Europe, mainly Britain, France, and Germany. For the citizens of the developing cities of Britain, France, and the German states, the severe conditions of labor within the factory environment would progress as long as working people were refused direct access to political power. The Utopians believed that cooperation instead of competition would secure the government and economic system in a steadier manner. The purpose of the manifesto was to call upon the working class to overthrow the capitalist economic system by force. Marx believed that the initial law held that the means of production, the way that goods are produced and wealth is distributed within society, determines the shape of culture, ideas, politics, and even morals. Instead of predicting communism's potential future forms, the manifesto presents a cogent approach to the class struggle and the headaches of capitalism. Marx believed a revolution was inevitable and would take place no matter how many reforms are passed or how much government attempts to change. He believed the first step was the proletariat overthrowing the bourgeoisie. The modern socialist, Communist Manifesto, refers to the proletariat (the working class) and the bourgeoisie (the ruling class.) The document is laid out in four different sections: The Bourgeois and Proletarians, the Proletarians and Communists, the Socialists and Communists Literature, and the Position of the Communists in Relation to the Various Existing Opposition Parties. 1. Abolition of property in land and application of all rents of land to public purposes. 2. A heavy progressive or graduated income tax. 3. Abolition of all right of inheritance. 4. Confiscation of the property of all emigrants and rebels. 5. Centralisation of credit in the hands of the State, by means of a national bank with State capital and an exclusive monopoly. 6. Centralisation of the means of communication and transport in the hands of the State. 7. Extension of factories and instruments of production owned by the State; the bringing into cultivation of wastelands, and the improvement of the soil generally in accordance with a common plan. 8. Equal liability of all to labour. Establishment of industrial armies, especially for agriculture. 9. Combination of agriculture with manufacturing industries; gradual abolition of the distinction between town and country, by a more equable distribution of the population over the country. 10. Free education for all children in public schools. Abolition of children's factory labour in its present form. Combination of education with industrial production

Jewish nationalism

The Jewish nationalist movement called Zionism arose. It held that the Jewish people would never be accorded equal status in Europe and that they could achieve permanent security only through the creation of a jewish state in the ancient biblical homeland of Zion (Palestine) Many jews led by the Austrian journalist- Theodore Herzl- worked tirelessly to encourage Jewish immigration to Palestine.

Revolution of 1848

The Revolutions of 1848, known in some countries as the Year of Revolution, were a series of political upheavals throughout Europe in 1848. It remains the most widespread revolutionary wave in European history, but within a year, reactionary forces had regained control, and the revolutions collapsed. The revolutions were essentially bourgeois-democratic in nature with the aim of removing the old feudal structures and the creation of independent national states. The revolutionary wave began in France in February, and immediately spread to most of Europe and parts of Latin America. Over 50 countries were affected, but with no coordination or cooperation among the revolutionaries in different countries. Six factors were involved: widespread dissatisfaction with political leadership; demands for more participation in government and democracy; demands for freedom of press; the demands of the working classes; the upsurge of nationalism; and finally, the regrouping of the reactionary forces based on the royalty, the aristocracy, the army, and the peasants. Beginning shortly after the New Year in 1848, Europe exploded into revolution. From Paris to Frankfurt to Budapest to Naples, liberal protesters rose up against the conservative establishment. To those living through the cataclysmic year, it seemed rather sudden; however, hindsight offers valuable warning signs. The year 1846 witnessed a severe famine--Europe's last serious food crisis. Lack of grain drove up food and other prices while wages remained stagnant, thus reducing consumer demand. With consumers buying less and less, profits plummeted, forcing thousands of industrial workers out of their jobs. High unemployment combined with high prices sparked the liberal revolt. The subsequent events in February 1848 in France made Austria's Prince Clemens von Metternich's saying seem true: "When France sneezes, Europe catches a cold." Moderate liberals--lawyers, doctors, merchants, bourgeoisie--began pushing actively for extension of suffrage through their "banquet campaign," named thus because its leaders attempted to raise money by giving rousing speeches at subscribed dinners in France's major urban areas. When on February 22, 1848, Paris officials canceled the scheduled banquet, fearing organized protest by the middle and working classes, Parisian citizens demonstrated against the repression. Skilled workers, factory laborers, and middle class liberals poured into the streets. The National Guard, a citizen militia of bourgeois Parisians, defected from King Louis-Philippe, and the army garrison stationed in Paris joined the revolutionary protesters as well. Louis-Philippe attempted reform, but the workers rejected the halfhearted changes. The king fled and the demonstrators proclaimed the Second Republic on February 24th. The overthrow of the monarchy set off a wave of protest throughout east and central Europe, led by radical liberals and workers who demanded constitutional reform or complete government change. In March, protests in the German provinces brought swift reform from local princes while Kaiser Friedrich Wilhelm IV of Prussia yielded to revolts in Berlin by promising to create a Prussian assembly. The collapse of autocracy in Prussia encouraged liberals in the divided Germany provinces to join together at the Frankfurt Assembly to frame a constitution and unite the German nation. Meeting in May 1848, the convention was populated by middle class civil servants, lawyers, and intellectuals dedicated to liberal reform. However, after drawing the boundaries for a German state and offering the crown to Friedrich Wilhelm, the Kaiser refused in March 1849, dooming hopes for a united, liberal Germany. In Austria, students, workers, and middle class liberals revolted in Vienna, setting up a constituent assembly. In Budapest, the Magyars led a movement of national autonomy, led by patriot Lajos Kossuth. Similarly, in Prague, the Czechs revolted in the name of self-government. In Italy, new constitutions were declared in Tuscany and Piedmont, with the goal of overthrowing their Austrian masters. Here, middle class liberals pushed the concept of Italian unification alongside the defeat of the Austrians with the help of the Young Italy movement, founded in 1831 by nationalist Giuseppe Mazzini, an Italian patriot who favored a democratic revolution to unify the country. In February 1849, Mazzini led a democratic revolt against the Pope in Rome, becoming head of the Republic of Rome later that month. By attacking the Pope, the democrats went too far. The self-proclaimed protectors of the Pope, the French, moved in and defeated Mazzini's Roman legion. The Pope was restored and a democratic Italy collapsed, for now. Meanwhile, from August 1848, the Austrian army soundly defeated every revolt in its empire. In Vienna, in Budapest, in Prague, the Austrians legions crushed the liberal and democratic movements, returning the empire to the conservative establishment that ruled at the beginning of 1848. Nothing had come of the revolutions of 1848.

Containment

The Truman Doctrine helped refocus American public opinion about the notice that the US would not withdraw from Europe as it had after WWI. A program of "containment" was passed. Which meant opposing further Soviet expansion, was first articulated by George Kennan, a seasoned foreign service officer stationed at the American embassy in Moscow. After 1949, the idea of containment became central to American foreign policy around the globe.

Lenin

Vladimir Lenin was founder of the Russian Communist Party, leader of the Bolshevik Revolution and architect and first head of the Soviet state. As the head of a 7-man politburo that set policy for the larger Central Committee of the Communist Party, Lenin decided that he and to postpone his outline for a top down planned economy. In a strategic retreat in March 1921, he announced the New Economic Party (NEP). Peasant Farmers were now allowed to manage their own plots of and and sell their surplus grain on the open market in return for the payment of a tax in kind.

world war I

World War I took place between 1914 and 1918. World War I began on July 28, 1914, when Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. This seemingly small conflict between two countries spread rapidly: soon, Germany, Russia, Great Britain, and France were all drawn into the war, largely because they were involved in treaties that obligated them to defend certain other nations. Western and eastern fronts quickly opened along the borders of Germany and Austria-Hungary.Although the conflict began in Europe, it ultimately involved countries as far away as the United States and Japan. At the time, the English-speaking world knew it as the "Great War"—the term "World War I" was applied decades later.y conservative estimates, around 9 million soldiers died in battle—many of them defending entrenched front lines that were so stalemated that they rarely moved even a few yards in either direction. Civilian loss of life totaled an additional 13 million. Epidemics of influenza and other diseases, either induced or exacerbated by the war, raised the death toll by at least an additional 20 million. In total, counting battle casualties, civilian deaths, and victims of disease, the loss of life worldwide surpassed 40 million.he aftermath of World War I also marked the practical end of monarchy on the continent and of European colonialism throughout the rest of the world. Most European nations began to rely increasingly upon parliamentary systems of government, and socialism gained increasing popularity. The brutality of the conflict and the enormous loss of human life inspired a renewed determination among nations to rely upon diplomacy to resolve conflicts in the future. This resolve directly inspired the birth of the League of Nations. KEY TERMS AND PPL: -Woodrow Wilson: The president of the United States for the entire period of the war. During the first half of the war, Wilson, a Democrat, maintained a strictly neutral position and tried to serve as an active intermediary between the two sides. American neutrality remained a major theme during his 1916 reelection campaign. However, Wilson was soon forced to change his position when Germany began unrestricted submarine warfare and the American public was scandalized by the infamous Zimmermann telegram in 1917. -Churchill is better known for his role as Britain's prime minister during World War II, he played a significant role in World War I as well serving as the head of Britain's navy until he was demoted in 1915 following the British failure at the Dardanelles. -Nicholas II: The Russian tsar who committed Russia to the defense of Serbia when Serbia was attacked by Austria. Nicholas II committed to this course only with hesitation and under great pressure from his military advisers. He abdicated in March 1917 after the "February" Revolution and was eventually murdered, along with his wife and children, by the Bolsheviks in July 1918. -Sir Charles Townshend: British general in command of the Sixth Indian Division. Townshend is known for leading the British campaign in Mesopotamia from 1915 to 1916. On April 29, 1916, he surrendered all 10,000 of his men at Kut, Mesopotamia—the largest military surrender in British history. -Allied Powers: n alliance during World War I that originally consisted of Russia, France, and Britain. Many other countries, including Belgium, Canada, Greece, Italy, Japan, and Romania, joined later as associate powers. Although the United States never joined the Allied Powers—preferring on principle to fight the Central Powers independently—it cooperated closely with the Allied Powers once it joined the war in 1917. -Central Powers: An alliance during World War I that originally consisted of Germany and Austria-Hungary. Other nations, including Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire, joined later. -Triple Alliance: A prewar alliance among Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy, formalized in 1882. At the start of World War I, Italy dropped out of this alliance, initially maintaining a neutral position in regard to the war.

Romanticism

a concern with individual creativity anchored in the emotions, a stress on the unique and even spiritual nature of the creative process, and a celebration of spontaneity informed by imaginations as an avenue to truth distinguished aspects of European cultural life in the first half of the 19th century. All emphasized the importance of the subjective imagination in human expression. The philosphes said Romantics were too simplistic. The romantics dedicated themselves to the celebration of exception, to personal differences to the unusual and the aberrant. Romantic artists argued for reason to function at all, it had to be informed by the non-analytical imagination. The imagination had to be cultivated through the experience of nature, the pain of personal loss, and the joy of fresh encounters. The contributions of Romanticism included a renewed respect for emotions. It reclaimed the importance of passion.

Cuban Missile Crisis

also known as the October Crisis. It was a 13 day scare btw the US and the Soviets over Soviet ballistic missles deployed in Cuba. It played on tv and it was the closest thing the Cold War came to escalating into a full-scale nuclear war. It brought the worlds two superpowers to the edge of nuclear war just 17 years after they had been allies to defeating Nazism in Europe. With missiles in Cuba, americas major cities were vulnerable to direct Soviet nuclear strike. In October in the Us began an air and naval blockade of Cuba and insisted that the Soviets withdraw the missiles. Kennedy received NATO backing for his position and declared that any missile launched from Cuba against any nation in the Western hemisphere would result in American nuclear retaliation against the Soviets. A tense week of threats and a counter-threats ensued as 19 american warships prepared to stop and board Russian cargo ships bound for Havana. Without consulting Castro, Khrushchev finally agreed to remove the weapons in return for a US pledge not to attempt to overthrow the Castro Gov't. He also requested the removal of US missiles in Turkey.

"Social Darwinism"

believed creation was not an act but a process, and the law governing the process assured that only the best adapted species would survive. Darwinism banished the supernatural and mysterious from the creation narrative and in the process reconfirmed an arrangement, that the Bible had no place in the arena of science. Herbert Spencer, British philosopher, applied evolutionary theory to ethics. According to Spencer, competition and struggle were essential to progress and those who rose to economic political and cultural predominance were justified in imposing their rule over the weak, the term was called Survival of the Fittest

Kulaks

between 1929-1933, millions of landowners, called Kulaks by Soviet Authorities, were either killed or exiled to Siberia where they later perished in state run labor camps.

European Union

by 1967, a host of smaller cooperative bodies joined with the EC (European Community), an umbrella organization dedicated to the establishment of a free-trade zone embracing all member states. Soon after the break up of the Soviet Union in 1991, the 12 member states of the European Economic Community(EEC) redefined themselves as the European Union. They voted to create an inclusive free-trade zone and to permit their nationals to live and work in any member nation. By the end of the decade, the majority of EU countries had adopted a common currency, the Euro, and established a central bank to oversee the transition to a transnational financial system.

Universal Declaration of Human Rights

by the United Nations and it set forth as a non binding resolution in 1948, and set high standard for all of the signatory states, many of whom continued to exclude women from full civil activity.

Congress of Vienna

chaired by Clemons Metternich and held in Vienna from Sept 1814- June 1815. The objective was to provide a long-term peace plan for Europe by settling critical issues arising from the French Revolutionary wars and the Napoleonic Wars. The main principle was monarchical "legitimacy." The meeting was interrupted by Napoleons 100 day return to power March 1815 and defeat at Waterloo in June. The creation of strong states along Frances eastern border was thought to be an interest of European-wide peace and order; thus, the delegates granted Prussia new lands along the Rhine River while the Protestant Netherlands and Catholic Belgium were joined to make the Kingdom of the Netherlands under the rule of William I.

Central Powers

consisting of Austria- Hungary, Germany, Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria- one of the two main factions during WWI. It was defeated with the Allied Powers. The powers origin was the alliance of Germany and Austria- Hungary in 1879. Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria didnt join until after WWI began. Intense fighting the group finally eliminated Serbia from the war in 1915.

New Deal

created bc of Depression by Roosevelt. It focused on what historians call the 3 'R's: Relief, Recovery, and Reform. Relief for the unemployed and poor; Recovery of the economy to normal levels and Reform of the financial system to prevent a repeat depression. It made the democratic party the majority that held the white house.

Charles Dickens

criticism of living and working conditions found eloquent voice in Romantic Novels. Most memorable characters of his novels were those whose lives had been crushed by the factory routine and the logic of laissez-faire economy theory. He wrote the Christmas Carol and a Tale of Two Cities

racisim

depending on their level of cultural and intellectual development, some cultures were deemed superior to others--racism. Race was the defining characteristic in this pseudoscience.

Socialism

early socialism interpreted the Enlightenment's call for a rationals society as a mandate for economic equality. The socialists believed that a new social and economic order would free individuals to pursue their expressive talents in a setting where everyones basic needs were met in a community of sharing. Henri Saint-Simon and Charles Fourier were the 2 leading socialist thinkers.

Conservatism

following the steps of Edmund Burke, European conservatives argued that social order and political stability could best be realized in a climate where tradition, hierarchy, and corporate relationships were preserved and respected. For 19th century conservatives, society war made up of individuals who had rights but it was also a complex organism was best directed by men who had inherited their positions of leadership. Conservative, Joseph Maistre wrote that the state must plan an active and directive role in the life of the nation. He supported religious institutions, encouraging education, and moral authority. According to conservatism, monarchy, aristocracy, and church were the anchors of long-term social harmony, Conservatives rejected the Enlightenment faith in human perfectibility. Their picture of human nature and human potential emphasized human frailty and sinfulness. They rejected idea of "all men were created equal" They valued community and duty- bound individuals to each other and to the state.

Ho Chi Minh

he believed strongly in the revolutionary potential of the peasantry and his insistence upon the need for fundamental land reform attracted many impoverished Vietnamese to his guerrilla insurgency against the French. In 1929 Ho established the Indochinese Communist Party. When the Japanese invaded Vietnam in 1940, Ho began to organize the Vietnam Independence League, or Vietminh. When French refused to recognize Vietnamese independence after WWII, Ho's resistance organization formed a guerrilla movement. His refusal to compromise with the French and Americas, and his disagreements with Chinese communists, marked his movement as a nationalist struggle first and a communist revolution second.

Otto Von Bismark

his diplomacy of realpolitik and powerful rule gained him the name "Iron Chancellor" He was a conservative Prussian statesman who dominated German and European affairs (excluding Austria) into a powerful German Empire under Prussian rule, In 1962 he was appointed as minister President of Prussia. In 1971 he formed the German empire with himself as chancellor.

Nuremberg Laws

in 1935 these laws stripped jews of their citizenship. They were subsequently denied entry into the medical, legal, educational, and music professions and were forced to wear a Star of David on their garments. Issued by Hitler.

Truman Doctrine

in 1946 the Greek government appealed to the US for financial and material assistance against the rebels. In early 1947 Britain told the US that it could no longer afford to give Greece economic or military assistance. It was a watershed diplomatic acknowledgement of the coming end of British Empire. Truman responded in March 1947 in an address before a special joint session of Congress. In what came to be known as the Truman Doctrine, the president stated that it :must be the policy of the US to support free people who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures." The US spent nearly $700 million to shore upon the Greek army and provide economic assistance. By 1949, the communist had been defeated, but not before American military trainers had begun to work closely with Greek forces in the field. The Truman Doctrine helped refocus American public opinion about the notice that the US would not withdraw from Europe as it had after WWI. A program of "containment" was passed.

Warsaw Pact

in response to NATO, the Soviet Union formed its own alliance system. It was among 8 communist states of central and Eastern Europe in existence during the Cold War. Its members were Bulgaria, Czech Republic, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania, and Soviet Union.

Berlin Conference

in the fall of 1884 German Chancellor Otto Von Bismark and French Premier Jules Ferry arranged for a special conference on African affairs to be held in Berlin. 14 nations including the US sent delegates, but not a single African leader was invited to attend. The meeting was designed to establish rules for the campaign of empire building. It became the unofficial starting point for a territorial "Scramble for Africa" that continued until the entire continent, except for Liberia and Ethiopia was under European political control. The Berlin Conference stipulated that claims to African territory must be based on actual occupation by an imperial power, but there were frequent clashes over territorial proclamations.

Liberalism

liberals believed that human beings were individuals who possessed inherent rights. They called for political reform, equality before the law, and economic freedom. They also espoused the sanctity of private property and supported written constitutions that restrained the power of the state. They appealed mostly to middle class (who lacked political rights and social status.) they believed that talent, ambition, and material success qualified one for high social status and a role in the political decision- making process. They also held that through education and personal freedom, everyone could live as rational, self-directed citizen. Maximizing personal autonomy and limiting the power of the state. Most liberals were not democrats0they pushed for a moderate extension of the franchise to include men (never women) of property but did not believe that workers, peasants, the poor, and the uneducated should have a voice.

tripple alliance

military alliance issued bu Otto Von Bismark (Germany) among Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy. In his hope to prevent an attack by France. Each member promised mutual support in the event of any attack. Kaiser William II disagreed with Bismarck's cautious policy. The Kaiser began an ambitious naval-building program that designed to rival the British fleet and he expanded the size of German army, In 1893, William assumed the throne and dismissed Bismarck.

racial nationalism

nationalism changed- an increasing emphasis on the nation as the repository of culture and values began to replace talk about individual rights and freedoms. Extreme nationalists highlighted differences between peoples, not similarities, and it became popular to talk of superior and inferior races. Ethnicity became the barometer of good citizenship and worship of the state and its core values emerges as a new secular religion- many of the Volkish propagandists stressed the importance of race in the history claiming that everything from creativity to morality was intimately connected to racial characteristics.

Henri Count de Saint-Simon

one of the 2 leading socialist figures. He was a member of the aristocracy, but he renounced his title and privileges and called for a new social order led by scientists, industrialists, and other professionals. These specialists would be charged with leading society into a new age of collective abundance through science and technology.

Charles Fourier

one of the 2 leading socialists thinkers. But he was uncomfortable with the type of large collectives supported by disciples of Saint-Simon. He believed that human happiness could best be promoted in small communities of about 1,500 citizens. Organized into these small "phalansteries," residents would live a simple lifestyle where agriculture and artisanal enterprises would form the core of economic activity.

Woodrow Wilson

one of the leading figures for Big Four. Two of the leading figures, American president Woodrow Wilson and french Premier George Clemenceau had irreconcilable agendas. The idealistic Wilson, representing a nation that had entered the war late and incurred comparatively few casualties, wished to secure "peace without victors" and rebuild the continent according to the principle of national self determination. Wilson had outlined his views one year earlier in his famous "Fourteen Points" speech justifying Americas involvement in the war. Acc to wilson, secret diplomacy must end, colonial claims for self governance must be heard freedom of the seas must be protected, free trade promoted, and armaments must be reduced. Wilson also called on the delegates to establish a permanent League of Nations where future interests wished to punish the vanquished states (Germany, Austria, Hungary, and Bulgaria).

Treaty of Versailles

one of the peace treaties at the end of WWI. It ended the state of war between Germany and Allied powers. It was signed on June 1919. Germany was forced to accept complete responsibility for the war. While this cause in the final treaty was a source of great resentment in Germany, most modern historians believe that Kaiser William II and his advisors did act in irresponsible manner in giving Austria a "blank check" to deal with the Serbian problem.

Survival of the Fittest

policy makers used it to limit state assistance to the poor at home and to oppress colonial peoples abroad. These "social darwinists" would undermine the best qualities of the species. Religious scruples about the plight of the poor had no place in a world where compassion became a synonym for cultural decay. Also--explained more in social darwinism.

totalitarian

primacy of law over the will of the individual leader. IN totalitarian systems, the leader was above the law, and his directives, no matter how irrational and irresponsible they appeared, became the embodiment of the national will. Unquestioning obedience to the leader was required at all times. Any opposition was considered treason and punished accordingly. They recognized no distinctions between the public and private spheres. Schools, lit, art, science, and popular culture were all controlled and supervised by the state.

Big Four

representatives from 32 victorious states who assembled in the great palace of Versailles in paris faced challenges. The leaders of the Big Four- France, Britain, and the US, and Italy would make the major decisions. Two of the leading figures, American president Woodrow Wilson and french Premier George Clemenceau had irreconcilable agendas. The idealistic Wilson, representing a nation that had entered the war late and incurred comparatively few casualties, wished to secure "peace without victors" and rebuild the continent according to the principle of national self determination. Wilson had outlined his views one year earlier in his famous "Fourteen Points" speech justifying Americas involvement in the war. Acc to wilson, secret diplomacy must end, colonial claims for self governance must be heard freedom of the seas must be protected, free trade promoted, and armaments must be reduced. Wilson also called on the delegates to establish a permanent League of Nations where future interests wished to punish the vanquished states (Germany, Austria, Hungary, and Bulgaria).

Great Depression

that began with the stock market crash in NY in October 1929. Manufacturers were producing more goods than consumers could afford to purchase, so factories began to slow production and lay off workers. The combination of rural poverty and flat wage levels for urban workers meant that income disparities were pronounced in the US. The reckoning came quickly in October 1929. Within one month of the initial stock market crash, overall stock values dropped by 40% and the decline continued for the next 3 years. Suddenly, credit was no longer available for businesses or for foreign govt. Panic spread across the borders and massive layoffs began throughout the industrialized west. 1/3 of the banks had closed by 1932. 1/4 of the labor force in Britain and in the US were out of work by 1933.

Balfour Declaration

the 1917 declaration supported Zionist aspirations for the creation of an independent Jewish homeland in Palestine- so long as it did not interfere with existing Palestinian civil and religious claims. These contradictory commitments resulted in a serious problems for British authorities during the 20s and 30s.

fascism

the 20th century political ideology that rejected the existing alternatives of conservatism, communism, socialism, ad liberalism. Fascists stressed the authoritarian power of the state, the efficiency of violent action, the need to build national community and the use of new technologies of influence and control.

Nationalism

the belief that the people who form a nation should have their own political institutions and that the interests of the nation should be defended and promoted at all costs. Marx predicted that national differences would fall away once the Proletariat understood that nationalism and state rivalries were simply productions of the ruling elite.

Chartist Movement

the drive for comprehensive political rights after 1830 was led by a coalition of middle class political radicals and working class leaders. They called for a new political charter that would guarantee universal manhood suffrage, the secret ballot, annual parliaments, and salaries for members of Parliament. Led by William Lovett and a group of Long based artisans most of these "chartists" embraced peaceful reform, sponsoring rallies and sending petitions with millions of signatures to parliament. They charter was presented to parliament on 3 separate occasions and its supporters published a newspaper, The Northern Starr. Although, the movement failed to achieve its goal by 1848, it did provide an important outlet for disenfranchised workers to express their many grievances. Chartism represented the 1st mass political movement in Britain and contributed to a faith in peaceful change through legislative means that enabled the country to avoid revolution at mid century.

Scramble for Africa

the most dramatic manifestation for the new mperialism was the division of Africa among the European powers between 1880s and 1914. Prior to the 1870s most of the vast African interior was unknown to Europeans. The situation changed when Belgian, French, German, and British interests in sub-saharan Africa led to a series of territorial disputes. Eventually after the Berlin conference, the entire African continent, except for Liberia and Ethiopia, was under European control.

Camillo Cavour

the path to Italian political union and constitutional government was forged by him. He was chief minister to king Emmanuel II of Piedmont- Sardinia. Cavour was a strong monarchist who recognized that professional armies would always defeat a mass uprising by untrained revolutionaries. His strategy to achieve Italian unification involved building the power of Piedmont by modernizing its economy, creating a modern state he believed, was essential to removing the Austrians from Northern Italy. In return, for French aid, Cavour was prepared to transfer the Piedmontese territories of Savoy to France.

Marxism

the theory of Marx and Engels that stated history is a result of class conflict, which will end in inevitable triumph of the industrial Proletariat over the Bourgeoisie and the abolition of private property.

House of the Lords

titled aristocracy

Franklin D Roosevelt

took a number of modest although controversial steps to stimulate the US economy, Centralized planning and a host of new govt make-work agencies constituted Roosevelt's "New Deal." However, it was not until Britain and the US began to rearm in the late 1930s that the worst effects of the depression began to debate.

Red Scare

united states experienced this in 1919 as govt agencies trampled civil liberties in search of radicals, while in Europe fear of communist insurgency led many political moderates to turn toward far right political parties.

House of the Commons

vast majority were men of the substantial property. Less than 5% of male population had the right to vote in 1815 liberal reformers wished to put an end to these "rotton boroughs" (seats in the house of the commons that had few electors or were owned outright by a single wealthy individual.)- while extending the franchise to members of the commercial and middle class.

Robert Owen

was a british industrialist who became a practitioner. Born into poverty, Owen went to work at age 9 to become a great textile manufacture in the city of Manchester. He experimented with socialist at his cotton mills in New Lanark, Scotland. He became convinced that healthy profits for owners of the means of production could be combined with economic justice for employees in the mills. At New Lanark he improved wages, provided housing for his workers, established pension and sick funds, and build schools for children of his employees. He believed by providing healthier lifestyles for his working family, his factories would produce more and better quality products. In 1825, he was invited to address a special session of the US congress.

Clemons Von Metternich

was a leading figure of the meeting in Vienna, Austria on September 1814 in order to make additional adjustments to the political map of the continent. The most pressing problems before them involved the reestablishment of political stability and the creation of a balance of power in Europe. Metternich was Austria's chancellor also called prince Clemons. Most of the leading figures were members of Europe's old aristocracy. The war and chaos of the preceding 20 yrs, they believed was occasioned by the belief of human equality. They wanted to destroy revolutionary impulse. Metternich engineered Austria's entry in the war of the 6th coalition and signed the treaty of Fontainebleau that sent Napoleon into exile. He also chaired the Congress of Vienna.

Holocaust

was led by Adolf Hitler and resulted in six million Jews perished. In the camp of Auschwitz, one of six major killing factories located in occupied Poland, an estimated one million were murdered by gassing, while another half a million succumbed to disease and starvation. The horrors of the camps, the screams, the beatings, the systematic torture, and the starvation were in part pure racism and in part designed to convince the immigrants that they were indeed less than human beings. Hitler's executioners that supported them annihilated 2/3 of Europe's Jewish population, and they completed their work with fanatical dedication and moral indifference to human suffering and to the status of civilians during wartime.

Stalin

was not a native Russian. He was raised in poverty. He rose quickly to prominence int he Communist Party after the 1917 revolution. Appointed general secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party in 1922, Stalin was no match for either Trotsky or Bukharin as a thinker, nor did he possess much knowledge of the West. Stalin transformed the Soviet Union into one of the worlds premier industrial and military powers, but at a cost in human life that is hard to imagine. Atleast 20 million Soviet citizens died during this frenetic race to modernize an overwhelmingly agrarian empire. (over work and exhaustion or starvation). Setting aside the graualist NEP, he established a state planning commission or Gosplan to oversee a series of 5 year plans build around the idea of state ownership in every sphere of influence of economic life.

Archduke Francis Ferdinand and his wife

were on an officila state visit to sarajevo when they were murdered by members of a secretive sebian nationalist group. Ferdinand was the archduke/ heir to Austria-Hungary. His assassination precipitated Austria- Hungarys declaration of war against Serbia. This caused central powers (including Germany and Austria-Hungary) and Serbia's allies to declare war on each other--aka starting WWI.

Adolf Hitler

wrote from prison in 1923 Mein Kampf- (My struggle) Missing crude Social Darwinism, anticommunism, and anti semitism, the book endorsed the myth of the superior German race descended from the ancient Aryans. Hitler called for national renewal through the demolition of the liberal Enlightenment tradition and the expansion of the mass race to the east, elimination inferior Jews and Slavs in the process. He was the leader of Germanys National Socialist Party (Nazi) and in his book he discussed how to win popular support in a democratic age. He placed special emphasis on the role of propaganda in democratic culture. in march 1933 Reichstag gave Hitler dictatorial power for 4 years and one year later he died so Hitler took over complete executive authority. Hitler ordered an elithe force within the Nazi Party, the SS, to kill the SA leadership. Under Himmler, the SS would become a ruthless and murderous organization dedicated to Hitlers world views. He ordered Nuremberg Laws and Kristallnacht. He is responsible for killing over 6 million Jews.