History and Systems (Ch. 3-5)

Epictetus (c. 50-c. 135)

A Roman stoic philosopher, popular in his day, who emphasized the stoic virtues of order, discipline, and resignation n those matters beyond our control.

Lyceum

A school near Athens founded by Aristotle.

Neo-Platonism

A school of philosophy founded in the third century that combined selected features of Platonic philosophy with Jewish and Christian mysticism.

Zeno of Elea

Active around 450 BCE, Zeno was a follower of Parmenides. He is remembered for paradoxes that supposedly revealed contradictions between reason and the senses. His paradoxes of motion are particularly noteworthy. For example, an arrow on its way toward a target presents a certain paradox. It must first travel half the distance, but then it must travel half the remaining distance. Because he thought it is possible to divide forever, the arrow should never reach its target.

Boethius (c. 480-524)

Attempted to use reason that he learned from Greek thought as a defense of Christianity. Some have regarded him as a kind of founder of the intellectual agenda that was to dominate medieval thought.

Al-Ghazeli (1058-1111)

Author of "The Incoherence of the Philosophers." Attacked the rationality of the Greeks and the concept of causality. Worked against scientific progress in Islam.

Arete

Daughter of Aristippus and head of the school of philosophy at Cyrene following the death of Aristippus.

Alcmaeon

Early Greek physician who worked around 500 BCE. H advocated an empirical, rational, and naturalistic approach to medicine. One of the first to practice dissection.

Index of forbidden books

Generally refers to books forbidden by the Catholic Church because they were regarded as dangerous to faith and morality. Though censorship was practiced from the early days of the church, this started in the 16th century and continued until 1966.

Leucippus

Greek philosopher who lived around 500 BCE. He was the founder of atomic theory later refined by Democritus.

Avesta

Holy book of the Zoroastrian religion.

Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592)

Late Renaissance scholar who launched a powerful and influential attack on human knowledge. His skepticism was to have a strong influence on Francis Bacon and René Descartes. He also speculated on the number of psychological topics such as how to rear children, education, motivation, and emotion.

Olivia Sabuco (1562-1590)

Late Renaissance writer who emphasized the wisdom of moderation. She was among the first to understand the role of emotions in physical and psychological health.

Peter Abelard (1079-1142)

One of the best-known university teachers in the twelfth century. His book "Yes and No" illustrated contradictions in the positions of past authorities. He argued for a stronger role for reason in Christian epistemology. He said there are multiple avenues for truth and that faith, reason, and doubt are all possible.

Aesara

One of the first Greek philosophers to emphasize the importance of balance to health.

Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)

Polish astronomer, physician, and minister remembered as the founder of a scientific revolution marked by the belief that the sun, rather than the earth, is the center of the solar system.

Galenus (c. 129-c. 199 BCE)

Rome's greatest physician, remembered for his early anatomical theories and his speculation on a host of medical problems including the problems of emotional illness.

Hippocrates (c. 460-c. 377 BCE)

Sometimes regarded as the Father of Greek Medicine, he advanced a thoroughgoing naturalistic account of all illness, both physical and mental. Advanced the first classification system of mental disorders!

Juan Luis Vives (1492-1540)

Spanish humanist who advocated an empirical approach to psychology. His book "De Anima et Vita" is a rich source of Renaissance thought on psychological topics.

Aristippus

Student of Socrates who headed the school of Cyren following the death of Socrates.

Theophrastus (c. 372-c. 287 BCE)

Succeeded Aristotle at the Lyceum. Extended many of Aristotle's ideas but emphasized material and efficient causes. He is sometimes regarded as the Father of Botany.

Socrates (c. 470-c. 399 BCE)

Teacher of Plato and reacted against the relativism of Protagoras and taught that reason is the basis of true knowledge. He emphasized the importance of self-knowledge and is thus an importance figure in the history of psychological thought. He was so important in Greek thought that all philosophy before his called pre-his name.

Psyche

The Greek term for soul or mind. Includes mental processes, such as thought, memory, sensation, and perception.

Martin Luther (1483-1546)

The founder of the Reformation and leader of the Protestant movement. Arguably, he contributed to the growth of the empirical spirit by advancing the doctrine of the individual priesthood of the believer, in which people have the right to read and interpret scriptures for themselves.

Medieval Period

The historical period from approximately 400 to 1300. Though it was a period marked by reliance on tradition, revelation, and authority, scholars attempted to find an acceptable role for reason and for observational studies.

Cosmogony

The origin of the universe.

Reformation

A 16th century religious movement founded by Martin Luther and motivated by an attempt to reform the Catholic Church. Luther's failure to bring about the changes he desired ultimately lead to major split in the church and the beginnings of Protestantism.

Animal Spirits

A concept that has enjoyed wide usage, especially in premodern times. In Galen's pneuma concept of the soul, the expression was used to account for a vital psychological function, namely, the operation of higher cognitive functions. This idea contrasted with 'natural spirits,' which account for vegetative functions.

Anaximenes (c. 588-c. 524 BCE)

A cosmologist who taught that air is the primal substance and that this substance is transformed into other things through condensation and rarefaction.

Academy

A facility purchased by Plato by a park named Academeca in Athens. Plato taught students at this facility, which flourished during Plato's life and for hundreds of years after his death.

Heloise (c. 1098-1164)

A gifted scholar known primarily for her tragic love affair with Peter Abelard. Her letters illustrated a deep philosophy and psychology of the nature of loving relationships.

Stoicism

A major post-Aristotelian philosophy emphasizing discipline and suppression of desire as means to the greatest happiness and virtue.

Eye of the Soul

A metaphor employed by Plato to convey the idea that the soul can sometimes apprehend true reality.

Hylomorphism

A mind-body position advanced by Aristotle, comes from "hule," meaning matter, and "morphe" meaning fro. Aristotle stressed the interdependence of matter and form. Thus, seeing as a mental process cannot be separated from the physical structure of the eye.

Epicureanism

A philosophy based on the goodness of pleasure and the evil of pain. It emphasized moderation and the capacity to forego immediate pleasures for long-term gains.

Asclepiades

A popular Greek physician who practiced in Rome around 124 BCE. He distinguished between delusions and hallucinations and argued that therapy for emotional problems should be pleasant.

Protagoras (C. 485-c. 410 BCE)

A sophist (teacher) who emphasized the doctrine of relativism. He argued that the world is conditioned by our senses and hence truth is relative.

Philosophy

A term likely coined by Pythagoras from "philo" (meaning love) and "sophia" (meaning knowledge or wisdom). Hence, the love of wisdom.

Sophist

A type of teacher in ancient Greece. The sophists often emphasized relativism and how to live successfully. They often offered plausible but fallacious arguments. Hence, terms such as "sophistry" and "sophistic" refer to arguments that appear to be sound but are later found to be superficial or fallacious.

Theory of Forms

According to Plato, there are universal and true principles comprehended through reason. For example, the senses reveal only particular triangles, but reason reveals the principles of triangularity. A goal of education is to uncover the true formal properties of things.

Averroes (1126-1198)

An Islamic scholar very influential in Europe because of his commentaries on the works of Aristotle. Known also for many substantive scientific discoveries. He discovered that patients once infected with smallpox become immune if the survive the initial infection. He also discovered that the retina is the part of the eye sensitive to light.

Theana

An accomplished philosopher and wife of Pythagoras who played a key role in the educational activities of the Pythagorean school.

Hsun Tzu (c. 298-c. 212 BCE)

An early Chinese philosopher who advanced a thoroughgoing naturalistic philosophy. He is sometimes viewed as the Chinese Aristotle.

Tertullian (c. 155-230)

An early Christian scholar remembered for his attacks on child sacrifice, the persecution of Christians, and the brutality of the Roman games. Also remembered for his attacks on Greek philosophy and his emphasis on faith as opposed to reason.

Thales

An early Greek cosmologist active around 600 BCE. H was known for his contention that water is the primordial substance. He was also interested in the problem of movement and the nature of motive forces that make movement possible.

Xenophanes (c. 560-c. 478 BCE)

An early Greek philosopher remembered for his epistemological skepticism. he argued that human beings do not have certain knowledge and he scoffed at anthropomorphic concepts of deity. First to distinguish between facts and opinions.

William of Ockham (c. 1285-1349)

An early philosopher friendly to empirical methods and strongly influenced by Thomas Aquinas. Taught that the best option is the one with the least possible assumptions.

Pythagoras (c. 580-c. 500 BCE)

An enduring figure in Western intellectual history who did his work around 570 BCE. He is remembered for his emphasis on the importance of quantification and for specific contributions such as the famous theorem involving a triangle. His beliefs in the primacy of reason and the nature of the soul were influential later in the work of Socrates and Plato.

Epicurus of Samos (341-270 BCE)

An important post-Aristotelian philosopher who founded a school of thought that focused largely on how to live the good life by maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain.

Avicenna (980-1037)

An influential philosopher of the Islamic world who attempted to reconcile the tensions between revelation and reason. Also remembered for his Aristotelian approach to psychological problems.

Yang

Ancient Chinese concept representing qualities such as force, hardness, masculinity, and hear. Contrasts with but also complements the concept of Yin.

Yin

Ancient Chinese concept representing qualities such as softness, coldness, passivity, and moistness. Contrasts with but also complements the concept of Yang.

Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519)

Broad-ranging Renaissance scholar who was an artistic genius, engineer, sculptor, and architect. He is also remembered for his careful studies of human anatomy and his artistic skill in capturing human emotions.

Myia

Daughter of Pythagoras and Theana. One of the first to give advice on child rearing.

Empedocles (c. 490-c. 430 BCE)

Early homeostatic theorist who taught that four basic elements (air, earth, fire, and water) combine with two first principles (love and strife). Love unites and organizes, whereas strife results in disintegration and disorganization.

Parmenides

Early philosopher who did his work shortly after 500 BCE. He was one of the first to attempt to distinguish between appearance and reality. According to him, the senses reveal only appearances, whereas reason leads to real truth. In contrast with Heraclitus, he emphasized a philosophy of being as opposed to a philosophy of becoming.

Ptomely (c. 100-165)

Egyptian astronomer, geographer, and mathematician known for an early geocentric cosmology that was widely accepted for over 1400 years.

Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527)

Founder of modern political science in the modern military science. One of the first emphasize the importance of socialization and the techniques for molding public opinion. He advocated the utility of a descriptive social science.

Plotinus (205-270 CE)

Founder of neo-Platonic philosophy and author of a six-volume series entitled "Enneads." His works are a rich source of psychological thought on topics such as perception, sensation, memory, and thinking.

Zeno of Cyprus (c. 335-c. 263 BCE)

Founder of the post-Aristotelian school of stoicism, which emphasized self-control, austerity, and suppression as guides to virtue and happiness.

Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)

German astronomer and mathematician who discovered the elliptical or oval shaped motions of the planets.

Anaximander of Miletus (610-c. 547 BCE)

Greek scientist and philosopher and one of the first to advance a theory of organic evolution.

Natural Spirit

In Galen's pneuma concept of the soul, natural spirit refers to those vital principles responsible for vegetative functions of the body.

Vital Spirit

In Galen's pneuma concept of the soul, this refers to activities located in the heart that regulate or control body heat.

Maimonides (1135-1204)

Influential Jewish philosopher who attempted to reconcile the conflicting claims of reason and revelation. His book "Guide for the Perplexed" was widely read and highly controversial.

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)

Italian astronomer and physicist remembered for improving the telescope and using it systematically in the observation of the solar system.

Francesco Petrarch (1304-1374)

Italian poet, scholar, and moralist who was the founder of Renaissance humanism.

Geocentric

Literally, "Earth centered."generally refers to the ancient view of Ptolemy that the earth is the center of the solar system.

Renaissance

Literally, "rebirth." The period in history from approximately 1300 to 1600 marked by the rediscovery of Greek classics, a new interest in mathematics, expanding geographic knowledge, and a wider epistemology.

Heliocentric

Literally, "sun centered." Typically refers to the work of Nicholaus Copernicus who taught that the sun is the center of the solar system.

Zarathustra

Major prophet of the Zoroastrian religion.

Hypatia (c. 370-415 CE)

Neo-Platonic philosopher noted for her expertise in astronomy and geometry. Possibly one of the first to recommend music therapy for emotional disorders.

Vedas

Oldest sacred books of India setting forth many early ideas on psychological matters.

Roger Bacon (c. 1220-c. 1292)

One of the first to write on the sources of human error in thought. His catalog of errors included things such as being a slave to habit, relying too much on authority, giving in to popular prejudices, and conceit about one's knowledge.

Juan Huarte (c. 1530-1592)

One of the first to write on the subjects of individual differences, aptitude, and temperament.

Aurelius Augustine (354-430)

One of the great doctors f the church who wrote extensively about a number of psychological topics including memory, grief, speech, and dreams.

Alhazen (956-1039)

One of the greatest Islamic scientists whose "Book of Optics" is one of the most influential classic works on vision. He made many original contributions on topics such as depth perception, apparent size, and binocular vision.

Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274)

One of the greatest doctors of the church, remembered for his heroic efforts to reconcile faith and reason. He is also remembered for advancing an empirically based system of psychological thought.

Skepticism

One of the major systematic approaches to philosophy following the death of Aristotle. The concerns of this group were largely focused on the problems of epistemology and the good life.

Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564)

Physician and anatomist known for his empirical approach to anatomy based on actual dissections. He revolutionized the study of the human body much as renaissance explorers such as Columbus and Magellan revolutionized knowledge of geography.

Pyrrho (c. 360-c. 925)

Physician and author of medical texts. Argued against demonology, superstitious religious beliefs, and the arbitrary use of authority in science. He advocated a rational and empirical approach to the problems of medicine and psychology, such as opinion, appearance, and probability, which suggested that knowledge is impossible.

Aesculapius

Possibly a historical figure, but the name comes form the Greek mythical God who is a son of Apollo. In Greek mythology, Apollo's son was a great physician who was killed by Zeus because he sinned by raising a man from the dead. Many temples were built in his honor.

Heraclitus

Probably active around 480 BCE, Heraclitus was the first process philosopher. Emphasized the idea that only change is real.

Paracelsus (1493-1541)

Radical Renaissance epistemologist who argued that observational studies should replace old scholastic techniques and blind allegiance to authority.

Renaissance humanism

Refers to a new interest in human affairs. It was manifested in art as the subject shifted from theological figures to human figures and in music as the subject shifted from the sacred to the secular. And science, there was a new interest in physiological and anatomical studies and A general new focus on topics of human concern.

Pneuma

Refers to the air we draw in as we breathe, but also refers to those vital principles that make life possible.

Machiavellianism

Refers to the application of the principles set forth by Niccolo Machiavelli. Sometimes implies amoral, manipulative attitudes, but, strictly speaking, such an implication is a corruption of the teachings of Machiavelli.

Indulgence

Refers to various means of raising money practiced by the Catholic Church prior to the Reformation. Generally involved payment of money in exchange for spiritual favor.

Democritus (c. 460-c. 370 BCE)

Refined the atomic theory set forth earlier by the philosopher Leucippus. Taught that reality was based on atoms and the void. Atoms were thought to be indivisible and invisible. Their basic structures accounted for the nature of the observable material world.

Lucretius (c. 96-c. 55)

Roman epicurean philosopher who wrote on a variety of psychological topics, often from the vantage point of the atomic theory of Democritus.

Sextus Empiricus

Roman physician and skeptic who criticized dogmatic certainty and argued for the virtues associated with an attitude of suspended judgement.

Ockham's Razor

The contention of William of Ockham that explanations containing fewer assumptions are to be preferred to those containing more assumptions.

Relativism

The doctrine that knowlegde is not absolute; rather, it is a product of human mental processes with all their inherent limitations. Thus, according to the position, truths change as a function of time, place, and circumstance.

Aristotle (384-322 BCE)

The pupil of Plato and one of the great philosophers who is especially noteworthy for his work in physics, biology, and psychology. He also founded logic and set forth an original and comprehensive view of causality.

Plato (c. 428-c. 347 BCE)

The student of Socrates and the teacher of Aristotle. One of the great philosophers of all time remembered, among other things, for his emphasis on the importance of nature of truth. Advanced an early conflict model of mental illness and speculated on numerous psychological topics such as memory and sensation.

Cosmology

The study of theories of the nature of the universe, including the relation of earth to the rest of the solar system.

Upanishads

Vedic treatises dealing with philosophical and psychological matters.

Confucius (551-479 BCE)

Well-know early Chinese philosopher interested primarily in the moral life with a focus on methods that promote personal and interpersonal harmony.