History Ch. 17

Don't Use bomb view

"Japan's staggering losses were enough to force surrender." Many scientists who worked on bomb, military leaders, civilian policymakers had doubts about using it. Dr. Leo Szilard, Jewish Hungarian-born physicist who helped FDR launch project, had major role in developing bomb was key figure in opposing its use. Petition drawn up by Szilard, signed by 70 scientists argued it'd be immoral to drop atomic bomb on Japan w/out fair warning. Many supported staging demonstration of bomb for Jap leaders, perhaps by exploding one on deserted island near Japan to convince Japs to surrender. Supreme Allied Commander General Dwight D. Eisenhower agreed. Maintained that dropping bomb was completely unnecessary to save US lives, Japan was already defeated. Ike told Secretary of War Henry Stimson, "I was against bomb on 2 counts. 1st, Japs were ready to surrender, wasn't necessary to hit them w/ that awful thing. 2nd, hated seeing our country be 1st to use such a weapon."

Support of bomb usage view

"Only way to end war in Japan was to bomb Japanese mainland." Many advisors to Pres. Truman, including Sec. of War Henry Stimson, had point of view. Felt bomb would end war, save US lives. "Face of war is face of death." Some scientists working on bomb agreed, even more so as casualty figures from Iwo Jima, Okinawa sank in. "Are we going to shed US blood when we have the available means to steady victory? No! If we can save even handful of US lives, let us use this weapon now!" 2 other concerns. Some feared if bomb weren't used, project might be viewed as huge waste of money. 2nd concern involved SU. Tension, distrust already developing between Western Allies, Soviets. Some US officials believed successful use of atomic bomb would give US powerful advantage over Soviets in shaping the world.

Asian American Contribution

+13,000 Chinese Americans or 1/5 adult males joined armed forces. Plus 33,000 Japanese Americans. 1000s volunteered as spies, interpreters in Pacific war. "During battles, crawled up close enough to hear Japanese officers' commands and make verbal translations to our soldiers."

Women in war industries

+6 mil. women workers. At first, war industries feared most women lacked necessary stamina for factory work, were reluctant to hire women. Once women proved able to operate welding torches, riveting guns as well as men, employers couldn't hire enough of them - especially since women early only 60% as much as men doing same jobs. During war, women took many jobs previously held by men. 1943 Nashville, Tennessee young woman operating hand drill.

Black Contribution

1 mil served in military. Lived, worked in segregated units. Limited mostly to noncombat roles. After much protest, Blacks finally saw combat beginning April 1943.

Results of Nuremberg Trials

12 of 24 defendants sentenced to death, most of remaining sent to prison. In later trials of lesser leaders, 200 more Nazis found guilty of war crimes. Many have argued that the trials didn't go far enough in seeking out, punishing war criminals. Many Nazis who took part in Holocaust went free.The imperfect trials established important principle - the idea that people are responsible for their own actions, even during war. Nazi executioners couldn't escape punishment by claiming that they were merely following orders. Principle of individual responsibility firmly entrenched in international law.

Douglas Macarthur

1880-1964. Too arrogant, prickly to be considered regular guy to his troops. Arguably most brilliant Allied strategist of WW2. For every US soldier killed in his campaigns, Japs lost 10. Considered real hero of war, both by military, prisoners on Philippines he freed. Journalist John Gunther said, "MacArthur took more territory w/ less loss of life than any military commander since Darius the Great, king of Persia 522-486 BC.

Scientific Research

1941, FDR made Office of Scientific Research and Development, OSRD, to bring scientists into war effort. OSRD spurred development in radar, sonar, new technologies for locating submarines underwater. Encouraged use of pesticides like DDT to fight insects. Result, US soldiers probably 1st in history relatively free from body lice. OSRD pushed development of miracle drugs like penicillin, that saved countless lives on, off battlefield.

GI bill of rights

1944, to ease transition of returning servicemen to civilian life, Congress passed Servicemen's Readjustment Act, GI bill of rights. Provided education, training for veterans, paid for by fed gov. +Half returning soldiers, 7.8 mil veterans attended colleges, technical schools under GI bill. Act provided federal loan guarantees to vets buying homes, farms, starting new businesses. Attending Penn State College under GI bill of rights, William Oskay Jr. paid $28 a month for trailer home where you see him working.

John Patrick McGrath story

1951, just finishing 2nd year in drama school. For acting class, final exam was to perform a death scene. Knew lines perfectly but as he began the final farewell, he started sweating and bolted off stage. Had sudden flashback to frozen meadow in Belgium during Battle of the Bulge in 1945. 3 German tanks spraying his platoon w/ machine-gun fire. "1 of my men fall few feet away. Calls out for me, 'Don't leave me' Tanks are coming for me. I grab my buddy and pull him across the snow. Dead everywhere, buddy dead" McGrath never forgot the heroism, horrors he witnessed while fighting to free Europe. Private John P. McGrath carried bullet-riddled letter in pack that saved his life. 1990, visited Anzio, where members of his company were buried.

Japanese Advances

1st 6 months after Pearl Harbor, Japan conquered empire that dwarfed Hitler's 3rd Reich. On Asian mainland, Japanese troops overran Hong Kong, French Indochina, Malaya, Burma, Thailand, much of China. Across south, east Pacific, conquering Dutch East Indies, Guam, Wake Island, Solomon Islands, other outposts including 2 islands in Aleutian chain of Alaska.

Native American contribution

25,000 enlisted in armed services, including 800 women. Willingness to serve led The Saturday Evening Post to say, "We would not need Selective Serve if all volunteered like Indians."

Nagasaki

3 days later, Aug. 9, 2nd bomb, code-named the Fat Man was dropped on Nagasaki, leveling half the city.

Selective Service Act

5 mil volunteered for military service, but not enough for all-out war on 2 global fronts - Europe, Pacific. Selective Service System expanded draft and provided another 10 mil soldier for armed forces.

Initial Philippine War

80,000 USs, Filipino troops battle Japanese for control. At Jap invasion time in Dec. 1941, General Douglas MacArthur was in command of Allies on islands. When US, Filipino troops had back to wall on Bataan, FDR ordered MacArthur to leave. March 11, 1942, he left Philippines w/ wife, son, staff, pledged to 1000s of troops, "I shall return." Allied forces held out against 200,000 invading Jap troops for 4 months in Bataan Peninsula. Hunger, disease, bombardments killed 14,000 Allies, wounded 48,000.

Battle of Atlantic why

After Pearl Harbor, Hitler ordered submarine raids against ships on America's east coast. German aim was to prevent food, war materials from reaching GB, SU. GB depended on supplies from sea. 3,000-mile-long shipping lane from North America was her lifeline. Hitler knew if he cut that lifeline, GB would be starved into submission.

Hollywood helps mobilization

After Pearl Harbor, Hollywood made war-oriented propaganda films. Heroic movies like Mission to Moscow, Song of Russia glorified America's new wartime ally, Soviet Union. Hiss-and-boo filmed stirred hatred against Nazis. Movies energized people to join war effort. As war dragged on, people grew tired of propaganda, war themes, so Hollywood made musicals, romances, escapist fare designed to take filmgoers away from grim realities of war, only just for 1 or 2 hours. Also informational films like Why We Fight by great director Frank Capra, shown consulting w/ Colonel Hugh Stewart, commander of British Army film unit, in joint effort in making of Tunisian Victory, 1st official film record of campaign that expelled Germany from North Africa. Hilter, Beast of Berlin, made in 1939 was 1 of most popular hiss-and-boo flilms. Audiences watched in rage as Nazis conducted horrible acts.

Volunteer soldiers

After Pearl Harbor, many eager young ones in recruting offices. Roger Tuttrup said, "Wanted to be hero, having trouble in school. War for 2 years. Didn't want to miss it. 17, American." March 1941, black men in NYC enlist in US Army Air Corps. 1st time Army Air Corps opened enlistment to black.

Home Front main idea

After WW2, Americans adjusted to new economic opportunities, harsh social tensions. Economic opportunities afforded by WW2 led to more diverse middle class in US.

Iwo Jima

After retaking much of Philippines, liberating US prisoners of war there, Allies turned to Iwo Jima, island writer William Manchester called "ugly, smelly glob of cold lava squatting in ocean." Iwo Jima means sulfur island and was critical to US as base from where heavily loaded bombers could reach Japan. Also perhaps most heavily defended spot on earth, w/ 20,700 Japs entrenched in tunnels, caves. +6,000 US marines died taking desolate island, greatest number in any battle in Pacific to that point. Only 200 Japs survived. Only obstacle stood between Allies, final assault on Japan, Okinawa island.

D-Day operation

Allied invasion, Operation Overlord, originally set for June 5, but bad weather forced delay. Banking on clearing skies, Ike gave go-ahead for D-Day, June 6, 1944, 1st day of invasion. Around midnight, 3 divisions parachuted behind German lines. Followed in early morning by 1000s of seaborne soldiers, largest land-sea-air operation in army history. Despite massive air, sea bombardment by Allies, German retaliation was brutal, especially at Omaha Beach. Soldier Felix Branham, "People yelling, screaming, dying, running on beach, equipment flying everywhere, men bleeding to death, crawling, lying everywhere, firing from all directions. We dropped down behind anything size of golf ball."

Pacific plan

Allies agreed Nazis' defeat was 1st priority, but US didn't wait for V-E day to move against Japan. Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor had missed Pacific Fleet's submarines and more importantly, missed fleet's aircraft carriers, all out at sea at time.

Battle of Atlantic defense

Allies responded by organizing cargo ships into convoys, groups of ship traveling together for mutual protection, like they did in WW1. Convoys were escorted across Atlantic by destroyers equipped w/ sonar for detecting submarines underwater. Also accompanied by airplanes that used radar to spot U-boats on ocean't surface. W/ improved tracking, Allies able to find, destroy German U-boats faster than Germans could build them. Late spring 1943, Admiral Karl Doenitz, commander of German U-boat offensive, reported his losses had "reached unbearable height." Meanwhile, US launched crash shipbuilding program. By early 1943, 140 Liberty ships produced each month. Launchings of Allied ships began to outnumber sinkings. By mid-1943, Battle of Atlantic had turned. Happy Churchill said to House of Commons that June " was best month at sea from every perspective we have ever known in the whole 46 months of the war." Convoy of British, American ships in harbor.

Liberation of Death Camps

Allies went east to German heart, SU went west across Poland toward Berlin. SU troops were 1st to find a Nazi death camp in July 1944. SUs drew near camp called Majdanek, Poland and SS guards tried to bury, burn all evidence of hideous crimes. Ran out of time. When SUs entered, found 1000 starving prisoners barely alive, world's largest crematorium, storehouse w/ 800,000 shoes. SU correspondent, "Not concentration camp, giant murder plant." Americans who later liberated were equally horrified, "Started smelling bad odor, suddenly at concentration camp at Landsberg. 100s of starving prisoners. Saw weak men whose thighs were smaller than wrists, bones sticking out thru skin. 100s burned, naked bodies. That evening wrote wife, 'For 1st time, realized evil of Hitler, why the war had to be waged.'"

SU prevails in Battle of Stalingrad

Another winter set in. SUs saw cold as opportunity to roll fresh tanks acroos frozen land and begin massive counterattack. SU army closed around Stalingrad, trapping Germans in and cutting off their supplies. German situation hopeless. Hitler ordered, "Stay and fight! I won't go back from the Volga." Fighting continued as winter turned city into frozen wasteland. "We just lay in our holes, freeze, knowing next day, next day we'll be shivering just the same." wrote German soldier, Benno Zieser. "No hope of relief, worst thing of all" German commander surrendered Jan. 31, 1943. 2 days later, starving troops also surrendered. SUs lost 1,100,000 in defending Stalingrad - more than all Americans during WW2. Despite great death toll, SU victory marked turning point in war. From then on, SU army moved westward toward Germany. Dazed, starved German soldiers taken prisoner after struggling for months. They the lucky ones. +230,000 of their comrades died in the battle.

Battle for Okinawa

April 1945, US Marines invaded Okinawa. Japs unleashed +1,900 kamikaze attacks on Allies during Okinawa campaign, sinking 30 ships, damaging +300, killing 5,000 seamen. Once ashore, USs faced fiercer opposition than on Iwo Jima. By time fighting ended June 21,1945, +7,600 USs had died. But Japs paid higher price, 110,000 lives defending Okinawa. Total included 2 generals whose chose ritual suicide over surrender shame. Witness said, "Simultaneous shout, sword's flash, both generals nobly accomplished last duty to Emperor." Battle for Okinawa was sad foretaste of what Allies imagined invasion of Japan's home islands would be. Churchill predicted cost would be million US lives, half mil. of British lives.

Berlin stormed, raided

April 25, 1945, SU army stormed Berlin. SU shells burst overhead, city panicked. "Many soldiers stationed in Berlin deserted, were shot on spot, hanged from nearest tree wearing placards saying, 'We betrayed the Fuhrer.'" said Berlin clerk.

Dwight D. Ike Eisenhower

Army Chief of Staff General George Marshall chose modest Lieutenant General Dwight David Eisenhower to become Supreme Commander of US forces in Europe for good reason. Ike was superb planner, possessed keen mind for military tactics. More important, had uncommon ability to work w/ all kinds of people, even competitive, temperamental allies. After V-E Day, grateful Marshall wrote him, "You've been selfless in your actions, always sound, tolerant in judgments, altogether admirable in courage, wisdom of military decisions. Have made history, great history for good of mankind." 1953, Eisenhower became president.

Black discrimination fight in Detroit

As black migrants moved into already overcrowded cities, tensions rose. 1943, tidal wave of racial violence swept across country. Worst conflict in Detroit on hot Sunday afternoon in June. Started as tussle between white, black at beach on Detroit River. Turned into riot when white sailors stationed nearby joined. Fighting raged for 3 days, fueled by false rumors that whites had murdered a black woman, her child and that black rioters had killed 17 whites. By time FDR sent fed troops to restore order, 9 whites, 25 black lay dead, dying. Violence of 1943 revealed just how serious racial tensions had become in US. By 1945, +400 committees had been established by US communities to improve race relations. Progress slow, but black determined not to give up the gains they had made.

Supply demand problem?

As war production increased, there were fewer consumer products available for purchase. Factory production was most important for war. With demand increasing and supplies dropping, prices seemed likely to shoot upwards.

Japanese expectations after Pearl Harbor attack.

Attacked expecting Americans to shrink from further conflict after experiencing Japan's power. Day after raid, Japan Times boasted US was reduced to 3rd-rate power, trembling in her shoes. If Americans trembling, from rage, not fear. Battle cry "Remember Pearl Harbor", set out to prove Japan wrong.

Hiroshima

Aug. 6, B-29 bomber named Enola Gay released atomic bomb, code-named Little Boy over Hiroshima, important military center. 43 seconds later, almost every building in city collapsed into dust from force of blast. Hiroshima ceased to exist. Japan's leaders still hesitated to surrender.

Unconditional surrender, next phase

Before North Africa won, FDR, Churchills, their commanders met in Casablanca. The 2 leaders agreed to accept only unconditional surrender of Axis powers. Enemy nations would have to accept whatever terms of peace the Allies dictated. Also discussed where to strike next, USs argued best approach to victory was to assemble massive invasion fleet in Britain, launch it across English Channel, through France, into Germany heart. But Churchill thought it safer to attack Italy first.

Guadalcanal in Solomon Islands, 1st Allied offensive

Began Aug. 1942 when 19,000 troops stormed Guadalcanal in Solomon Islands. By time Japs abandoned Guadalcanal 6 months later, called it Island of Death. To war correspondent Ralph Martin, troops who fought there, it was hell. "Hell was red furry spider as big as fist, huge lizards as long as leg, leeches falling from trees to such blood, armies of white ants w/ bit of fire, scorpions inflaming flesh they touched, hug rats, bats everywhere, rivers w/ crocodiles. Sour, foul smell of squishy jungle, humidity that rotted body in hours, stinking wet heat of rain forest that sapped strength of men." Guadalcanal marked Japs' 1st defeat on land, not last. USs kept leapfrogging across Pacific toward Japan. Oct 1944, 178,000 Allies, 738 ship converged on Leyte Island in Philippines. General MacArthur, who left Philippines 2 years earlier, came ashore, said, "Philippine people, I have returned."

WPB

Besides controlling inflation, gov also needed to ensure armed forces, war industries got the needed resources needed to win the war. War Production Board, WPB, assumed the responsibility. WPB decided which companies would convert from peacetime to wartime production, allocated raw materials to key industries. WPB organized drives to collect scrap iron, tin cans, paper, rags, cooking fat for recycling into war goods. Across America, kids looked in attics, cellars, garages, vacant lots, back alleys for useful junk. During 1 5-month paper drive in Chicago, schoolchildren collected 36 mil. lbs of old paper, 65 lbs per child. Children of all ages helped w/ wartime recycling. 5-year-old boy pounded pavement in NYC collecting aluminum.

Nuremberg War Trials

Besides geographic division, Germany had to pay another price for its part in war. Discovery of Hitler's death camps led Allies to put 24 surviving Nazi leaders on trial for crimes against humanity, against peace, and war crimes. Trials were held in south German town of Nurmeberg. At the trials, defendants included Hitler's most trusted party officials, government ministers, military leaders, powerful industrialists. As trial began, US Supreme Court Justice, Robert Jackson explained event's significance. "Wrongs we seek to condemn, punish were so calculated, malignant, devastating that civilization can't tolerate their being ignored cause it can't survive them being repeated. Hard now to perceive in these miserable men the power that the Nazi leaders once used to dominate much of world, terrified most of it. As individuals, their fate is of little consequence to world. Significance is that those prisoners represent sinister influences that will lurk in world long after they die. They are living symbols of racial hatreds, terrorism, violence, arrogance, cruelty of power. Civilization can't afford compromise w/ social forces that would gain renewed strength if we deal indecisively w/ the men in which those forces now survive.

The brave in Italy, 99th Pursuit Squadron

Brave men who fought in Italy included pilots of all-black 99th Pursuit Squadron, Tuskegee Airmen. In Sicily, squadron registered its 1st victory against an enemy aircraft and made more impressive strikes against German forces throughout Italy. Tuskegee Airmen won 2 Distinguished Unit Citations, military's highest commendation, for their outstanding aerial combat against German Luftwaffe.May 31, 1943 99th Pursuit Squadron, 1st group of black pilots trained at Tuskegee Institute, arrived in North Africa. Regimental insignia was blue and gold with lion breathing fire and spit fire inscribed on bottom.

US and Britain join forces

British prime minister Winston Churchill says in a wire to FDR 2 days after Pearl Harbor, "Now that we are in the same boat, it would be wise for us to have another conference, the sooner the better." FDR agreed with invitation for Churchill to come at once. Remarkable alliance between the nations began.

Effects of atomic bomb

By end of year 1945, 200,000 people died from injuries, radiation poisoning caused by atomic blasts. Yamaoka Michiko, 15 years old, living near center of Hiroshima when 1st bomb hit. "They say temperatures of 7,000 degrees hit me. Nobody there looked like humans, they lost ability to speak. Couldn't scream, "It hurts!" even when on fire. People's legs wrenched off. Without heads, faces burned, swollen out of shape. The scene I saw was a living hell."

Leading up to Battle of Stalingrad. Eastern Front, Mediterranean

By winter 1943, Allies started seeing victories on land and sea. 1st great turning point in Battle of Stalingrad. Germans were fighting SU since June 1941. Nov. 1941, bitter cold stopped them outside Soviet cities of Moscow, Leningrad. In spring, German tanks ready to roll. Summer of 1942, Germans took offensive in south SU. Hitler hoped to capture Soviet oil fields in Caucasus Mountains. Also wanted to wipe out Stalingrad, major industrial center on Volga River.

War Plans

Churchill came to White House on Dec. 22, 1941 and spent 3 weeks working on war plans w/ FDR and his advisors. Believing Germany, Italy posed greater threat than Japan, Churchill convinced FDR to strike first against Hitler. Once Allies had upper hand in Europe, they could pour more resources into Pacific War. By end of meeting, Churchill thought they had a "very strong affection that grew from their years of comradeship." When he reached London, found message from FDR that said, "It is fun to be in the same decade w/ you."

Good about WW2 economy

Contrasting GD, WW2 was time of opportunity for mil. of USs. Jobs abounded, despite rationing, shortages, people had money to spend. At end of WW2, nation emerged as world's dominant economic, military power.

Battle of the Bulge operation

Dec. 16, under dense fog, 8 German tank divisions broke through weak American defenses along 80-mile front. Hilter hoped victory would split US, GB forces, break up Allied supply lines. Tanks drove 60 miles into Allied territory, creating bulge in lines. Germans swept west, captured 120 American GIs near Malmedy. Elite German troops, SS troopers, herded prisoners into large field, mowed them down w/ machine guns, pistols. Battled for month. When over, Germans were pushed back, little seemed changed. Events had taken decisive turn. Germans lost 120,000 troops, 600 tanks + assault guns, 1,600 planes. soldiers, weapons they couldn't replace. From then on, Nazis could do little but retreat.

Minorities in war industries

Defense plants hired +2 mil. minority workers during war years. Like women, faced strong prejudice at first. Before war, 75% of defense contractors refused to hire black, while other 15% employed them only in menial jobs. "Negroes considered only janitors" said general manager of North American Aviation. "Company policy not to employ them as mechanics, aircraft workers."

Mexican American Contribution

Despite discrimination in military, +300,000 Hispanics joined armed forces. While made up tenth of LA population, suffered fifth of city's wartime casualties.

Allies gain ground on D-Day

Despite heavy casualties, Allies held beachheads. After 7 days fighting, Allies held 80-mile strip of France. Within month, had landed mil. troops, 567,000 tons of supplies, 170,000 vehicles in France. July 25, General Omar Bradley unleashed huge air/land bombardment at St. Lo, providing gap in German defense line through which General George Patton, his 3rd Army advanced. Aug. 23, Patton, 3rd Army reached Seine River south of Paris. Aug. 25, French resistance forces, American troops liberated French capital from 4 years of German occupation. Parisians joyous. Patton announced joyous event to his commander, "Dear Ike: Today I spat in the Seine." By Sept. 1944, Allies freed France, Belgium, Luzembourg. Good news and Americans' desire not to change horses in midstream helped elect FDR to unprecedented 4th term in Nov. 1944, w/ his running mate, Senator Harry S. Truman.

Black discriminiation

Despite opportunities that opened for women, minorities during war, old prejudices, policies persisted, both in military, at home. Black made some progress on home front. During war, 1000s of black left South. Majority moved to Midwest, where better jobs could be found. 1940-44, percent of black working in skilled, semiskilled jobs rose from 16 to 30%. Wherever black moved, discrimination presented hurdles. 1942, civil rights leader James Farmer founded interracial organization called Congress of Racial Equality, CORE, to confront urban segregation in North. Same year, CORE staged its first sit-in at segregated Chicago restaurant.

FDR died

Didn't see V-E Day. April 12, 1945, while posing for portrait in Warm Springs, GA, had stroke, died. That night, Vice President Harry S. Truman became 33rd president.

92nd Infantry Division, nicknamed Buffaloes

Distinguished black unit. In just 6 months of European fighting, won 7 Legion of Merit awards, 65 silver stars, 162 bronze stars for courage under fire.

MacArthur Constitution

During 7-year occupation, MacArthur reshaped Japan's economy by introducing free-market practices, leading to remarkable economic recovery. Also worked to transform Japan's government. Called for new constitution to provide for woman suffrage, guarantee basic freedoms. In US, Americans followed the changes w/ interest. NYTimes reported, "General MacArthur has swept away autocratic regime by a warrior god, installed instead a democratic government presided over by very human emperor, based on will of people as expressed in free elections. Japs apparently agreed. To this day, their constitution is called the MacArthur Constitution.

Operation Torch

During Battle of Stalingrad, Stalin pressed GB, US to open a second front in west Europe. Argued that invasion across English Channel would force Hitler to divert troops from SU front. Churchill, FDR didn't think Allies had enough troops to attempt invasion on European soil. Instead, launched Operation Torch, invasion of Axis-controlled North Africa- Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Egypt - commanded by American General Dwight D. Eisenhower. Nov. 8, 1942. 107,000 troops, mostly Americans, landed in Casablanca, Oran, Algiers. Went eastward, chasing Afrika Korps led by General Erwin Rommel, legendary Desert Fox. After months of heavy fighting, last of Afrika Korps surrendered in May 13, 1943. GB General Harold Alexander sent Churchill message, "All enemy resistance has ceased. We are masters of North African shores." American war correspondent Ernie Pyle caught victorious troops' mood, "This colossal German surrender has done more for American morale than any other possibility. Winning in battle is like winning at poker or catching lots of fish. Result = 100,000s of Americans in North Africa are happy men.

War Criminals Trial 1945-49 chart

Each defendant accused of 1 or more crimes. 1. Crimes against the peace - planning, waging an aggressive war. 2. war crimes - acts against customs of warfare, like killing hostages, prisoner, plundering private property, destroying towns, cities. 3. Crimes against humanity - murder, extermination, deportation, enslavement of civilians.

Production miracle

Early Feb. 1942, American newspapers reported end of automobile production for private use. Last car made on automaker's assembly line was gray sedan with "victory trim"-without chrome-plated parts. 1 more sign that war would affect almost every aspect of life. Aircraft, ship production highest in 1944. Aircraft most w/ 100,000. US Budget expenditure defense highest in 1944 at 95 bil. dollars. Non defense super low.

Japan surrenders

Emperor Hirohito was horrified by destruction by bomb. Told Japan's leaders tearfully, "I can't bear to see my innocent people suffer any longer." Ordered them to draw up papers to end the war. Sept. 2, formal surrender ceremonies on US battleship Missouri in Tokyo Bay. General MacArthur said in speech, "Today, guns are silent. Skies no longer rain death, seas bear only commerce, men everywhere walk upright in sunlight. Entire world is quietly at peace."

OPA

FDR responded to the high price threat by making the Office of Price Administration, OPA. It fought inflation by freezing prices on most goods. Congress also raised income tax rates and extending tax to millions of people who had never paid it before. Higher taxes reduced consumer demand on scarce goods by leaving workers w/ less to spend. Government also encouraged Americans to use extra cash to buy war bonds. Result of measures = inflation remained below 30%, half of WW1, for entire period of WW2.

Family changes

Families adjusted to changes brought by war the best they could. W/ mil. of fathers in armed forces, mothers struggled to rear children alone. Many young ones got used to being left w/ neighbors, relatives, in child-care centers when more, more mothers went to work. Teenagers left at home w/out parents sometimes drifted into juvenile delinquency. When fathers finally did come home, there was often a painful period of readjustment as family members got to know one another again.

Farmers, war good economy

Farmers also prospered during war. Unlike depression years when farmers battled dust storms, floods, early 1940s had good weather for growing crops. Farmers benefited from improvements in farm machinery, fertilizers, reaped profits from rising crop prices. Result=crop production increased by 50%, farm income tripled. Before war ended, many farmers could pay off their mortgages.

Internment in Hawaii

Fear, uncertainty caused wave of prejudice against Jap Americans. Early 1942, War Department called for mass evacuation of all Jap Americans from Hawaii. General Delos Emmons, military governor of Hawaii, resisted order cause 37% of Hawaiians were Jap Americans. To remove them would've destroyed islands' economy, hindered US military operations there. But he was eventually forced to order the internment, or confinement, of 1,444 Jap Americans, 1% of Hawaii's Jap-American population.

Randolph and FDR discussion

Fearing march would provoke white resentment or violence, FDR called Randolph to White House and asked him to back down. "Sorry, Mr. President, march can't be called off. FDR asked, "How many people do you plan to bring?" Randolph said "100,000." FDR stunned. Even half that number of black protesters would be way more than DC, very segregated city, could feed, house, transport. Eventually FDR backed down. In return for Randolph's promise to cancel march, FDR issued executive order ordering employers, labor unions to "provide for full, equitable participation of all workers in defense industries, w/out discrimination cause of race, creed, color, national origin."

Raising flag on Iwo Jima pic

Feb. 19, 1945, war in Europe ending, but in Pacific 1 of fiercest battles in WW2 about to erupt. On that day, 70,000 marines converged on tiny, Jap-controlled island of Iwo Jima. 4 days later, had captured Mount Suribachi, island's highest point, but battle raged for 4 more weeks. Photographer Lou Lowery documented men of "Easy Company" hoisting US flag on makeshift pole on the mountain. But original flag soon taken down to be kept as souvenir by commanding officer. 6 marines, navy corpsman sent to replace flag w/ larger one. Joe Rosenthal, wire service photographer, saw 2nd flag raising, grabbed camera, clicked frame w/out looking through viewfinder. Photo appeared next morning on front pages of US newspapers To USs, immediately replaced gloomy, blurred images of Pearl Harbor on fire.

Battle of Atlantic bad

For long time, seemed that Hitler would succeed. Unprotected American ship were easy targets for Germans. In 1st 4 months of 1942, Germans sank 87 ships off Atlantic shore. 7 months into year, German wolf packs had destroyed 681 Allied ships in Atlantic. Something had to be done or war at sea would be lost

Recruiting and Discrimination

For minority groups - especially Black, Native Americans, Mexican Americans, Asian Americans - war made new dilemmas. Cause restricted to segregated neighborhoods and reservations, denied basic citizenship rights, some minorities questioned whether war was their fight. "Why die for democracy in foreign country when we don't have it here?" said black newspaper editorial. After getting draft notice, black said, "Carve on tombstone, 'Here lies black man killed fighting yellow man for protection of white man.'"

Office of Price Administration, OPA

Fought inflation by freezing wages, prices, and rents. Rationed foods, such as meat, butter, cheese, vegetables, sugar, coffee

German offensive in Battle of Stalingrad

German army confidently approached Stalingrad Aug. 1942. German soldier said, "To reach Volga and take Stalingrad is not so difficult for us. Victory is not far away." Luftwaffe, German air force, prepared way w/ nightly bombing raids over city. Almost every wooden building in Stalingrad on fire. Situation looked desparate, so SU officers advised blowing up city's factories, abandoning city. Furious Stalin ordered them to defend his namesake city no matter the cost. For weeks, Germans pressed in on Stalingrad, conquering house by house in brutal hand-to-hand combat. By end of Sept., they controlled 9/10 of city

Population shifts

In addition to revamping economy, war triggered 1 of greatest mass migrations in American history. USs whose families had lived in 1 place for decades suddenly uprooted themselves to seek work elsewhere. +1 mil. newcomers poured into California from 1941-44. Towns w/ defense industries saw their populations double, triple sometimes overnight. Black left South for cities in North in record numbers. South, -1,200,000. Midwest, +523,000. Middle Atlantic, +386,000. West Coast, +283,000. Mountain, Plain States, +26,000, New England, +25,000.

Hitler prepares for the end

In his underground headquarters in Berlin. April 29, married Eva Braun, longtime companion. Same day, wrote last address to German people, in it blamed Jews for starting war, his generals for losing it. "I die w/ happy heart aware of immeasurable deeds of our soldiers. I, my wife choose to die to escape disgrace of surrender." Next day, He shot himself, wife swallowed poison. Following Hitler's orders, 2 bodies were carried outside, soaked w/ gasoline, burned.

Department of Treasury

Issued war bonds to raise money for war effort and to fight inflation

Occupation of Japan, results

Japan occupied by US forces under command of General Douglas MacArthur. In early years of occupation, +1,100 Japanese, from former Prime Minister Hideki Tojo to prison guards were arrested, put on trial. 7, including Tojo, sentenced to death. In Philippines, China, other Asian battlegrounds, more Jap officials tried for atrocities against civilians or prisoners of war.

Kamikaze, Battle of Leyte Gulf

Japs threw whole fleet in Battle of Leyte Gulf. Tested new tactic, kamikaze, suicide-plane, attack when Jap pilots crashed bomb-laden planes into Allied ships. Kamikaze means divine wind, refers to legendary typhoon that saved Japan in 1281 by destroying Mongol invasion. In Philippines, 424 kamikaze pilots went on suicide missions, sinking 16 ships, damaging 80. USs watched terrifying attacks w/" strange mixture of respect, pity" said Vice Admiral Charles Brown. "Have to admire devotion to country demonstrated by pilots" said Seaman George Marse. "Yet, when shot down, rescued, brought aboard our ship, surprised to find pilots looked ordinary, scared young men, not wide-eyed fanatical devils we imagined." Despite damage done by kamikazes, Battle of Leyte Gulf was disaster for Japan. In 3 days of battle, lost 3 battleships, 4 aircraft carriers, 13 cruisers, 500 planes. From then on, Imperial Navy played only minor role in Japan's defense. Jap kamikaze pilots smiled, posed before taking off on next, last mission.

Battle of Midway

Japs' next thrust was toward Midway, strategic island lying northwest of Hawaii. Here Allies again succeeded in stopping Japs. USs broke Jap code and knew Midway was next target. Admiral Chester Nimitz, commander of American naval forces in Pacific, moved to defend island. June 3, 1942, his scout planes found Jap fleet. USs sent torpedo planes, dive bombers to attack. Japs caught w/ planes on carrier decks. Devastating results. By end of battle, Japs had lost 4 aircraft carriers, cruiser, 250 planes. Jap official said, " at Midway, USs avenged Pearl Harbor." Battle turning point in Pacific. Soon Allies began island hopping. Island by island won territory back from Japs. W/ each island, Allies moved closer to Japan.

Manhattan Project

Led by General Leslie Groves w/ research directed by Jewish American scientist J. Robert Oppenheimer, development of atomic bomb was both most ambitious scientific enterprise in history and best-kept secret of war. At its peak, +600,000 USs involved in project, but few knew its ultimate purpose. Even Truman didn't learn about it until becoming president.

William Manchester's story

Left college after Pearl Harbor to join marines. As child, his horror of violence was so great that he wouldn't trade punches. On Pacific island, confronted his terror when killed man. His target was Japanese sniper firing on his buddies from fisherman's shack. "Mouth dry, legs quaking, eyes out of focus. Then vision cleared, kicked door, went inside. Saw him as blur on my right. 1st shot missed him, 2nd hit dead on. Blood came, dipped hand in it, smeared it, fly landed on eyeball. Feeling of disgust, self-hatred gagged me." Pacific War was savage conflict fought w/ raw courage. Few who were involved came home unchanged.

Mexican Americans, Italy

Like black, served in segregated units. 17 awarded Congressional Medal of Honor. All-Chicano unit, Company E of 141st Regiment, 36th Division became of one most decorated in war.

Smith-Connally Anti-Strike Act, 1943

Limited the right to strike in industries crucial to war effort. Gave president power to take over striking plants.

National War Labor Board, NWLB

Limited wage increases. Allowed negotiated benefits, like paid vacation, pensions, medical insurance. Kept unions stable by forbidding workers to change unions.

War helped create new families

Longtime sweethearts and couples who barely knew each other rushed to marry before the soldier or sailor was shipped overseas. In booming towns like Seattle, number of marriage licenses issued increased by up to 300% early in war. NYer observed in 1943, "On Fridays, Saturdays, City Hall was blurred w/ running soldiers, sailors, girls hunting license bureau, floral ships, ministers, blood testing laboratories, Legal Aid Society."

Battle of the Coral Sea

Main Allied forces in Pacific were USs, Australians. May 1942, stopped Japs' drive toward Australia in 5-day battle of Coral Sea. During battle, fighting done in planes that took off from huge aircraft carriers. Not single shot fired by surface ships. 1st time since Pearl Harbor that Jap invasion was stopped, turned back.

Yalta decision

Meeting produced lots of compromises. To pacify Stalin, FDR convinced Churchill to agree to temporary division of Germany into 4 zones, 1 for Americans, British, SUs, French. Churchill, FDR assumed that, in time, all zones would be brought together in reunited Germany. Stalin promised free, unfettered election in Poland, other SU-occupied East-European countries. Stalin also agreed to join in war against Japan. Struggle was expected to continue for 1 year or more. Also agreed to participate in international conference set for April in San Francisco. There, FDR's dream of UN would be reality.

Mexican-American riot

Mexican Americans also experienced prejudice during war years. In violent summer of 1943, Los Angeles exploded in anti-Mexican "zoot-suit" riots. Zoot suit was style of dress adopted by Mexican American youths as symbol of their rebellion against tradition. Consisted of long jacket, pleated pants, broad-brimmed hats often worn too. Riots began when 11 sailors in LA reported that had been attacked by zoot suit wearing Mexican Americans. This charge triggered violence involving thousands of servicemen, civilians. Mobs poured into Mexican neighborhoods, grabbed any zoot suiters they could find. Attackers ripped off their victims clothes, beat them senseless. Riots lasted almost week,resulted in beatings of 100s of Mexican American youth, other minorities. Despite such unhappy experiences w/ racism, many Mexican Americans believed that their sacrifices during wartime would lead to better future. Manuel De La Raza said, "This war is doing what we in our Mexican-Amerian movement had planned to do in 1 generation. Has shown those across the tracks that we all share the same probs.Shown them what we will do, what responsibility we will take, what leadership qualities we will demonstrate. After this struggle, status of Mexican Americans will be different." Mexican Americans in pic are involved in 1943 LA riots, seen leaving jail to make court appearances.

Fear of Japanese Americans, why

Mexican, African Americans struggled w/ racial tension while war made tragic results for Jap Americans. When war began, 120,000 Jap Americans lived in US. Most were citizens living on West Coast. Surprise Jap attack on Pearl Harbor in Hawaii stunned nation. After bombing, panicked citizens feared Japs would soon attack the US. Frightened people also believed false rumors that Jap Americans were committing sabotage by mining coastal harbors, poisoning veggies.

WAAC- Women's Auxiliary Army Corps

Military's work force needs so great that Army Chief of Staff, General George Marshall pushed to form a WAAC. Said in support of bill to establish WAAC, "Many duties being performed by soldiers that can be done better by women." Under bill, women volunteer would serve in noncombat positions. Despite opposition from some congressmembers who scorned bill as "silliest legislation" they ever saw, bill became law May 15, 1942. Gave WAACs official status and salary but few benefits granted male soldiers. July 1943, after 1000s of women enlisted, US Army dropped auxiliary status and granted WACs full US Army benefits. WACs worked as nurses, ambulance drivers, radio operators, electricians, pilots to bring planes to bases - almost every duty not involving direct combat. Few weeks after bill became law, Oveta Culp Hobby, Texas newspaper executive and 1st director of WAAC, put out call for recruits. +13,000 women applied 1st day. Total of 350,000 women served in this, other auxiliary branches during war. WAC remained separate unit of army till 1978 when male, female forces integrated. 2006, +200,000 women served in US armed forces.

1st test of atomic bomb

Morning of July 16, 1945 in empty expanse of desert near Alamogordo, NM. Blinding flash, visible 180 miles away was followed by deafening roar as tremendous shock wave rolled across desert. Otto Frisch, scientist on project, described huge mushroom cloud that rose over desert as "redhot elephant standing balanced on its trunk." Bomb worked!

OSRD and atomic bomb

Most significant achievement of OSRD was secret development of new weapon, atomic bomb. Interest it such weapon began in 1939, after German scientists succeeded in splitting uranium atoms, releasing enormous amount of energy. This news prompted physicist, German refugee Albert Einstein to write letter FDR, warning that Germans could use their discovery to construct weapon of great destructive power. FDR responded by making Advisory Committee on Uranium to study new discovery. 1941, committee reported it would take from 3-5 to build atomic bomb. Hoping to shorten that time, OSRD set up intensive program in 1942 to develop bomb as quickly as possible. Cause much of early research was performed at Columbia Univ. in Manhattan, Manhattan Project became code name for the research work that extended across country.

Legality of Jap internment

No specific charges ever filed against Japs, no evidence of subversion ever found. Faced w/ expulsion, terrified families were forced to sell their homes, businesses, all belongings for less than their value. Jap Americans fought for justice, both in courts, Congress. Initial results discouraging. 1944, Supreme Court decided in Korematsu v. US that gov's policy of evacuating Jap Americans to camps was justified by military necessity. After war, Japanese American Citizens League, JACL, pushed gov to compensate those sent to camps for their lost property. 1965, Congress authorized spending of $38 mil for that purpose - less than tenth of Jap Americans' actual losses. JACL didn't give up quest for justice. 1978, called for payment of reparations, restitution, to each individual that suffered internment.1988, Congress passed, Pres Ronald Reagan signed, billl that promised $20,000 to every Jap. American sent to relocation camp. When checks were sent in 1990, letter from George Bush accompanied them, said, "We can never fully right the wrongs of the past. Be we can take a clear stand for justice, recognize that serious injustices were done to Jap Americans during WW2."

Rationing and OPA

OPA set up system for rationing, establishing fixed allotments of goods deemed essential for military. Households received ration books w/ coupons to buy scarce goods like meat, shoes, sugar, coffee, gasoline. Gas rationing especially hard on westerners, where driving was only way to get around. 1st Lady Eleanor Roosevelt sympathized w/ their complaints. "To tell Westerners not use their cars means they may never see another soul for week nor have a way to get sick to doctors." Most Americans accepted rationing as personal contribution to war effort. Workers carpooled, rode bicycles. Families coped w/ shortages of everything from tires to toys. Some cheated by hoarding scarce goods or purchasing them through the black market, where rationed items could be bought illegally w/out coupons at inflated prices. While people tightened belts at home, mil. of other Americans put their lives on line in air, sea, land battles on other side of world.

Why Battle of the Bulge

Oct. 1944, Americans captured 1st German town, Aachen. So Hitler launched last-gasp offensive. Ordered his troops to break through Allied lines, recapture Belgian port of Antwerp. Hoped the bold move would disrupt enemy's supply lines, demoralize Allies.

Italian campaign

Off to good start w/ capture of Sicily in summer 1943. Stunned by Italian army's collapse in Sicily, Italian government forced dictator Benito Mussolini to resign. July 25, 1943, King Victor Emmanuel III summoned Il Duce, the leader, to his palace, stripped him of power, had him arrested. "You are now most hated man in Italy." Italians began celebrating end of war, but cheers were premature. Hitler was determined to stop Allies in Italy instead of fight in Germany. One of hardest battles for Allies in Europe was fought less than 40 miles from Rome. Battle called Bloody Anzio lasted 4 months, until end in May 1944, left 25,000 Allied, 30,000 Axis dead. Year after Anzio, German armies still put up strong resistance. Their effort to free Italy didn't succeed until 1945, when Germany started to collapse.

D-Day map

On D-Day morning, platoon of American infantry wade ashore to Omaha Beach. 1st, US Bradley, 2nd GB Dempsey. Mulberry Harbor, to accommodate invading ships, Allies built 2 big concrete ports, towed them to Gold Beach on French Coast on D-Day. Sank 70 old ships to make breakwater for artificial harbor.

Mainland Jap-American discrimination, law

On West Coast, panic, prejudice ruled day. California, only 1% of people were Jap, but constituted minority big enough to stimulate prejudice of many whites, w/out being large enough to effectively resist internment. Newspapers whipped up anti-Jap sentiment by running ugly stories attacking Jap. Americans. Feb. 19, 1942, FDR signed order requiring removal of people of Jap ancestry from California, parts of Washington, Oregon, Arizona. Based on strong recommendations from military, he justified this step as necessary for national security. In following weeks, army rounded up 110,000 Jap Americans, shipped them to 10 hastily constructed remote "relocation centers," basically prison camps. 2/3s were Nisei, Jap people born in US of parents who emigrated from Japan. 1000s of Nisei had already joined armed forces. To Ted Nakashima, architectural draftsman from Seattle, evacuation seemed senseless. "There were electricians, plumbers, mechanics, carpenters, painters, farmers, every trade. Men able, willing to do all they can to lick the Axis. We're on this side, want to help. Why won't America let us?

Navajo code talkers

On each Pacific island USs stormed, Japs heard strange language gurgling in their radio headsets. Code seemed to have Asian overtones, but baffled everyone who heard it. Language was Navajo, spoken only in US Southwest, traditionally had no alphabet or written symbols. Its hiddenness made it perfect candidate for code language. Navajo had no combat terms, so they developed terms like chicken hawk for divebomber and war chief for commanding general. Through Pacific campaign, from Midway to Iwo Jima, code talkers were considered indispensable to war effort. Finally received national recognition in 1969. 400 Navajo were recruited into Marine Corps as code talkers. Primary duty was transmitting telephone, radio messages.

Truman's atomic bomb decision

Pres. Truman faced difficult decision. Should Allies use bomb to bring end to war? He didn't hesitate. July 25, 1945, ordered military to make final plans for dropping 2 atomic bombs on Jap targets. July 26, US warned Japan that it faced "prompt, utter destruction" unless it surrendered at once. Japan refused. Truman later wrote, "Final decision of where, when to use atomic bomb was up to me. Let there be no mistake about it. I regarded bomb as military weapon, never had any doubt that it should be used."

Revenue Act of 1942

Raised the top personal-income tax rate to 88%. Added lower- and middle-income Americans to income-tax rolls.

War Production Board, WPB

Rationed fuel and materials vital to war effort, like gasoline, heating oil, metals, rubber, plastics.

Japanese Americans, Italy

Served in Italy, North Africa. At urging of General Delos Emmons, army created 100th Battalion, which consisted of 1,300 Hawaiian Nisei, American citizens whose parents emigrated from Japan. 100th saw brutal combat, became known as Purple Heart Battalion. Later, 100th merged into all-Nisei 442nd Regimental Combat Team, became most decorated unit in US history.

Shipyard production

Shipyards, defense plants expanded quickly. By end of 1942, industrialist Henry J. Kaiser built 7 massive new shipyards that made Liberty ships (cargo carriers), tankers, troop transports, baby aircraft carriers quickly. Late 1942, Kaiser invited reporters to Way One in Richmond, CA, shipyard to watch workers assemble Hull 440, Liberty ship, in record-breaking 4 days. Writer Alyce Kramer said of 1st day, night of construction "At 12, Way One exploded into life. With minute, keel swung to position, Hull 440 going up. Crews, like champion football team, swarmed to places in line. Production speed unbelievable. Saturday midnight empty ship, Sunday midnight full-grown hull met graveyard workers. Before 4th day done, 25,000 spectators watched Hull 440 slide into water. Built so fast cause Kaiser used prefabricated/factory-made parts that could quickly be assembled at shipyards. Equally important were fast workers.

Charles Swanson story

Soldier whose wife had sent him a tape. Ended up on public sound system. Little baby. 1st Christmas apart. Loves daddy's pic. WW2 filled w/ hope, sacrifice, sorrow.

Doolittle's Raid

Spring 1492, Allies turned tide against Japs. Push began April 18 w/ daring raid on Tokyo, other Jap cities. Lieutenant Colonel James Doolittle led 16 bombers in attack. Next day, Americans saw headline, "Tokyo Bombed! Doolittle Do'od It. Pulling off Pearl Harbor-style air raid over Japan lifted US sunken spirits and dampened Jap spirits.

Dilemma of Jap mainland battle

Taking of Iwo Jima, Okinawa opened way for invasion of Japan. But Allied leaders knew such invasion would become desperate struggle. Japan still had huge army that would defend every inch of homeland. President Truman saw only 1 way to avoid invasion of Japan. Decided to use powerful new weapon developed by scientist working on Manhattan Project, atomic bomb.

Blacks protest discrimination

To protest military, industry discrimination, A. Philip Randolph, president/founder of Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, nation's most respected black labor leader organized march on Washington. Asked black everywhere to come to capital on July 1, 1941 and march under banner "We loyal colored americans demand right to work, fight for our country"

D-Day preparation

Under Eisenhower's direction in England, Allies gathered force of 3 mil GBs, USs, Canadian troops w/ lots of supplies, equipment. Ike planned to attack Normandy in North France. To keep plans secret, Allies set up huge phantom army w/ own headquarter, equipment. In radio messages they knew Germans could read, Allied commanders sent orders to the make-believe army to attack French port of Calais, 150 miles away, where English Channel is narrowest. So Hitler ordered his generals to keep large army at Calais.

GI

Volunteers, draftees went to military bases around country for 8 weeks basic training. In short period, seasoned sergeants did their best to turn raw recruits into disciplined, battle-ready GIs. Sergeant Debs Myers said more to basic training than how to stand attention, march in step, handle rifle, follow orders. "Civilian stood before army doctor naked. Learned to sleep in mud, tie knot, kill a man. Learned ache of loneliness, exhaustion, misery. Learned that men make same queasy noises in morning, feel same longings at night, that every man is alike and different." GI stood for galvanized iron, later reinterpreted as government issue, meaning uniforms, supplies. Later stood for American soldiers.

Yalta Conference

W/ Japan's surrender, Allies turned to challenge of rebuilding war-torn nations. Even before last guns fell silent, began thinking about principles that would govern the postwar world. Feb. 1945, as Allies pushed toward victory in Europe, ailing FDR met Churchill, Stalin at Black Sea resort city of Yalta in SU. Stalin graciously welcomed FDR, prime minister. Big 3 toasted to the defeat of Germany that now seemed certain. For 8 days, 3 leaders discussed Germany's fate, postwar world. Stalin, his country devastated by German forces, favored harsh approach. Wanted to keep Germany divided into occupation zones, areas controlled by Allied military forces so Germany would never again threaten SU. Churchill strongly disagreed. FDR was mediator, prepared to make concessions to Stalin for 2 reasons. 1st, hoped SU would stand by its commitments to join war against Japan that was still waging in Pacific. 1st test of atomic bomb was still 5 months away. 2nd, wanted Stalin's support for new world peace-keeping organization, named United Nations.

Economy goods during WW2

War years good ones for working people. Defense industries boomed, unemployment fell to low of 1.2% in 1944. Even w/ price, wage controls, average weekly pay, adjusted for inflation, rose 10% during war. Although workers still protested long hours, overtime, night shifts, able to save money for future. Some workers invested up to half their paychecks in war bonds.

European surrender

Week later, Ike accepted unconditional surrender of 3rd Reich. May 8, 1945, Allies celebrated V-E Day, Victory in Europe Day.

Plan to invade Europe

When Allies were battling for Italy in 1943, they were working on plan to invade France, free West Europe from Nazis. Task of commanding Operation Overlord fell to American General Dwight D. Ike Eisenhower.

Doubting willingness of workers

When war began, defense contractors warned Selective Service System that nation didn't have enough workers to meet both military and industrial needs. Were wrong. By 1944, despite draft, 18 mil. workers in war industries, 3 times as many in 1941.

Factories change products

Within weeks of production shutdown, nation's automobile plants retooled to make tanks, planes, boats, command cars. Not alone. Factories across nation quickly converted to war production. Maker of mechanical pencils make bomb parts. Bedspread manufacturer made mosquito netting. Soda company from filling bottles to filling shells w/ explosives.

Women, war good economy

Women also enjoyed employment gains during war, although many lost their jobs when war ended. +6 mil. women had entered work force for 1st time, boosting percent of women in total work force to 35%. 1/3 of those jobs in defense plants, which offered women more challenging work, better pay than jobs traditionally for women, like waitressing, clerking, domestic service. W/ men away at war, many women took advantage of openings in journalism, other professions. "War really created opportunities for women" said Winona Espinosa, wife, mother who became riveter, bus driver during war. "Was 1st time we got a chance to show we could do a lot of things that only men had done before." Gave women chance to prove they could be just as productive as men. But their pay usually didn't reflect their productivity. Poster: The girl he left behind is still behind him. She's a WOW, Woman Ordnance Worker.

Maya Angelou's story

Writer, poet, teen living in San Francisco when US got involved in WW2. 1st change she noticed was disappearance of Jap Americans. 2nd change was influx of worker, including many black, from South. San Franciscans claimed they had no racism, but Angelou knew differently. "Story aobut white lady who refused to sit beside black on streetcar who made room for her. Explained that she wouldn't sit beside draft dodger who was black. Added that the least he could do was fight for his country the way her son was fighting on Iwo Jima. Story said that man pulled his body away from the window to show armless sleeve. Said quietly, w/ great dignity, "Then ask your son to look around for my arm, which I left over there." At end of war returning vets, even those not disabled, had to deal with issues of reentry, adjustment to society that offered many opportunities but still had many unsolved probs.