History Final Prep
Corps of Discovery (1804-1806)
Team of adventurers, led by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, sent by Thomas Jefferson to explore Louisiana Territory and find a water route to the Pacific. Louis and Clark brought back detailed accounts of the West's flora, fauna, and native populations, and their voyage demonstrated the viability of overland travel to the West. Although they explored the land, they ignored the complexities of native society, and as a result caused native complexities to be unknown to the American public. This allowed for easier colonization and removal because in a sense the native people are seen as inferior individuals by the American public.
Bosque Redondo
Who- Navajo (Dine) What- Internment camp for Navajo people When-1864 about 8570 people were imprisoned Where- Fort Summer, New Mexico Significance- The significance of this location lies in the genocidal acts of the United States as they tried to destroy their culture and also gave them less than the bare essentials to live. Navajo prisoners were expected to embrace American cultural values-such as farming, Chrisitianity, individualism, and the English language, representing federal Indian assimilation. But the main issue was the land in Bosque Redondo was not suited for farming, so there was starvation, disease, and death.
Treaty of Medicine Lodge
Who-Kiowa, Comanche, and Apache What-This was a treaty that promised the tribes peace and protection from white settlers as long as they stayed peaceful and relocated to reservations in western Indian territory. When-1867 Where-Northern Texas and Arkansas Significance-This was significant because it was another way that the United States gained land from American Indians, while promising them protection and reservations from white settlers. These treaties will be continuously broken in the future as these treaties are just a "means to an end" for the US and were never made to be permanent.
World War One
Who: Native peoples in the US armed forces What: WWI was the first war in which numerous Native peoples formally enlisted themselves to fight for the U.S. 6,500 drafted; some resisted this draft Some volunteers were eager to count coup, gain war honors, and to maintain the warrior traditions of their tribes In all, over 10,000 serve Some Native communities dealt with the war in their own ways; some nations of the Iroquois confederacy declared war on Germany themselves When: 1917-1918 Where: US and Europe Significance: Demonstrated complex ways in which Native peoples viewed U.S. conflict and how this conflict related to, and involved them. Can take an active role in war efforts vs. resist Natives were franchised, fought as allies not subjects
The Peyote Way
Creative blending of faith traditions. This was a means of navigating a world made unfamiliar and overcoming personal and collective challenges. The Peyote Way is similar to Chrisitainity as it treats peyote as the sacrament, just like the bread and wine in the Chrisitan tradition. Peyote was also considered a drug because of its hallucinogenic properties. When-1900s-Present Significance-This is significant because it shows how natives adapt and continue living on their own terms. They combined principles and practices from Chrisitanity into their way of living and the Peyote Way was the representation of that.
Saukamappee
Cree who told a fur trader how his adopted people- the Blackfeet- killed their enemies, used horses, dealt with smallpox, and built a monopoly on the gun trade. The radical effect of firearms on Plains Indian warfare When-Acquisition of horses and guns in 1730s Where-Plains Indian and specifically Cree living among Blackfeet Significance-This was significant because warfare was an integral part of Indian life but the introduction of horses and guns made it a lot more lethal. The effect of Saukamappee was drastic on native populations as there was 30%-50% population loss. This term shows the tremendous impact of European exploration on Indians and how this was the beginning of a "genocide". Also, this effect shows the great amount of change that happened BEFORE Lewis and Clark.
Ghost Dance
The Government was scared of this christian/indian mixed religion. Not scared of the religion but of the unity it brought and responded to the Ghost Dance with military actions. This was a rallying point to preserve traditional Native American culture and as a form of resistance to US policy and American culture. Revitalization as a pathway to the future; Indigenous future on indigenous terms (not going back to the past before settlers)
Binaries of Authenticity
What- A circle of spectrums illustrated with spreading lines, on the ends of each line are antonyms. A representation of non-Indian expectations. Significance- Non-Aboriginal people employed definitions of Indian culture that limited Aboriginal claims to resources, land, and sovereignty, while Aboriginals utilized those same definitions to access the social, political, and economic means necessary for their survival under colonialism.
Winter Counts
What- Calendars that visually represent Lakota oral history Where- Lakota Significance- Each pictograph on the winter count represents an important event that serves as a marker for a year. These makers would represent decades of important events. This shows the complexity of Indigenous society and how they used technology to keep track of the dates.
"Touching the Pen"
What- Creation of treaties with native tribes When- Throughout westward expansion-Present Where- Throughout America Significance- Treaty making is one of the tools on how the US claims land and completes this manifest destiny to slowly spread across the US and push out "lower" beings. This is significant because treaties and agreements are sacred to native tribes, who uphold their end of the treaty but usually do not have reciprocation of the terms by the United States. The main point is the US uses treaties to gain more land and get more power.
Diné livestock reduction
What- Event where livestock was destroying the environment through overgrazing. John Collier's new deal essentially forced the Dine people to give up their goats that were an essential part of their life and culture Significance- showed the lack of understanding there was as well as the failures of the reorganization act
Indian Police
What- Indian police forces first appeared on the Great Plains during the 1830s, when the federal government relocated eastern tribes such as the Cherokees to Indian Territory. Known as the Lighthorse, Cherokee police units performed law enforcement duties similar to their European American counterparts of the period. When- Started in the 1830s Where- Great Plains, but spread to many reservations Significance- The early 1880s were the heyday for Indian police forces on the Great Plains. During these years Indian police forces performed all law enforcement duties on their reservations and operated largely free of federal control. By the mid-1880s, however, federal laws began to encroach on the autonomy of the criminal justice system on reservations. The Major Crimes Act of 1885 gave the federal government jurisdiction in most felonies, limiting the duties of Indian police officers. The Dawes Act further curtailed the authority of Indian police by placing allottees under the jurisdiction of the state in which they resided.
George Sword
What- Was a Lakota man born in 1847. He was a wicasa wakan (Holy Man) conducting on numerous occasions the Sun Dance among the Oglala. When- Born in 1847 Where- Member of the Lakota Tribe Significance- Attempted to reaffirm kinship with Red Cloud Agency and non Red Cloud Agency Sioux (not totally sure about this one)
land back
What- a movement that has existed for generations with a long legacy of organizing and sacrifice to get Indigenous Lands back into Indigenous hands.
Royal Mohegan Burial Ground
What- a restored native burial ground, was originally protected by a treaty but thee treaty was broken, natives would eventually purchase the land back in 1999 Significance-IMO- a symbol of regaining back what was lost. Shows that progress is being made towards reclaiming land and making things right
Land Acknowledgement
What- acknowledging the history of the land that has been taken and its cultural significance. Significance- serves as a recognition of the persistence of native culture and the handshake agreement between the different societies
Osage Nation Supreme Court
What- court case that is determining if the osage nation and reservation still exist
Aadizookanag
What- traditional narratives of Anishinaabe peoples, created through many voices, connected to Ojibwe treaty rights Where- Great lakes region
Albert Hensley
What-"All the evil that was in me I forgot. From that time to the present my actions have been quite different from what they used to be. . . . This [peyote] religion is good. All the evil is gone and hereafter I will choose my path carefully." Significance-Follower of the Peyote Way and how people doubt the properties of the peyote plant but it has given him a sort of spiritual enlightening
Lillian St. Cyr
What-Actress (Princess Red Wing) and went to Carlisle Indian Industrial School Significance- represented natives in Hollywood
Charles Albert Bender
What-Baseball and went to Carlisle Indian Industrial School, winning nearly 200 regular games and six World Series games When-1900-10s Significance-proved that native people could excel at roles that did not fit the narrative
HCR-108
What-Declared that the policy of the US should be to abolish federal supervision over American Indian tribes as soon as possible and subject them to the same laws, privileges, and responsibilities as other US citizens. When-1953 Where-All over the United States
Public Law 280 in Arizona
What-Federal law establishing "a method whereby States may assume jurisdiction over reservation Indians." The Act mandated a transfer of federal law enforcement authority within certain tribal nations to state governments in six states. When-1953 Significance-This is a continuation of the termination policy and the cultural assimilation of Native Americans but this was different as the government, with a sense of urgency, set about ending the special relationship between tribes and the federal government. Ended tribal sovereignty of tribes and trusteeship over Indian reservations.
Sitting Bull
What-Holy man, statesman, and warrior of the Lakota When-1800s Where-Member of the Lakota Tribe Significance-Was a spiritual man and had a very important vision that led native forces to victory in the Greasy Grass. After praying in the days prior to the battle, he had a vision in which he saw soldiers falling like grasshoppers; a voice said to him, "I give these to you because they have no ears." This is referencing how Custer and America were not listening to the treaties and other terms that were talked about, and how they needed to "open" their ears.
NCAI
What-National Congress of American Indians, fought for things like the G-I bill ( veteran assistance), Voting rights for natives, Integration of native ppl into society, worked with indian claims commission to make claims like treaty violations, overstepping jurisdiction, etc When-1944
Jim Thorpe
What-Olympic gold medalist and went to Carlisle Indian Industrial School Significance-proved that native people could excel at roles that did not fit the narrative
Mission Indian Federation
What-Political group that sought to gain native rights and freedoms from BIA, looked to keep sovereignty rights
Major Crimes Act
What-Repealed customary law and granted federal courts jurisdiction over "major crimes" committed on reservations. Some examples are murder, manslaughter, rape, arson, and burglary When-1885 Where-Over the United States Significance-This was significant because it was the continuation of ex parte Crow Dog as that case did not say that Congress couldn't not limit tribal sovereignty and in this act that is exactly what they did. This case was a huge hit to tribal sovereignty because many Indians felt that "crimes done by Indians on Indians should be dealt by Indians" and this went against that ideal. Here is the beginning of many invasions of tribal sovereignty and the failure to recognize them as separate nations.
Plenary Power
What-This is the complete and obsolete power to take action on a particular issue, with no limitation. When- Where- Significance-This is significant because the idea of plenary power gets used against American Indian lands as the Supreme Court rules that the US has plenary power on all native lands. This allows them to pass whatever legislation they want even if it conflicts or abrogates Indian treaties. This was always the US's plan as the treaties were never permanent for them and the US never reciprocated the sacredness of these agreements as seen by natives. WESTERN LEGAL THOUGHT SURROUNDS NATIVE COMMUNITIES/SERVE AS A VEHICLE FOR ASSIMILATION
Courts of Indian Offenses
What-This was a program funded by Congress because they believed it would be more beneficial to have an Indian police than a white military keeping order. The main point of this was to keep order on the reservation. When-1883 Where-Indian reservations over the United States (2/3rds of reservation had them) Significance-Although the goal was to have order, these courts would be very corrupt and also promoted Native assimilation as they adopted many of them same practices as whites. Also the courts promoted allotment or permanently settling on land allotments, while giving the unused land to white settlers. Indigenous people become the jury and judges for crimes that native people commit but these laws are imposed by the federal government, so authority shifts away from tribal councils.
Geronimo
Who- A chief of the Chiricahua Apache When- 1809-1929 Where- Southeastern Arizona Significance- Goyathlay, known as Geronimo, famously led the final decade of Apache resistance. He escaped the US army several times, even traveling some 80 miles a day in order to outrun their cavalry. After his final surrender, Geronimo spent the rest of his life in captivity far from his native lands. He appeared in Wild West shows, snapped photos with tourists for money, and rode in Teddy Roosevelt's inauguration parade, but never again tasted true freedom. He died in a reservation at Fort Sill, Oklahoma in 1909 at 79 years old. Non-Native perceptions of Geronimo turned from seeing him as "the wickedest Indian," to an old, nostalgic war hero.
Ex Parte Crow Dog
Who- Crow Dog was a member of the Lakota Sioux who killed a Lakota chief. The tribal council ruled he had to pay $600, 8 horses, and 1 blanket to the family of the deceased as restitution. He was then prosecuted by the U.S. and sentenced to hanging. The supreme court case was about whether he could be tried by the U.S. if he had already been tried by the tribal courts. What- Supreme court case which dealt with tribal sovereignty. Ruled that a federal court did not have jurisdiction to "try an Indian who killed another Indian on the reservation when the offense had been tried by the tribal court." When- 1883 Where-South Dakota Significance- Another form of surrounding: United States government restricting and putting limits on tribal sovereignty. The Supreme Court ruled that Congress hadn't passed any legislation that limited that aspect of tribal sovereignty, not that it couldn't. At the same time, hope for the "rule of law" and in securing justice in the "courts of the conqueror"
Standing Rock
Who- Lakota What- The sixth largest Native American Reservation in the U.S. When- Established in 1889 Where- Border of North and South Dakota Significance- Location of the Dakota Access Pipeline protests
Short Bull
Who- Lakota native man What-he was active in the ghost dance movement with kicking bear, met with Wovoka and brought it to the Rosebud reservation
Horse Nations
Who- Native American tribes What- Introduction of horses to the plains and an impact on Indian life Where- Plains Significance- This was a fundamental redefinition of native life and changed lifeways, worldviews, and social organizations. Horses allowed for greater mobility as Indians were able to carry almost everything they needed and was a great increase from dogs (which used to be the main form of mobility). Horses also became an integral part of warfare and this became more intense and lethal. Horses transform all parts of society from top to bottom but also show how natives are "changing themselves" without Europeans and on their own terms.
1922 Crow Industrial Survey
Who- Office of Indian Affairs and Crow Superintendent Calvin Ashbury What- An attempt to photograph and narrate every household on every federally recognized Indian reservation across the country When- 1922 Where- Montana Significance- Asbury's survey sought information ranging from demographics to qualitative data on the "industry" and "health" of tribal members, and their household's "general condition." For this represented the OIA's first and last unified, national attempt to connect its data to a vast visual archive of Indian households under government "guardianship"—which during this time period included even "citizen Indians" nominally, but not actually, free of government supervision.
American Indian Movement
Who- Primary occupants of Wounded Knee in 1973 What- Native American grassroots movement founded to address systemic issues of poverty, discrimination, and police brutality against Native Americans When- Founded in 1968, notable activist movements in the 1970's, still exists today Significance- Participated in a number of Native American activist movements in the 70's, including the occupation of Alcatraz and the occupation at Wounded Knee. Represented a form of Native American activism that took public action in order to make its message heard.
Dakota Conflict
Who- Sioux Nation and the United States What- Armed conflict between the United States and several bands of native tribes When- 1862 Where- Dakota Significance- This is significant because this shows native resistance against America's drive for westward expansion across North America. This conflict rose because of the tensions between Native Americans and settlers as settlers wanted to restrict Native Americans to a reservation. This was an act of Natives defending their home against the US's broken promises (treaties) but in the end caused starvation and disease, a massive decimation of the Indian population across the United States.
SAI Journal
Who- Society of American Indians What- the first pan-Indian national organization with an agenda for the political and intellectual future of Native communities nationally at the beginning of the twentieth century When- 1911-1923 Where- Columbus, Ohio Significance- competing American nationalism and Indian nationalism The SAI's agenda, published and republished over the years in the SAI journal, aimed to promote Native "enlightenment"; to provide a forum for addressing the welfare of Indian people through conferences; "to present ina just light the true history of the race" and to preserve its records; to promote and fight for citizenship and the rights of citizen Indians; to establish a legal department to investigate Indian problems; "to exercise the right to oppose any movement that may be detrimental to the race"; and to "provide a bureau of information, including publicity and statistics."
Lumber State Recognition
Who- The Lumbee Tribe, U.S. Federal Government, and North Carolina State Government What- State-recognized tribe in North Carolina; not federally recognized When- Present Where- Southeastern North Carolina Significance- Lumbee (fighting to assert sovereignty forever) wanted the IRA for sovereignty but failed because the U.S. government claimed there were not enough 'genuine' Lumbee people to be federally recognized (invasive skin test conducted to determine Lumbee peoples' lineage).
Oneida Nation v. Hobart
Who- The Oneida reservation and neighboring village of Hobart in Wisconsin What- Court case surrounding land ownership of the Oneida reservation, which had been encroached on by the village of Hobart When- 1985 Where- Wisconsin Significance- The Oneida Nation won, representing a victory for Native American sovereignty and set a precedent for Native American nations to buy back land that had been taken from them.
Treaty of Horse Creek
Who- Treaty between "Head chiefs" and the US What- Treaty between natives and Americans as settlers move in and overland trails and forts are built. Used to prevent conflict with bloodshed. The Federal Government promised to protect Indian resources and tribal hunting grounds from white settlers but this was one of the many promises that weren't kept. When- 1851 Where- Sioux Reservation Significance- This shows the US's disregard of Native diversity as it is made up of various local tribes but the US talks to "overarching leaders" to make it easier to take land. The biggest issue is the difference between non-native and native expectations. Non-natives saw this as a means to an end, so essentially as a way to establish influence, impose leadership, draw boundaries, clear paths for settlement, and assimilate the natives. They saw this as temporary while natives saw these as covenantal or sacred agreements meant to endure time. In their eyes, there should be no difference between what was said and what was written.
Settler State Apologies
Who- United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand What- Apologies issued to Indigenous people by states who settled on Native land When- Beginning in the 90's until around 2010 Significance- Each apology had varying levels of authenticity and meaningfulness, but none made a credible commitment to do things differently. The United States issued a non-apology while other countries like Canada and New Zealand gave 'authentic' apologies, yet no commitment was made in either case.
Sand Creek
Who- Village of 500 Cheyenne and Arapaho What- Roughly 700 federal troops attacked a village of 500 Cheyenne and Arapaho, and this was an unprovoked attack on men, women, and children. When- 1864 Where- Sand Creek in Colorado Significance- This is significant because it was a turning point in the relationship between American Indian tribes and the Federal Government because a certain level of trust was broken. This was an attack on a village that was registered as non-hostile but the US Army needed someone to fight and reversed decisions in order to attack. This level of distrust stemming from Sand Creek would lead to later conflicts at Little BigHorn, Wounded Knee, and Washita.
Fort Marion Artists
Who- Wohaw and other Indians subjected to Fort Marion experiments What- Painting "Caught Between Two Worlds" Significance- This was a way for Natives to maintain self expression while being subjected to forces of assimilation and abuse. Wohaw, after leaving Fort Marion, becomes a member of the Indian Police force and follower of the Ghost Dance.
Meskwaki and CCC-ID
Who- gov and natives, the Civilian Conservation Corps Indian Division What- Minnesota natives benefited from jobs created by the government during the great depression, Significance- supported native communities during a time of crisis
Makah
Who- native people of the Pacific northwest coast What- would become a large part of commercial fishing, Significance-proved that native people could excel at roles that did not fit the narrative
Charles Eastman
Who-American physician, writer, and social reformer. What-Was the first Native American to be certified in Western medicine and was "one of the most prolific authors and speakers on Sioux ethnohistory and American Indian affairs" When-1858-1939 Significance-He was one of the co-founders of the Society of American Indians, which pushed for freedom and self-determination for the American Indian.
Daklugie
Who-Apache who was taken as a POW and send to Carlisle Indian School When-1869-1939 Significance-He showed how you can go to an assimilative school like Carlisle but still hold on to your culture as he hated his American name that was given to him.
Richard Henry Pratt
Who-General in the US military What-Served in the Civil War and in Indian Territory with "Buffalo Soldiers". He was a radical with the idea to "transform" natives into "whites". He compares his actions to Baptism where he submerges Indians and holding them there until they are thoroughly soaked and become "white" When-1840-1924 Significance-He was the main lead for the Fort Marion Experiment. He believed that to allow Indians to continue living in this newly colonized world, they must lose their culture to ensure their physical survival. We see the idea of "Kill the Indian, Save the Man" and this is the idea that physical survival requires the death of their culture. The issue with this idea is for many Indians their culture is what defines them, and taking that completely away will never be possible. Their nationalism and resilience will always push through the assimilation and forceful removal of their culture.
Kanaka Ontology
Who-Johnnathan Goldberg-Hiller wrote the book What- essential states how native plant life was a vital part of the culture of the natives, Regional foods were often used to make items, used in rituals, part of traditions, etc But they were replaced by other items that became mainstream or were brought in. - corn, wheat, etc
U.S. v. Kagama
Who-Kagama What-There was a property dispute between Iyousa and Kagama as Iyousa challenged Kagama's right to seek title to the land. Then Kagama murdered Iyousa in front of his wife. The main question of this court case was whose jurisdiction was this. When-1886 Where-Hoopa Valley Reservation in Northern California Significance-This is significant because it upheld the major crimes act and created a narrative of dispossession and loss to undermine the ability of tribes to self-govern. It was a slippery slope because it did not deprive tribal nations the power to try and punish offenses but did give the federal government ultimate jurisdiction. This showed expanding federal regulatory power that will interfere with tribal sovereignty and their ability to live their way of life.
Delos Lone Wolf
Who-Kiowa man What-He went to Carlisle Indian School and became familiar with American customs and traditions. He also went to college and became a lawyer. Significance- He is significant because instead of fully assimilating into American society, he used the knowledge of the conquerors to help his own people through legal actions and helping his community with his knowledge. His actions show how spiritually connected American Indians are to culture and the resilience of native even through these continuous pressures of assimilation.
Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock
Who-Lone Wolf What-Lone Wolf was a Kiowa Indian chief, living in the Indian Territory created by the Medicine Lodge Treaty of 1867 but Congress opened 2 million acres of reservation land to settlement by non-Indians. This went against the treaty which required that three-fourths of adult males in each of the Kiowa, Apache, and Comanche tribes agree for a change. So Lone Wolf seeks injunction. When-1902-1903 Where-Indian Territory Significance-This is significant because the Lone Wolf loses the court case and the Supreme Court rules that tribes are not independent nations but are dependent and in state of pupilage. Reinforces the "doctrine of plenary power" which gives Congress the unlimited power to abrogate Indian treaties and transfer tribal property rights. This was a blow for Indian sovereignty as Congress essentially had the ultimate power. Also the question arose, "Can you use the courts of the conqueror to secure justice for Indigenous people?"
Crazy Horse
Who-Member of the Oglala band What-Lakota war leader who took up arms against the United States federal government to fight against encroachment by white AMerican settlers on Native American territory and to preserve the traditional way of life of the Lakota people. When-1841-1877 Where-Oglala in the Sioux Nation Significance-He led a band of Lakota warriors against Custer's Seventh U.S Cavalry battalion and beat them in the Battle of Little Bighorn (also known as Custer's Last Stand or the Battle of the Greasy Grass).
Wovoka
Who-Numu seer, holy man, and prophet What-Religious leader who founded a second episode of the Ghost Dance movement. A big message was syncretism. When-1856-1932 Significance-He is significant because he was the start of a movement
Wohaw
Who-Renowned Kiowa artist who was imprisoned in Fort Marion What-This is drawing, where the earth is portrayed as a solid mass of color that means an open sky. At the center you see a man seeking guidance and gaining it from a spirit buffalo and from a spotted longhorn bull. When-1877 Significance-This is significant because it is a drawing through a Kiowa point of view where an Indian warrior draws power from both the buffalo and domestic bull - blessings from two worlds. This shows cattle and bison, and how to balance both of them because they are a part of them regardless of what they do. His artwork is important because it depicts how they are trying to preserve their culture and remember who they are.
General Allotment Act
Who-Senator Henry L. Dawes What-Taking census of American Indians and creating "tribal rolls" as a way to divide, or allot land to single persons under 18, single persons over 18, and family heads. After the land was allocated to these groups, the "remaining land (really just stolen land)" was opened to developers and homesteaders. When-1887 Where-All Over the United States Significance-This was significant as it caused the "fractionation" of American Indian land and there were many extra clauses in the act such as judging if natives were competent enough to develop and hold the land over a 25-year period. Allotment process is broken up into defining, dividing, and divesting land that rightfully belongs to Indians but has been taken away. Allotment also had deeper implications as it caused assimilation of Native Americans. It changed native relation to the land as it went from a sense of identity to its monetary worth. Also, we see percentage of blood being recorded and names being changed when the census is being conducted. This is a direct form of assimilation as they are losing parts of their culture.
Luther Standing Bear
Who-Sicangu and Oglala author, educator, philosopher, and actor What-Board and raised in the oral traditions of his culture, and then also educated in white culture, who then went on to write historical accounts in English about his people and history. Standing Bear's writings about his early life, years at the Carlisle Indian Industrial School, Wild Westing with Buffalo Bill, and life on the reservations presented a Native American viewpoint during the Progressive Era in American history. When-1868-1939 Significance-This is significant because his commentaries educated the American public about Native American culture and increased public awareness on their culture. This is what was missing to change government policies toward Native American people because most Americans did not understand the complexity and diversity of Native American life. He helped create the popular idea that Native American culture is holistic and respectful of nature.
Treaty of Fort Laramie
Who-Tribes of the Lakota Nation (or Sioux Nation) What-Establish "permanent peace" and considers the Powder River Country "unceded" When-1806 Where-Black Hills and Powder River Country Significance-Goal of the treaty was to bring peace between White settlers and tribes, who agreed to relocate to the Black Hills in the Dakota Territory. The significance lies in the future because when gold is found in the Black Hills, the treaty terms are not respected by the United States, and this shows how treaties are just a way for them to get land slowly. Unlike American Indians, Americans did not plan to respect the treaty terms forever but instead as long as it benefited them.
Wounded Knee
Who-US and Lakota What-Slaughter of approximately 150-300 Lakota Indians by United States Army troops When-1890 Where-Southwestern part of South Dakota Significance-This is significant because this massacre was the climax of the US army to represent Plains Indians. Here we see the temporary breaking of organized resistance to reservation life and assimilation white American culture but it will be important once again in the future. "It was the end of an era but the beginning of another."
Greasy Grass
Who-US and Native tribes (1000 warriors of Lakota, Cheyenne, and Arapho descent) What-Also known as the Battle of Little Bighorn or Custer's Last Stand. Americans had found gold in the Black Hills and wanted to demolish Native Americans in the area to gain those resources. Sitting Bull had a vision where he would win a battle where enemy soldiers were falling like grasshoppers. Custer and his men found themselves surrounded by native soldiers and lost quickly. When-1876 Where-Little Bighorn River Significance-This was a huge win for native sovereignty and was a firm response to America who is trying to take their land and sovereignty away. This was also a huge test to the Treaty of Fort Laramie because America was in the wrong by betraying the conditions set by the treaty. This trend of breaking treaties will continue to be repeated, most of the time negatively impacting the natives.
Indian Reorganization Act
Who: Created by John Collier What: The Indian Reorganization Act was the centerpiece of what has been often called the "Indian New Deal". Major goal was to reverse the traditional goal of assimilation of Indians into American society, and to strengthen and encourage the tribes and their historic traditions and cultures Promised $2 million of land available annually for repurchase Economic development included a $10 million revolving loan fund, which was later reduced to $2.5 million Of the tribes that voted on the IRA, 181 voted yes and 77 rejected it When: 1934 Significance: Evidenced an attempt to strengthen tribal communities by providing resources and support to Native peoples. Ultimately unsuccessful; was not implemented as Collier wanted and mostly appointed tribal figurehead "yes men" to govern communities and perpetuated authoritative BIA presence on reservations Good: Meskwaki and Stockbridge Munsee Bad: Lumbee (fighting to assert sovereignty forever) Wanted IRA for sovereignty but failed bc of US gov and they didnt define community in the box that the US had. and Munsee Ugly: Pine Ridge and Rosebud Collier allows for an institute of gov that just causes conflict. And it's still controlled by US
Society of American Indians
Who: Established by the "talented 10th" of Native Americans including figures like Carlos Montezuma, Charles Eastman, and Zitkala Sa. What: The Society of American Indians was the first national American Indian rights organization run by and for American Indians. Membership of over 600 individuals Pioneered pan-Indianism (promoting unity among American Indians regardless of tribal affiliation) Held annual meetings to discuss Indian issues, give reports, and talk about "the language of the larger world" Questioned conventional wisdom regarding Indians as racially inferior Published a 'Quarterly Journal' of American Indian lit. When: Est. 1911 in Columbus, Ohio Where: Headquarters in Washington, D.C. Significance: Demonstrates the unification of the younger, Native generation in an attempt to advocate for the rights of Native peoples. Promoted a new generation of American Indian leaders known as Red Progressives, which were prominent professionals from the fields of medicine, nursing, law, government, education, anthropology and ministry; they believed in the inevitability of progress through education and governmental action.
Dakota Access Pipeline
Who: Inter-tribal protest against the building of an XL oil pipeline over water supply What: Native peoples form a camp to peacefully protest the DAPL Want to protect burial sites and water supply "Water protectors" NOT protestors Demonstrates "not in my backyard" colonialism; building through Native resources Violence in reaction to peaceful protest; pepper-spray, water hose, and dogs echo the civil rights era Attraction of national attention When: 2016 Where: Standing Rock Reservation, South Dakota Significance: Modern era "Wounded Knee". Tribal sovereignty vs. the enactment of it Native people are the "miner's canary" of the U.S. Although the pipeline has been restricted at this point, Native people know the decision could be changed again, and that the battle is not over
Code Talkers
Who: Native (but mostly Dine) men; Ex. Chester Nez What: Code talkers were a group of over 400 Native men that joined the US army to send and receive messages during combat. Messages were written in Dine, one of the most difficult languages to master, making it ideal for code talking In the first 48 hours of combat in the Pacific theater (Iwo Jima), Navajo men served in all 6 marine divisions and sent/received over 800 messages without error When: 1942, during WW2 Significance: Demonstrates that Native language and Native peoples can serve as a valuable asset to White Americans; this is ironic because speaking Dine was discouraged by agents on the reservation (also: DOUBLE VICTORY).
Ira Hayes
Who: Native American United States Marine What: One of the six flag raisers immortalized in the iconic photograph of the flag raising on Iwo Jima during World War II. Hayes was never able to adjust after the war to American society After the war, he relocated to Chicago and LA. He also picked cotton for a living and had a lonesome death in 1955 When: 1945 Where: Japan and US Significance: The photograph having an Indian in it was symbolic of Native people supporting and submitting to America as a country; shows native post-war struggles as he is relocated to Chicago & LA to pick cotton. He died a lonesome death because he got no support from the government. Guy who lifted up the flag at Iwo Jima
Vine Deloria, Jr.
Who: Native american (Lakota) activist, author, and historian What: Wrote the book "Custer Died For Your Sins"; we read the chapter "The Red and the Black". White societies chose to push Black people from their communities through exclusion and segregation, while Native peoples were forced into White societies through assimilation policies, allotment, and termination Also discusses the fact that Black issues have largely overshadowed Native issues due to the larger Black population in America; because of this, civil rights for Native peoples took a back seat during the movements of the 1960's Believes that the place and purpose for Native peoples in White American has been carved out in relation to the existence of other racial groups, instead of deliberately with Native needs and objectives in mind Lack of communication and equal recognition between Whites, Blacks, and Native peoples creates misunderstandings in which Native nationalism, culture, and community is largely ignored When: Published Book in 1969 Significance: - showed native influence on the civil rights movement, the differences between minorities and the inclusion of natives in the "minority group" and applied a broad bandaid like solution to it
Snyder Act
Who: Proposed by Homer Snyder What: The Snyder Act granted full U.S. citizenship to America's indigenous peoples. Indigenous people did not have to apply for citizenship, nor did they have to give up their tribal citizenship to become a U.S. citizen Most tribes had communal property, and in order to have a right to the land, individual Indian people needed to belong to the tribe; thus, dual citizenship was allowed While the 14th amendment to the United States Constitution defined as citizens any person born in the U.S., the amendment had been previously interpreted to restrict the citizenship rights of most Native people When: 1924 Where: Throughout the US Significance: Demonstrates further steps taken to integrate Native peoples into mainstream U.S. society, particularly from a legal viewpoint. Enacted partially in recognition of the thousands of Indians who served in the armed forces during World War I Give citizenship to all native indians, dual citizenship established
National Indian Youth Council
Who: Mostly college students from Chicago and Colorado workshops What: The younger Native generation convenes with emphasis on immediate action and Red Power Do not agree with the internal politics of their predecessors; call them "little brown Americans" as their elders embrace patriotism to a fault Underscore the need to move into action rather than simply discussing rhetoric; direct action protesting Clyde Warrior and Mel Thom were notable members; over 15,000 young Native people joined Were heavily involved in fish-ins and the Poor People's Campaign When: Established 1961 Where: Gallup, New Mexico Significance: Demonstrates a new generation of Native activists that are eager to challenge the government directly, demanding Native sovereignty and respect for basic rights. "Shift" in the political approach to the US government Guided by social justice and activism
